BAB 23 : Diagnosis

Once a detailed project-level survey has been carried out, it has to be properly interpreted. If the correct
treatment is to be prescribed then it is absolutely essential that a correct diagnosis is made of pavement
condition. The process can sensibly be compared to making a medical diagnosis – or to solving a
crime. The evidence has to be assembled and then processed in a logical manner, weeding out all
possible explanations for the observed symptoms other than the correct one; that at least is the theory.
And this is what the following sections will attempt to do, addressing a number of likely questions and
charting a path through the data to arrive at probable answers.

23.1. Pavements with an Asphalt Surface

23.1.1 Why is the pavement rutting?

Check the visual condition. If ruts are narrow with shoulders, the problem is near the surface (surface
course or binder course probably); the wider the rut, the deeper the problem. Remember that it is
possible to check directly on site by digging a trial pit or taking a series of cores right across a rutted
wheel-path; however, this is an expensive option and would only be carried out where an understanding
of the rutting problem is seen as the key to future maintenance. The advice in Diagnosis Guides 23.1–
23.3 applies to the majority of cases, where this is not carried out.

23.1.2 Why are there transverse cracks?

The first question is: what do the cracks look like? The major distinction is between large cracks
extending across much or all of the pavement width (see Diagnosis Guide 23.4) and shorter cracks (see
Diagnosis Guide 23.5), usually in the wheel-paths.

In many cases, transverse cracks do not occur on their own, but are found together with longitudinal
cracks. If the appearance is that the transverse cracks are the more dominant while the longitudinal
cracks simply connect between transverse cracks in places, then the points made in Diagnosis Guides
23.4 and 23.5 apply. If not, read on.

23.1.3 Why is there longitudinal cracking in the wheel-path?

The fact that this cracking is in the wheel-path proves that it is the traffic that is doing the damage. The
principal issue that has to be resolved is the depth affected; however, it is also very important to
understand why the cracking is occurring and whether it is symptomatic of anything more serious.
Diagnosis Guide 23.6 offers advice.
Having established the physical nature of the cracks, whether superficial or deep, and having identified
contributing factors within the asphalt such as debonding, it is necessary to consider whether, based on
that information, the cracking is occurring at the expected rate, faster or slower – and why. These issues
are covered in Diagnosis Guide 23.7.

Fundamentally, longitudinal wheel-path cracking occurs due to repeated straining of the asphalt. The
investigation has to determine whether the asphalt itself is less resistant to such strain than it should be
– and why. It also has to determine whether the pavement is straining more than it should be – and
why.

23.1.4 Why is the surface ravelling?

Ravelling (and associated potholes) can only occur if the adhesion between binder and aggregate is
breaking down for some reason. The tests suggested in Diagnosis Guide 23.8 may assist in unearthing
that reason.

If a general lack of adhesion is deduced and neither the binder content nor the filler content appears
suspect, the implication is either that the particular binder–filler–aggregate combination is a poor one,
probably due to chemical incompatibility, or that asphalt manufacture was deficient. If the problem
occurs regularly with a particular aggregate, filler or binder source, the former is likely; if not, then
operation of the asphalt plant may be suspect, possibly related to incomplete drying of aggregate prior
to mixing. Either way, the ravelling observed on the surface will also be reflected in poor resistance to
cracking throughout the mixture. This type of problem is, therefore, a serious one, and implies a much
reduced structural life for the pavement.

23.1.5 Why is bitumen bleeding from the surface?

The simple answer to this question is trivial: there is too much bitumen present. However, it is
instructive to find out why this should be, in which case the approach given in Diagnosis Guide 23.9
may help.

Bleeding is not a deep-seated distress type. Once it is established whether the source of the binder is the
surface course itself or additional surface dressing layers, a decision can be taken about what depth of
material should be planed out and replaced.

23.1.6 Why is the skid resistance low?

The answer to this question may be very obvious visually. Bleeding results in near-zero texture depth
and very poor wet skid resistance. In other cases, however, it has to be established whether a loss in wet
skid resistance is due primarily to polishing of surface aggregate or to a loss of texture depth. Both can
be checked (approximately) using simple equipment, namely the pendulum test for polishing and the
sand patch test for texture depth – both introduced in Section 19.3.

23.2. Pavements with a Concrete Surface

23.2.1. Why are there transverse cracks?

There is unlikely to be any real mystery here. In a jointed concrete pavement, transverse cracking,
either at mid-bay or a metre or so from joints, is common; it simply implies that the joint spacing was
too large for the thermally-induced stresses and strains that have occurred. Diagnosis Guide 23.10
suggests the appropriate questions to consider.

In the case of a continuously reinforced concrete (CRC) pavement, transverse cracks are expected.
They should form at a spacing of 1–2 m but, in a properly functioning pavement, they will remain
narrow and there should be no spalling. If there are more cracks than this or if many are no longer
narrow, then this implies that the pavement is not functioning as designed and that it will almost
certainly continue to deteriorate steadily. The reasons why this has occurred can be investigated; see
Diagnosis Guide 23.11.

23.2.2. Why is there longitudinal cracking?

Longitudinal cracking is a sure sign of overloading and a very serious mode of distress in concrete
pavements; significant pavement rehabilitation is likely to be required. However, determining the cause
demands a knowledge of concrete strength, slab thickness and foundation stiffness. Calculations using
these three parameters can be compared with the current state of the pavement. Diagnosis Guide 23.12
details the necessary steps.

23.2.3. Why is there faulting across joints?

This is a particularly damaging form of distress from the point of view of ride quality. It most certainly
implies joint deterioration, and strongly suggests defective design or construction. Diagnosis Guide
23.13 gives a brief checklist of points to consider.

23.2.4. Why is the surface deteriorating?

Concrete is a hard and durable material, but it relies on the presence of a balanced combination of
cement mortar and aggregate throughout. At the surface, it is not uncommon to find an excess of
cement mortar, particularly if the mixture was slightly wetter than optimum, and this results in a
relatively weak surface layer, a few millimetres thick. Trafficking will eventually remove this excess
mortar, but the result can be a decrease in ride quality. The appearance will be one of exposed
aggregate rather than smooth mortar (between grooves or other textured indentations). Once this loss of
surface mortar has occurred, there should be no further deterioration.

The other possibility is ‘scaling’, which means the loss of discrete areas of surface, often 30 cm or so in
dimension. This is caused by frost action, and implies that whatever precautions were taken against
frost attack in the design (strong concrete; air entrainment) they were insufficient for that location.

Concrete surfaces can also lose their wet skid resistance over time. As in the case of asphalt surfaces,
the pendulum test can be used to measure the degree to which polishing has occurred, and the sand
patch test can be used to measure texture depth.

23.3. Other Pavement Types

23.3.1. Grouted macadam

Grouted macadams are basically special asphalts, and many of the points made already with regard to
diagnosis of asphalt pavement problems also apply to grouted macadam. Grouted macadam is rightly
portrayed as a jointless product – but it can certainly crack in much the same way as asphalt. However,
a particular issue is the occurrence of localised distress, often around the edge of an area of grouted
macadam, suggesting less than 100% grout penetration. This shows itself as localised cracking,
sometimes also with minor depressions.

23.3.2. Block paving

The strength of block paving depends very much on the supporting layers. Any rutting or other
deformation of the surface implies lack of foundation strength, and this can be investigated in just the
same way as for an asphalt-surfaced pavement. Diagnosis Guide 23.14 gives only those points relating
to distress types that are peculiar to block paving.

23.3.3. Unsurfaced pavements

Rutting can, of course, occur in an unsurfaced pavement, and points made in relation to asphalt-
surfaced pavements also apply. To some extent, the surface distress possible in an asphalt is mirrored in
an unbound surface also, except that internal ‘cohesion’ is the binder rather than bitumen. Stone loss
and potholing are both likely. However, there is one type of distress that is not found in bound
pavements. Corrugations are regular undulations along a road, and occur due to a resonance being set
up between a vehicle’s suspension system and longitudinal defects in the road surface. This results in
slightly higher dynamic load being applied in depressed areas, and the depressions are then magnified
by the resulting permanent deformation. This is an expected occurrence on unsurfaced roads and does
not necessarily imply any particular defect in design, material provision or construction. It does,
however, imply a need for ongoing maintenance.

23.4. Summary

Diagnosis of pavement problems is not an easy subject. There are a surprisingly large number of ways
in which a pavement can deteriorate, and it really is quite important to understand which ones are
applying in a given case. There is no way that a correct prognosis can be given if the diagnosis is
incorrect – and the chances of coming up with a sensible maintenance strategy would be poor.