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 Coral Reefs
of Australia
Perspectives from Beyond the Water’s Edge

Editors: Sarah M. Hamylton, Pat Hutchings

and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg
 Coral Reefs
of Australia
Perspectives from Beyond the Water’s Edge

Editors: Sarah M. Hamylton, Pat Hutchings

and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg
 This book is dedicated to A
­ ustralia’s reefs and the people who live with them.
Copyright The Authors 2022. All rights reserved.
Except under the conditions described in the ­Australian
Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of
this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO Publishing for all
permission requests.
The authors assert their right to be known as the authors
of this work.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the
National Library of ­Australia.
ISBN: 9781486315482 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781486315499 (epdf)
ISBN: 9781486315505 (epub)
How to cite:
Hamylton SM, Hutchings P, Hoegh-Guldberg O (Eds)
(2022) Coral Reefs of ­Australia: Perspectives from Beyond the
Water’s Edge. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Published by:
CSIRO Publishing
Private Bag 10
Clayton South VIC 3169
­Australia
Telephone: +61 3 9545 8400
Email: publishing.sales@csiro.au
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Sign up to our email alerts: publish.csiro.au/earlyalert
Front cover: The reef at Lord Howe Island (image credit:
Matthew Curnock)
Back cover: Watson Island, Great Barrier Reef (image
credit: Sarah Hamylton)
Edited by Joy Window (Living Language)
Cover design by Cath Pirret
Typeset by Envisage Information Technology
Index by Bruce Gillespie
Printed in China by Leo Paper Products Ltd
CSIRO Publishing publishes and distributes scientific,
technical and health science books, magazines and
journals from ­Australia to a worldwide audience and
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conducts these activities autonomously from the research
activities of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation (CSIRO). The views expressed in
this publication are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily represent those of, and should not be
attributed to, the publisher or CSIRO. The copyright owner
shall not be liable for technical or other errors or omissions
contained herein. The reader/user accepts all risks and
responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other
consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using
this information.
CSIRO acknowledges the Traditional Owners of the
lands that we live and work on across ­Australia and pays
its respect to Elders past and present. CSIRO recognises
that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have
made and will continue to make extraordinary
contributions to all aspects of ­Australian life including
culture, economy, and science. CSIRO is committed to
reconciliation and demonstrating respect for Indigenous
knowledge and science. The use of Western science in
this publication should not be interpreted as
diminishing the knowledge of plants, animals and
environment from Indigenous ecological knowledge
systems.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the
independent author(s) and do not necessarily represent
those of, and should not be attributed to, the Australian
Coral Reef Society or the lead editors.
This publication has been supported by the Australian
Coral Reef Society and the Australian Academy of
Sciences.
The paper this book is printed on is in accordance with the
standards of the Forest Stewardship Council® and other
controlled material. The FSC® promotes environmentally
responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable
management of the world’s forests.
FOREWORD
Sylvia A. Earle
For thousands of years, the warm waters along
Australia’s coasts have gleamed with the rainbow
hues of healthy coral reef systems, home to hun-
dreds of kinds of corals, anemones, jellyfish, echi-
noderms, algae and seabirds, thousands of species
of sponges and molluscs, two dozen kinds of rep-
tiles, more than a hundred kinds of sharks, at least
1500 bony fish species, 30 kinds of mammals and
members of more than 30 other of the major catego-
ries of life, including myriad microbes. In the 21st
century, one kind of mammal – Homo sapiens –
looms large as both an agent of unprecedented
destruction and as the best hope for an enduring
future for these ancient metropolises of life.
As a young scientist in the 1950s, I was led to
believe that the ocean was a realm apart from life
on the land, a mysterious space so vast that nothing
humans do could alter its nature and that no one
could really predict, let alone change, the weather,
the climate, the chemistry – or the composition of
life on Earth. But around the world, rapid loss of
terrestrial wildlife and wild places had inspired
nations to protect special places as parks and
reserves. By the 1970s, concerns were growing
about signs of ocean decline, and in 1975 Australia
responded by establishing the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park Authority in an effort to safeguard the
health of that treasured region.
Throughout decades of exploration on, around
and under the ocean I have witnessed the most
profound time of discovery -- and the greatest era
of loss – in all of human history. The coral reefs I
observed along Australia’s eastern coast and
beyond in the Coral Sea in the 1970s and 1980s have
been largely transformed into ghost reefs, where
far fewer sharks, grouper, snappers, lobsters and
even parrotfish swim among hauntingly pale
branches and mounds of coral.
Armed with evidence gathered by thousands of
scientists recording data from spacecraft and satel-
lites high in the sky, submersibles and instruments
deployed deep within the sea, and measurements
and observations in and across the globe, it is clear
that humans are, indeed, changing the nature of
nature. Their behaviours are warming the Earth,
diminishing the abundance and diversity of life
and changing planetary chemistry. In a few dec-
ades, human actions are unravelling the basic living
systems that have shaped Earth‘s rocks and water
into an oasis of life, a mostly blue miracle in an oth-
erwise inhospitable universe. Our life support sys-
tems are in trouble, and therefore, so are we.
The good news is that it is not too late to reverse
much of the harm and turn from decline to recov-
ery. Nature-based solutions that protect and restore
wildlife and wild places are achieving results, with
more than 70 nations pledging to protect at least 30
per cent of the land and sea by 2030. In this thought-
ful, authoritative, magnificently illustrated volume,
the authors share their insights not only about the
wondrous nature of Australia’s legendary coral
reefs, but also about actions that inspire hope for a
long and prosperous future for them and for all of
life on Earth, humans very much included.
iii
CONTENTS

Foreword iii
Acknowledgements vii
Preface viii
Author affiliations ix
Abbreviations xii
Cultural sensitivity warning xiii

1 ­Australia’s coral reefs 1

Coral reefs around A­ ustralia 2
The coral reefs of Western ­Australia 4
The isolated reefs of ­Australia’s north-west shelf 8
Kimberley corals exposed 11
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands 15
Christmas Island 18
Torres Strait 23
Coral Sea 28
Lord Howe Island 34
The Great Barrier Reef 39
Under the bunggu: the inspiration of sea country 44
References45

2 Living with ­Australia’s coral reefs 49

Changing perceptions of ­Australia’s coral reefs 50
Three coral reefs in Yanyuwa country, meaningful and powerful 53
Encountering and charting the hazardous reefs of A­ ustralia, 1622–1864 57
Frank Hurley’s aquarium and the art of coral reef science 60
Coral reefs of Zenadth Kes (Torres Strait) 64
Saving A
­ ustralia’s reefs: how much are they worth to us? 67
Bêche-de-mer: the cornerstone of ­Australian fisheries 70
Western rock lobster and the Houtman Abrolhos Islands 73
Coral reef tourism 79
References86

3 The evolution of science on the Great Barrier Reef 91

The Great Barrier Reef Expedition of 1928–29 92
Revisiting the corals of the Low Isles 90 years later 98
The 1973 expedition to the northern Great Barrier Reef 99
Determining the age of the Great Barrier Reef: a voyage of discovery 104

iv
 Contents v

The ­Australian Museum’s quest for a research station 107

Early coral reef science at Heron and One Tree islands 109
A network of research stations: advancing reef science under global change 114
References119

4 Understanding the fundamentals of coral reefs 123

Scientific drilling on the Great Barrier Reef: unlocking the history of the reef 124
­Australia’s reef islands 130
Tropical cyclones and A ­ ustralia’s coral reefs 134
Marginal reefs: distinct ecosystems of extraordinarily high conservation value 139
The basics of coral biology 143
The importance of reproduction and connectivity in reef renewal 148
Coral reef ecology 151
Sex, baby fish, connectivity and recruitment to reefs 157
The sharks, rays, whales and dugongs of A­ ustralia’s coral reefs 163
Sea snakes: a unique group of marine reptiles 166
References169

5 Managing ­Australia’s coral reefs 175

The Great Barrier Reef as a cultural landscape: continuing our connection through the eyes
of a Traditional Owner ranger 176
The connectedness of reefs, whales and people: a Yuin teaching 179
Management based on a sound understanding of the Great Barrier Reef 182
Filling in the pieces of the crown-of-thorns starfish puzzle 186
Water quality 189
Impacts and opportunities for floodplain wetlands on the Great Barrier Reef 192
Zoning the Great Barrier Reef 196
Mapping A ­ ustralia’s coral reefs 200
Citizen science for managing Queensland’s coral reef habitats 205
Monitoring coral reefs at the ­Australian Institute of Marine Science 208
The use of advanced technology for monitoring coral reefs 210
References212

6 Scientists as advocates for A

­ ustralia’s coral reefs 217
A hundred years of the ­Australian Coral Reef Society 218
­Australia’s role in international coral reef science and management 229
The influence of A ­ ustralian coral reef science and management: an Indonesian perspective 231
References234

7 Conservation and protection of ­Australia’s coral reefs 237

The Bingil Bay Bastard: John Busst and the making of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 238
A cultural shift towards environmental protection 242
Saving Ningaloo. Again 244
vi CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRALIA

The story of the Coral Sea Marine Park: science, policy and advocacy 251
­Australian coral reefs on the World Heritage list 256
The UNESCO List of World Heritage in Danger: a lever for reform 259
The politics governing survival for the Great Barrier Reef 261
References263

8 A changing climate for A

­ ustralian reefs 267
Climate change and A ­ ustralia’s coral reefs 268
Responses of coral assemblages to recurrent mass bleaching 271
Coral reefs on the move? 276
Historical degradation and shifting baselines on ­Australian coral reefs 279
Predicting coral reef futures 281
Adapting for A ­ ustralia’s reefs of tomorrow: the complex landscape of reef restoration and
interventions287
Reef rehabilitation and restoration 288
Harvesting coral spawn slicks for reef restoration 289
Enhancing corals using assisted evolution 291
Natural extreme reefs as potential coral resilience hotspots 296
Science meets the public, policy and management practitioners 297
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 301
Advancing ­Australian reef governance into the Anthropocene: the Great Barrier Reef at the
next frontier 303
References307

Epilogue: The eye of the beholder 315

Reference317

Index 318
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book has been curated to mark the Hundred
Year Anniversary of the Australian Coral Reef
Society and the council and members are thanked
for their support and contributions.
The text has benefited from the insights of sev-
eral expert chapter reviewers, including Professor
Maria Byrne, Dr Michelle Dyer (GBRMPA), Dr
Zena Dinesen, Catheline Froehlich, Dr Saskia Jur-
riaans (AIMS), Professor Richard Kenchington,
Brett Lewis, Professor David Suggett, Dr Gergely
Torda, and Professor Colin Woodroffe.
We would like to thank the Australian Academy
of Sciences for providing financial support through
their Regional Collaboration Programme towards
book research and publishing costs. The Regional
Collaborations Programme is supported by the
Australian Government under the National Inno-
vation and Science Agenda. We are also grateful for
the ongoing support of the ­ Australian Research
Council for coral reef science through their grant
programs and large initiatives such as the Centre
for Excellence in Coral Reef Studies, which has
been critically important to ­Australian coral reef
science. Similarly, many organisations like the
­Australian Institute of Marine Science, the Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and the Great
Barrier Reef Foundation have provided key input
and financial support to broaden the research, edu-
cation and communication necessary to build solu-
tions and a better future for A
­ ustralia’s coral reefs
in a stable, zero carbon world. The long list of indi-
viduals and organisations who have supported
science and management projects over the past
century of coral reef science cannot be comprehen-
sively described.
The efforts of several people in searching out
archival information and images are much appreci-
ated: Professor Tom Spencer and Professor B ­ arbara
Brown at the Natural History Museum, Royal Soci-
ety and Royal Geographical Society in London,
Joanna Ruxton at the Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park Authority, Trisha Fielding at the James Cook
University Library, Jack Ennis Butler at the National
Library of ­Australia, Patricia Egan at the ­Australian
Museum, Joy Wheeler at the Royal Geographical
Society and Dr Anne Hoggett at Lizard Island
Research Station.
Members of the A ­ ustralian Coral Reef Society
are thanked for supplying images throughout the
book. Matthew Curnock and Martin Colognoli
deserve a special mention for generously providing
their spectacular photographs. Brett Lewis’s excel-
lent graphic design suggestions were invaluable.
Thank you to the following people for provid-
ing the photograph at the start of each chapter:
Matthew Curnock (Chapters 1 and 8), Paul Jones
(Chapter 2), Prithvi Bhattacharya (Chapters 3 and
5), Brett Lewis (Chapter 4), Steph Gardner
­(Chapter 6), Julia Sumerling (Chapter 7).
Our editors at CSIRO Publishing, Mark Hamil-
ton, Briana Melideo, Tracey Kudis and Joy Window,
are thanked for their sharp eyes, useful sugges-
tions and patient guidance in pulling the manu-
script together.
vii
PREFACE
Sarah Hamylton, Pat Hutchings and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg
­ ustralia’s tropical coastline supports mangroves,
A instruments from boats, and making observations
seagrass and coral reefs, runs for thousands of kilo-
metres and takes on distinct regional characteristics
as it crosses from the arid deserts of Western
­Australia to the Wet Tropics of Queensland. No
single person has dived the entire vastness of
­Australia’s coral reefs, many of which are seldom
visited by humans. Only recently have many of
these reefs become accessible to visitors, tourists,
scientists and those seeking to make a living from
them.
Coral reefs may be contingent on geology and
biology, but, as Iain McCalman writes in his book
The Reef: A Passionate History, they are also products
of human perception that have been imagined into
existence down the millennia. In ­Australia, it is an
imaginative picture that extends back, uniquely, at
least 60 000 years. Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander A­ ustralians regard coral reefs as part of a
sea country that incorporates all living people, ani-
mals, plants, and creation spirits, about which sto-
ries have been told for many generations. More
recently, our perceptions of reefs have been shaped
by discovery and exploration. Reefs have trans-
formed from mortal danger to natural mystery,
from bountiful expanse of untapped resources to
unique ecosystems worthy of protection.
As people have become increasingly familiar
with these seascapes, helped by aquaria, SCUBA
technology, books and documentaries, their curi-
osity has deepened about how such a wealth of
biodiversity thrives in remote and often low-nutri-
ent oceans. Much of this biodiversity remains
undescribed. This book offers a range of perspec-
tives on the relationship between coral reefs and
humans. It is a relationship shaped by hours spent
floating above reefs, walking reef flats, dangling
viii
at field sites and in laboratories. ­Australian scien-
tists have gone beyond unlocking the geological
and biological secrets of reefs to occupy a broader
role as advocates, communicators and advisors,
driven by their profound admiration for, and desire
to protect reefs and their associated ecosystems.
What began for most as a passion is now deadly
serious. As local and global threats have multi-
plied, our understanding of coral reefs in the
Anthropocene is more important than ever, with
humans directly changing planetary tempera-
tures. Corals are now the ‘canary in the coalmine’
for the impacts of global climate change, having
suffered more frequent and intense mass coral
bleaching and mortality, dramatic species range
shifts, ocean acidification, and more. ­Australia’s
coral reefs have sustained a global interest for cen-
turies and the diverse perspectives in this book
trace our evolving relationship with them, telling
inspiring stories of scientific discovery and ocean
governance that have put ­Australia at the fore-
front of environmentally responsible coral reef
management.
Curating this collection has been an organic pro-
cess in which we included as many voices as possi-
ble, although they inevitably encompass only a small
portion of all the people who interact with ­Australia’s
reefs. Ideas and insights are presented in distinctive
styles; they focus on different ways in which people
interact with reefs and are sometimes contradictory.
We bring together different worldviews to empha-
sise the differences between perspectives, from
industry to Indigenous, from mesophotic to mass
spawning. It is the interplay between them that
offers a deeper understanding of what it means to
work with and live alongside A ­ ustralia’s reefs.
AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS

Maria Fernanda ­Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Qld

Adame
Robin Beaman College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, Qld
Giglia A. Beretta School of Life Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW
David J. Booth School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW
John Bradley Monash Indigenous Studies Centre, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic
Barbara Brown School of Natural & Environmental Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; Environmental
Research Unit, University of the Highlands and Islands, Caithness, Scotland
Nicola Browne School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA
Maria Byrne School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
Emma Camp Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW
Mel Cowlishaw Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Brisbane, Qld
Graeme Cumming ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld; A
­ ustralian
Coral Reef Society Council member
Matthew I. CSIRO Land and Water, Townsville Qld
Curnock
Jon C. Day ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld; formerly
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Qld
Christopher CSIRO Oceans & Atmosphere, St Lucia, Qld
Doropoulos
Sophie Dove ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and School of Biological Sciences at the University of
Queensland, St Lucia, Qld
Michelle Dyer Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Qld; A
­ ustralian Coral Reef Society Council
member
Michael J. Emslie ­Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld
Gal Eyal ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, School of Biological Sciences, University of
Queensland, St Lucia, Qld; Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University,
Israel
Ann Elias Department of Art History, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
Leanne Fernandes Senior Research Fellow, School of Marine Biology, College of Science and Engineering, James Cook
University, Townsville, Qld
Maoz Fine The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
Catheline School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW;
Froehlich ­Australian Coral Reef Society Council member
James Gilmour ­ ustralian Institute of Marine Science, Indian Ocean Marine Science Centre, University of Western
A
­Australia, Perth, WA; Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia,
Australia
Howard Gray Maritime historian, Batavia Coast, WA
Jack Greenwood Department of Zoology, The University of Queensland (1961–2002)
Valerie Hagger School of Biological Science, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld
Sarah M. School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW;
Hamylton President, ­Australian Coral Reef Society
Melanie Hava Melanie Hava is a Mamu Aboriginal artist. Her mother is from the Dugul-barra and Warii-barra family
groups of the Johnstone River catchment

ix
x CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRALIA

Harold Heatwole Department of Zoology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW

Andrew Heyward ­ ustralian Institute of Marine Science, Perth, WA; Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia,
A
Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
Ove Hoegh- ARC Centre for Excellence for Reef Studies, Great Barrier Reef Foundation (Chief Scientist) and School
Guldberg of Biological Sciences at the University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld
Andrew S. Hoey ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Thomas H. Marine Science Program, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Kensington, Perth;
Holmes Oceans Institute, University of Western A
­ ustralia, Crawley, WA
David Hopley Emeritus Professor, College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Terry Hughes ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Pat Hutchings Senior Fellow, A
­ ustralian Museum Research Institute, A
­ ustralian Museum, Sydney, NSW
Alan Kendrick Marine Science Program, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Kensington, Perth,
WA
Emma Kennedy ­Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld
Michael J. Marine Biology and Aquaculture and Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, College of Science &
Kingsford Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Richard Leck Head of Oceans, World Wide Fund for Nature, Brisbane, Qld
Brett Lewis Earth and Atmospheric Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld; A
­ ustralian Coral
Reef Society Council member
Michelle Linklater Coastal and Marine Unit, NSW Department of Planning and Environment, Sydney, NSW
Rohan Lloyd College of Arts, Society & Education, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Jennifer Loder Director of Community Partnerships, Great Barrier Reef Foundation, Brisbane, Qld
Catherine E. School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld
Lovelock
Leah Lui-Chivizhe School of Communication and Centre for the Advancement of Indigenous Knowledges (CAIK),
University of Technology, Sydney, NSW
Damien Maher School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW
Jennie Mallela The Research School of Biology, The A
­ ustralian National University, Canberra, ACT
Helene Marsh College of Science & Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Iain McCalman Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, A
­ ustralian Catholic University, Sydney, NSW
Eva McClure ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Anthony Awabakal, Gumaroi, Yuin man and School of Education, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW
McKnight
Roger McLean School of Science, University of New South Wales Canberra, Canberra, ACT
Efrat Meroz-Fine Faculty of Law, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
Tiffany H. ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Morrison
Nurjannah Nurdin Research and Development Center for Maritime, Coast and Small Islands, Hasanuddin University,
Makassar, Indonesia
John M. Pandolfi ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, School of Biological Sciences, University of
Queensland, St Lucia, Qld
Marji Puotinen ­Australian Institute of Marine Science, Perth, WA
John Quiggin School of Economics, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld
Kate Quigley ­Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld; Minderoo Foundation
Russell Reichelt Formerly A
­ ustralian Institute of Marine Science and Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,
Townsville, Qld
 Author affiliations xi

Zoe Richards Coral Conservation and Research Group, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Trace and
Environmental DNA Laboratory, Curtin University; Collections and Research, Western A
­ ustralian
Museum, Perth, WA
David Ritter Greenpeace ­Australia Pacific, Sydney, NSW
Chris Roelfsema School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld; A
­ ustralian Coral
Reef Society Council member
Barbara Robson ­Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld
Claire L. Ross Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Kensington, Perth, WA
Peter Sale Emeritus Professor, University of Windsor, Canada; formerly University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
Verena Schoepf Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
Colin College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Simpfendorfer
Gavin Singleton Yirrganydji Djabugay Traditional Owner from the Cairns to Port Douglas region in North Queensland,
­Australia; Project Manager, Dawul Wuru Aboriginal Corporation/Coordinator, Yirrganydji Land and Sea
Ranger Program, Qld
Carrie Sims ­Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld; A
­ ustralian Coral Reef Society Council member
Scott Smithers College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Brigitte Sommer School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW; School of Life and Environmental
Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW
Tom Spencer Cambridge Coastal Research Unit, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, UK
David Suggett Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW; A
­ ustralian Coral Reef Society Council
member
Frank Talbot Director of the A
­ ustralian Museum (1966–75), Sydney, NSW
Gergely Torda Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld
Tali Treibitz Hatter Department of Marine Technologies, Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa,
Haifa, Israel
Vinay Udyawer ­Australian Institute of Marine Science, Darwin, NT
Madeleine Van ­ ustralian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Qld; School of BioSciences, University of
A
Oppen Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic
Charlie Veron Coral Reef Research, former Chief Scientist, AIMS, Townsville, Qld
Nathan Waltham Marine Data Technology Hub, College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville,
Qld
Selina Ward School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld; A
­ ustralian Coral Reef Society
Council member
Gregory Webb School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld
Jody Webster Geocoastal Research Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
Shaun Wilson Marine Science Program, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Kensington, Perth
& Oceans Institute, University of Western A
­ ustralia, Crawley, WA
Tim Winton Novelist and patron of the A
­ ustralian Marine Society
Kennedy Wolfe Marine Spatial Ecology Laboratory, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld; A
­ ustralian Coral Reef
Society Council member
Colin Woodroffe School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW
Matan Yuval Hatter Department of Marine Technologies & the Department of Marine Biology, Charney School of
Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel; the Inter-University Institute of Marine Sciences,
Eilat, Israel
Imogen Zethoven Blue Ocean Consulting; formerly A
­ ustralian Marine Conservation Society
ABBREVIATIONS
A$ ­Australian dollars
ACRS ­Australian Coral Reef Society
AE Assisted evolution
AIMS ­Australian Institute of Marine Science
AMSA ­Australian Maritime Safety Authority
AO Order of ­Australia
ARC ­Australian Research Council
AUV Autonomous underwater vehicle
BP Before Present
CITES Convention on Trade in Endangered
Species
COP Conference of the Parties
COREMAP Coral Reef Management and
Rehabilitation Program
COTS Crown-of-thorns starfish
CSMP Coral Sea Marine Park
CTI Coral Triangle Initiative
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
ENCORE Elevated Nutrients on Coral Reef
Experiment
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation
EAC East ­Australian Current
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EPA Environment Protection Agency
EPBC Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation
GBR Great Barrier Reef
GBRC Great Barrier Reef Committee
GBRF Great Barrier Reef Foundation
GBRMP Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
GBRMPA Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority
HIRS Heron Island Research Station
ICRS International Coral Reef Society
IUCN International Union for Conservation of
Nature
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITF Indonesian Throughflow
LED Light emitting diode
xii
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
LNG Liquefied natural gas
LNP Liberal National Party
LTMP Long-Term Monitoring Program
LIRS Lizard Island Research Station
MCRMP Millennium Coral Reef Mapping Project
MODIS Moderate resolution imaging
spectroradiometer
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (USA)
NSW New South Wales
NT Northern Territory
PADDD Protected area downgrading,
downsizing and degazettement
Qld Queensland
RNA Ribonucleic acid
ROV Remotely operated vehicle
SLR Sea-level rise
SCUBA Self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus
UNEP-WCMC United Nations Environment
Programme-World Conservation Monitoring
Centre
UQ University of Queensland
U-Th Uranium-thorium
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC United National Framework
Convention on Climate Change
US$ United States dollars
UV Ultraviolet radiation
Vic Victoria
WA Western ­Australia
WH World Heritage
WHS World Heritage site (also referred to as
World Heritage Property)
WPSQ Wildlife Preservation Society of
Queensland
WWF World Wildlife Fund
 Cultural sensitivity warning xiii

Cultural sensitivity warning

Readers are warned that there may be words, descriptions and terms used in this book that are culturally sensitive,
and which might not normally be used in certain public or community contexts. While this information may not
reflect current understanding, it is provided by the author in a historical context.
This publication may also contain quotations, terms and annotations that reflect the historical attitude of the
original author or that of the period in which the item was written, and may be considered inappropriate today.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are advised that this publication may contain the names and
images of people who have passed away.
This page intentionally left blank
 1
­Australia’s coral reefs
2 CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRALIA
­ ustralia’s coral reefs fringe thousands of kilome-
A Lord Howe Island. This reliance on marine
tres of tropical coastline. Here, we describe the
distinctive character of ­Australia’s reef regions,
from the isolated reefs of Western ­ Australia’s
shelf, including the Kimberley coastline and
­Ningaloo, extending offshore to the Indian Ocean
territories of Cocos (Keeling) Atoll and Christmas
Island and through the Timor and Arafura seas of
­Australia’s northern coastline, to the Torres Strait,
Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea. Further off-
shore, the seamount reefs of Elizabeth and Mid-
dleton and Lord Howe Island are some of
­Australia’s eastern coral outposts in the Pacific
Ocean, the easternmost being Norfolk Island,
some 7500 km from the westernmost reef of Cocos
(Keeling) Atoll.
­Australia’s coral regions are subject to unique
environmental conditions that have enabled corals
to grow in different assemblages of species to form
reef platforms of varying sizes and shapes. These
reefs support a diverse community of marine life,
some of which stays close to the coral reef through-
out its lifetime, while others such as seabirds, whale
sharks, turtles, red crabs and dugong migrate
through reef environments, connecting to land and
other coastal waters, including those of neighbour-
ing countries.
Humans have lived alongside A ­ ustralian reefs
for many thousands of years, since well before the
Sahul Shelf connected ­Australia to New Guinea
some 20 000 years ago. In the Torres Strait, turtle
and dugong are central to ceremonial life and
important cultural resources to Islanders. For
hundreds of years, Indonesian fishers have har-
vested clams, shark and bêche-de-mer, or trepang,
from ­ Australia’s northern coastline. With the
arrival of Europeans, marine industries grew in
pearling in the Torres Strait and Coral Sea, oyster
farming and lobster fisheries in the Houtman
Abrolhos Islands, phosphate mining on Christmas
Island and tourism on the Great Barrier Reef and
resources brought humans into an intimate rela-
tionship with A ­ ustralia’s reefs.
Since Charles Darwin sailed to Cocos (Keeling)
Atoll in 1836 and proposed his global theory of
coral reef formation, our scientific understanding of
­Australia’s coral reefs has expanded to include the
broader marine life they support, while the ways
humans have interacted with them have varied.
Here, we provide a brief overview of A ­ ustralia’s
reefs, their environmental characteristics and their
human histories.
Coral reefs around ­Australia
Sarah Hamylton
­ustralia’s continent extends from the Indian
A
Ocean in the West to the Pacific Ocean in the East.
Much of its tropical coastline is lined with some of
the longest, oldest, most biodiverse and pristine
coral reefs on the planet. ­Australia presides over
around 50 000 km2 of coral reefs, or 17 per cent of
the world’s coral reefs, inside its exclusive economic
zone (EEZ) [1]. After Indonesia, ­Australia has the
largest coral reef area of any nation. From the most
extensive coral reef in the world (the Great Barrier
Reef (GBR) in the north-east), to the world’s longest
fringing reef in the West (Ningaloo Reef),
­Australia’s reefs formed under different conditions
and are marked by unique, often very remote, envi-
ronments today (Fig. 1.1).
Many individual corals combine to form lime-
stone framework reef platforms. In turn, these plat-
forms modify the waves reaching a shoreline and
provide sediments that build beaches and islands.
Environmental conditions for reef development
vary substantially around A ­ ustralia with regional
water quality, rainfall, sea surface temperatures
and oceanographic characteristics, such as tidal
range and currents, all of which determine whether
or not a reef will grow and thrive.

Fig. 1.1. Australia’s coral reefs (red dots), with significant currents shown in black. (Image credit: Sarah Hamylton)
In relation to other regions of the world, the
coral reefs of ­Australia have developed over a geo-
logically stable continental shelf [2], evolving over
hundreds of thousands of years in response to
changing sea levels. The form of modern reefs
around the coastline is inherited from older reefs
that have persisted through patterns of sea-level
change since the last ice age, around 11 000 years
ago. From a long-term standpoint, rising sea levels
from the last ice age flooded the Great Barrier Reef
lagoon and created the maze of reef patches that
we see today. At the same time, some of the higher,
previously mountainous peaks became rocky
islands (e.g. Lizard Island and Magnetic Island)
that are fringed by substantial reef platforms.
Fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls are all
found in ­Australia, often made up of a variety of
smaller submerged reef platforms that reflect
1 – AUSTRALIA’S CORAL REEFS 3
their underlying foundations. Over shorter, dec-
adal timescales, reefs are shaped by other factors
such as waves, tides, currents and rivers. Coral
reefs typically grow from small patches of reef,
expanding in the direction of dominant wind and
currents into a continuous, often crescentic, reef.
The upper shallow surface will eventually become
a large platform on which sand or shingle can
accumulate to form coral islands [3]. This sequence
is probably responsible for the distinctive shape of
many reefs in Western ­ Australia (WA), Torres
Strait and the GBR.
Over the wide and shallow continental shelf,
the distribution of corals is controlled mainly by
light, turbidity, and temperature (Fig. 1.2). Typical
tropical reef-building corals can survive with a
minimum average temperature of ~18°C in the
coldest months [4]. Along the western coastline,
4 CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRALIA
the southward flowing Leeuwin Current brings
warm tropical waters that enable reefs to grow at
relatively high latitudes, such as the Houtman
Abrolhos Islands at 28°S. Likewise, along the east-
ern coastline, the East A ­ ustralian Current (EAC)
carries warm waters south along the length of the
GBR until it meets the Tasman Front, where it
diverts offshore to support ­Australia’s southern-
most reef growth around Lord Howe Island at
31.5°S, about 780 km offshore north-east of Sydney.
Although these sites mark the southernmost
development of A ­ ustralia’s coral reefs, the pres-
ence of non-reef forming coral communities
extends much further, notably to Rottnest Island
near Perth on the West Coast and to the Solitary
Islands on the East Coast, with some species
occurring around Sydney Harbour and further
south.
Currents along the shore consistently move
water over reef surfaces and influence the arrival of
the larvae of marine organisms that colonise reefs.
Where fast-flowing currents drive high water cir-
culation, reefs are characterised by soft corals, gor-
gonian sea fans and filter-feeding invertebrates
such as clams. As corals are a keystone and habitat-
forming species on most ­Australian reefs, they also
support a diverse array of fish and invertebrates. In
biogeographical terms, many coral species are
observed in the reefs of northern ­Australia, par-
ticularly on reefs close to the Indo-Pacific regional
hotspot of marine biodiversity known as the Coral
Triangle.
­Australia’s coral reefs are subject to different
management regimes that reflect the local pres-
sures they experience. Recreational fishing pres-
sures are lower for offshore reefs than fringing
reefs that are more accessible to coastal towns and
communities. Similarly, the nearshore East
­Australian reefs lie adjacent to freshwater rivers
that influence regional water quality, whereas the
WA reefs line arid coastlines. The seasonal pat-
terns of cyclones also vary markedly around
­Australia, with more frequent and intense cyclone
activity and associated rainfall close to the
equator.
Fig. 1.2. Exposed corals at Dynamite Pass, Ribbon Reef
10, northern Great Barrier Reef. (Image credit: Matt
Curnock)
­ ustralia’s reef corals and fish are on the move
A
due to anthropogenic climate change (see ‘Coral
reefs on the move?’ in Chapter 8). Over a hundred
tropical species of fish, such as damselfish and sur-
geonfish, typically associated with northern coral
reefs, are now also being observed as far south as
Sydney Harbour, signifying a broader poleward
expansion of coral reef biodiversity, most likely due
to increasing sea surface temperatures in the north
[5].
Whether they traverse rugged volcanic islands
or secluded lagoonal coral cay settings, coral
reefs impart a distinctive character to much of
­Australia’s shoreline.
The coral reefs of Western ­Australia
Shaun K. Wilson, Thomas H. Holmes, Alan
Kendrick and Claire L. Ross
The coral reefs of WA are morphologically diverse,
with high levels of biodiversity and endemism.
Carbonate reefs occur along more than 1500 km of
WA coastline, incorporating oceanic atolls in the
north to fringing reefs that surround the Houtman
Abrolhos Islands off the midwest coast (Fig. 1.3).
Across this latitudinal gradient, coral reefs are
along the mainland coast and continental islands,
including extensive fringing reef at Ningaloo and,

Fig. 1.3. (A) The coral reefs of Western Australia. (B) The three island groups of the Houtman Abrolhos Islands. (Image
credits: Sarah Hamylton)
to a lesser extent, at Shark Bay, which are both
World Heritage sites. Coastal and offshore marine
reserves recognise the important role that coral
reefs play in supporting biodiversity and provid-
ing ecosystem services. Reserves cover the Kimber-
ley, Ashmore, Cartier, Rowley Shoals, waters
surrounding the Montebello and Barrow islands,
Ningaloo Reef and Shark Bay.
The Kimberley is the northernmost region of the
WA mainland. The reefs of this region remain
poorly studied due to inaccessibility and large tidal
1 – AUSTRALIA’S CORAL REEFS 5
ranges of over 10 m (horizontal falls), which generate
currents of up to 30 kn and highly turbid waters. As
the Kimberley coastline flooded during the Holo-
cene (i.e. approximately the last 10 000 years), a com-
plex coastline was created with numerous islands
upon which fringing carbonate reefs developed.
Coral cover on inshore fringing reefs of the Kimber-
ley is generally highest (15–25 per cent) within the
shallow waters of the outer reef flat margins [6].
Tidal pools provide some relief from aerial exposure
during spring low tides, often accommodating coral
Another random document with
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 6 large apples
3 eggs
6 table-spoons powdered sugar
1 pint milk
Pare and core the apples. Fill the centre of each with sugar and
bake, being careful that they do not break. Or they can be stewed
whole.
Make a custard (see p. 15) of the yolks, milk and half the sugar.
Pour it over the apples, which should be arranged in a dish. Bake
slowly until the custard is firm. Whip the whites till frothy. Add the rest
of the sugar gradually, and beat well together. Spread this over the
custard, and put in a moderate oven. Remove directly the meringue
is browned.

*Bread and Rum Pudding

2 wine glasses rum
4 eggs
6 ozs. powdered sugar
6 ozs. bread crumbs
6 ozs. currants
¹⁄₂ lb. candied peel
4 ozs. butter
3 table-spoons milk
Melt the butter, mix it with the sugar, bread crumbs and yolks. Stir
well together. Add the currants, milk, chopped peel and one glass of
rum. Beat the whites to a stiff froth, and stir them in. Put in a buttered
mould. Steam three hours. When cooked, pour another glass of rum
over the pudding, and serve.

*Cherry Pudding
4 eggs
1 pint milk
 2 table-spoons of flour
Cherries
Sugar
Stone enough cherries to fill a basin, which must be well buttered.
Add sufficient sugar to sweeten well. Make a smooth batter of the
well-beaten eggs, flour and milk. Pour it over the cherries, filling the
basin. Cover with a cloth, and boil one and a half hours. Serve with a
fruit sauce.

Christmas Plum Pudding—I

1¹⁄₂ lb. suet

1 lb. flour
¹⁄₂ lb. bread crumbs
2 lbs. raisins
1 lb. sultanas
¹⁄₂ lb. currants
¹⁄₂ lb. mixed candied peel
¹⁄₂ lb. sugar
1 salt-spoon salt
Grated rind and juice of three lemons
¹⁄₂ nutmeg, grated
4 blanched and pounded bitter almonds
1 tea-spoon mixed spice
1 ” ground cinnamon
¹⁄₂ ” ” ginger
1 pint brandy or sherry
5 eggs beaten up with ¹⁄₂ pint milk
Orange juice, if liked
Chop the suet very fine. Mix the sugar and spices. Add the suet,
well-prepared fruit, eggs and brandy. Let the mixture stand until the
following day, stirring well at intervals. Put the mixture into well-
buttered basins, filling them to within two inches of the top. Cover
with buttered paper, and over this tie a well-floured cloth.
Boil for eight hours.

Christmas Plum Pudding—II

For each Pudding
¹⁄₄ lb. raisins
¹⁄₄ lb. sultanas
¹⁄₄ lb. currants
¹⁄₄ lb. orange peel
¹⁄₄ lb. lemon peel
¹⁄₄ lb. almonds (chopped)
¹⁄₄ lb. chopped preserved ginger
¹⁄₄ lb. sugar
5 ozs. chopped suet
3 heaped table-spoons flour
5 eggs
Spices, brandy or whisky to taste
Salt
Boil twelve hours.

*Dutch Apple Cake

1 pint flour
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon carbonate of soda
1 tea-spoon cream of tartar
¹⁄₄ cup butter
1 egg
1 scant cup milk
 4 sour apples
3 table-spoons powdered sugar
Mix and sift the dry materials together. Rub in the butter. Beat the
egg. Mix it with the milk. Add to the flour and stir well in. Spread the
dough half an inch thick in a shallow tin. Pare the apples and core
them. Cut them into eighths. Put these in rows, pressing the thin
edge down into the dough. Sprinkle the sugar over the apples. Bake
in a hot oven twenty to thirty minutes. Serve with lemon sauce (see
p. 85).

Fig Pudding

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

¹⁄₄ lb. figs
¹⁄₄ lb. bread crumbs
2 eggs
Chop the figs and stew them in the butter for quarter of an hour.
Beat the eggs well. Mix them with the bread crumbs. Add the figs
and butter. Steam on a buttered mould three hours.

Friar’s Omelet
Apples
3 eggs
1 cup sugar
Juice of half a lemon
Bread crumbs
Steam several sour apples. Mash them and then drain them until
quite dry. Take one pint of this pulp, and when cool add to it the three
well-beaten yolks, the sugar, lemon juice, and the whites beaten to a
stiff froth. Brown some very fine bread crumbs in a little butter.
Sprinkle the bottom and sides of a well-buttered pudding dish with
them. Pour in the mixture. Cover with bread crumbs. Bake twenty
minutes. Serve with brown sugar and cream.
 *Gooseberry Pudding
3 cups gooseberries
³⁄₄ lb. butter
³⁄₄ lb. powdered sugar
8 eggs
4 sponge-fingers
Stew the gooseberries in water until tender. Do not let them break.
Take them out and drain. Then put them through a fine sieve.
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar and beat again. Stir in
the gooseberry pulp, the well-beaten eggs and the sponge-fingers
finely crushed. Mix well and bake in a pudding dish for thirty minutes.

Ginger Pudding

¹⁄₂ lb. flour

6 ozs. suet
1 table-spoon brown sugar
2 table-spoons golden syrup
1 tea-spoon baking powder
2 eggs
A little milk
Sift the baking powder with the flour. Beat the eggs until creamy.
Mix all well together. Steam two and a half hours.

*Italian Mousse
12 yolks
4 wine glasses Madeira or light white wine
6 ozs. powdered sugar
A pinch of powdered cinnamon
A little lemon juice
 Beat well together. Pour into an enamelled sauce-pan and stand it
in a larger vessel containing hot water. Beat continually with a whisk
until the mixture froths and rises. Serve immediately in glasses.

*Little Citron Puddings

¹⁄₂ pint of cream

1 table-spoon sifted flour
2 ozs. powdered sugar
Nutmeg
3 yolks
Mix the cream, flour, sugar and a very little nutmeg together until
quite smooth. Add the well-beaten yolks. Butter five small tea-cups
or moulds and line with very thin pieces of citron. Pour in the mixture,
but do not fill quite full. Bake in a fairly quick oven.
Turn out the puddings and serve at once.

Marmalade Pudding
2 eggs
Their weight in flour, butter and powdered sugar
1 table-spoon marmalade
1 tea-spoon baking-powder
Sift the flour and baking-powder together. Beat the butter to a
cream. Add the sugar and beat again. Add the flour, marmalade and
well-beaten yolks. Beat the whites to a stiff froth and add them last.
Pour into a buttered basin and steam for an hour and a half. Turn out
and spread with a little marmalade. Serve with a sweet sauce.

Mousse à la Mangara

¹⁄₄ lb. powdered sugar

6 eggs
 Wine glass of kirsch
Beat the sugar and eggs together until creamy and light. Add the
kirsch and stand in a sauce-pan of hot water. Set over a slow fire
and stir continually until the mixture thickens. It must not boil. Take
off the fire and add the whites beaten to a stiff froth. Serve at once.

Palace Pudding

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

¹⁄₄ lb. castor sugar
3 eggs
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla
¹⁄₄ lb. flour
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar and well-beaten eggs.
Beat thoroughly. Add the flour. When well mixed add the vanilla.
Butter a mould. Sprinkle it with powdered sugar. Steam one hour.
Before turning out, let the pudding stand for a minute or two.

*Pine-Apple and Rice Mould

¹⁄₂ lb. rice

1 pint milk
3 eggs
¹⁄₂ lb. pine-apple
Syrup
¹⁄₄ lb. tinned apricots
2 table-spoons powdered sugar
1 table-spoon kirsch
Cook the rice in the milk in a double boiler until it is very tender
and the milk is all absorbed. Cut the pine-apple in small pieces and
let it simmer for several minutes in a little syrup (see p. 151).
 Beat three whole eggs well together. Add them to the rice and then
the pine-apple. When well mixed pour into a buttered mould. Bake
for about half-an-hour.
Mash the apricots. Add the sugar. When melted pass through a
sieve. Add the kirsch, pour over the pudding.

Plum Pudding

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
1 gill cream
1 gill rum
¹⁄₂ lb. chopped suet
1 cup chopped raisins
1 cup currants
¹⁄₄ lb. chopped citron
6 eggs
1 tea-spoon ground spices
Bread-crumbs
Beat the butter and sugar to a cream. Add the rum and cream.
Beat well. Add the suet and well-floured fruit. Beat the eggs together
till very light. Add then the spices and sufficient fine bread-crumbs to
make a stiff batter. Pour into a buttered mould. Boil five hours.

*Strawberry Shortcake

¹⁄₂ lb. flour

3 ozs. butter
1 table-spoon sugar
2 tea-spoons baking-powder
Milk
Strawberries, sugar and butter
 Sift the flour, sugar and baking-powder together twice. Rub in the
butter. Add sufficient milk to make a dough (about three-quarters of a
cup), mixing lightly with a knife. Put on a floured board and roll out
lightly. Divide in two. Bake in two well-buttered round tins (about
eight inches in diameter) in a hot oven for twelve minutes. When
baked, split open and spread with plenty of butter and a thick layer of
crushed and well-sweetened strawberries. Serve at once very hot.
The strawberries should be prepared about half an hour before
they are needed.
 Sauces
PAGE
Banana Sauce 80
Chocolate Sauce 80
Custard Sauce 81
Foam Sauce 81
Fruit Sauce 82
Golden Sauce 82
Golden Syrup or Molasses Sauce 83
Hard Sauce 83
Hard Sauce with Fruit 84
Jelly Sauce 84
Lemon Sauce 85
Melted Butter 85
Sabaillon 86
Whipped Cream Sauce 86
Wine Sauce—I. 87
” ” II. 87
 General Directions
All hot pudding sauces should be served as soon as made.
Butter may be creamed in a warmed basin but should on no
account be melted.
Sauces made with yolks of eggs are best made in a bain marie;
i.e. a saucepan placed in a larger pan containing hot water.

Banana Sauce
1 cup water
4 table-spoons powdered sugar
4 bananas
1 dessert-spoon maraschino or
1 wine-glass of wine
Put the water and sugar in a sauce-pan and stir until the sugar is
dissolved. Add four bananas which have been mashed with a silver
fork. Boil for two minutes. Put through a sieve, and add the wine or
maraschino.

Chocolate Sauce

¹⁄₂ cup water

¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
3 ozs. chocolate
Vanilla
¹⁄₂ cup scalded cream
Boil the water and sugar together for five minutes. Stir in the
melted chocolate. Add a little vanilla. Stir in the cream immediately
before serving. If the chocolate mixture cannot be served at once,
stand it in a pan of hot water until it is needed.
 Custard Sauce

¹⁄₂ pint milk (or cream)

2 table-spoons powdered sugar
Yolks of 2 eggs
Vanilla
Boil the milk and sugar together. Beat the yolks thoroughly, and
pour the milk over them. Strain and return to the saucepan, stirring
until it thickens. Do not let it boil. Add a little vanilla.

Foam Sauce

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

1 cup castor sugar
¹⁄₄ cup boiling water
White of 1 egg
1 tea-spoon vanilla
2 table-spoons wine, fruit juice or syrup
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar, vanilla and wine. Just
before it is served stir in the boiling water. Then add the well-beaten
white of an egg, and beat until the sauce is foamy.

Fruit Sauce
1 cup juice of fresh or stewed fruit
1 tea-spoon arrowroot
¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
Let the juice boil, add gradually the arrowroot (which must be
smoothly mixed with a very little water), and boil for five minutes.
Strain.
If jam is used, half a cup will be sufficient. It should first be well
beaten and then passed through a sieve. Half a cup of water should
be added to it, and less sugar will be required.

Golden Sauce
4 ozs. butter
¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
Yolks of 2 eggs
1 table-spoon boiling water
Juice of ¹⁄₂ a lemon
Wine-glass of wine or brandy
Beat sugar and butter together until creamy. Put the bowl in hot
water and stir until liquid. Add the well-beaten yolks and hot water,
and stir until the mixture thickens. Add lemon juice and wine. Beat
well together.

Golden Syrup or Molasses Sauce

1 cup syrup or molasses
Juice of a lemon
1 table-spoon vinegar
1 table-spoon salt butter
Boil altogether for ten minutes. This is a good sauce to serve with
plain boiled rice or batter pudding.

Hard Sauce
2 ozs. butter
2 ozs. castor sugar
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla
1 table-spoon brandy
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar gradually. Beat well.
Then add the brandy, a very little at a time. Pile the sauce lightly on a
dish and keep it on ice until required. This sauce is excellent with
plum puddings.

Hard Sauce with Fruit

2 ozs. butter
2 ozs. powdered sugar
¹⁄₂ lb. crushed strawberries
Whites of 2 eggs
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar gradually, beating hard
all the time. Add the strawberries, which have first been crushed.
Beat again thoroughly. Add one unbeaten white of egg. Beat well
and then add the other white. Beat again thoroughly and stand on
ice.

Jelly Sauce

¹⁄₂ cup of red currant or blackberry jelly

The juice of 1 lemon
Grated rind of ¹⁄₂ a lemon
1 heaping table-spoon powdered sugar
2 glasses white wine
Beat the jelly till it is quite a light colour. Add the lemon juice and
rind to the jelly. Bring almost to the boil. Stir continually. Take off the
fire and add the sugar and wine, beating hard. The dish containing
this sauce should be covered and must be kept in a basin full of very
hot water until served. Give it a good whisk before serving.

Lemon Sauce
Grated rind and juice of a lemon
1 cup powdered sugar
 3 tea-spoons cornflour
1 pint hot water
Boil the water and sugar together for five minutes. Mix the
cornflour in a cup with a little water until it is perfectly smooth, and
then add it gradually to the syrup, stirring quickly all the time. Let it all
boil again for ten minutes. Add the grated rind and juice of the
lemon. Strain.

Melted Butter
2 table-spoons butter
2 tea-spoons flour
1¹⁄₂ cups of hot water (or water and milk)
1 cup brown or powdered sugar
Flavouring
Melt the butter in a saucepan, being careful not to brown it. Add
the flour and mix until quite smooth. Then add the hot water (or milk
and water) gradually, stirring well all the time, and when it boils add
the sugar. Stir continually for five minutes. Remove from the fire and
add a small half tea-spoonful of vanilla or a little nutmeg if milk has
been used, but two tea-spoonfuls of fresh lemon juice, if it has been
made with water.

Sabaillon
The yolks of 4 eggs
1¹⁄₂ wine-glasses madeira or sherry
4 table-spoons castor sugar
A little cinnamon
This can be made in two ways.
I. Put eggs, wine and sugar into a saucepan on a good fire. Beat
continually until the mixture thickens. It must not boil.
OR,
 II. Beat eggs and sugar very thoroughly together for five minutes.
Then add the wine. Put into an earthenware pot and stand this in a
large saucepan of very hot water. Beat over the fire until the mixture
thickens.

Whipped Cream Sauce

¹⁄₂ pint of cream

¹⁄₂ cup of castor sugar
White of 1 egg
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla, or a little brandy
Beat the cream until stiff. Add the sugar and vanilla. Beat the white
of egg until frothy. Add to the cream and beat all together.

Wine Sauce—I

¹⁄₂ pint melted butter

1 tea-spoon lemon juice
1 wine-glass sherry or madeira
Make the melted butter (see p. 85) with water. Sweeten it with
brown sugar and flavour it with lemon juice and a very little grated
peel. Add the wine at the last and do not let it boil again.

Wine Sauce—II
1 cup white wine
Yolks of 4 eggs
1 tea-spoon lemon juice
The rind of ¹⁄₄ of a lemon
Heat the wine, sugar, lemon juice and peel. Beat the yolks
thoroughly in a large basin. Directly the wine comes to the boil, pour
it over the yolks. Beat with an egg-whisk until very frothy.
 Jellies
PAGE
Calf’s Foot Jelly 91
Gelatine Jelly 91
Claret Jelly 92
Cranberry Jelly 92
Gelée Fouettée 93
Lemon Froth 93
Maraschino Jelly 94
Orange Baskets 94
Orange Jelly 94
Prune Jelly 95
Rhubarb Jelly 95

General Instructions
It has been found difficult in the receipts which follow, owing to the
variation of the quantity of juice in lemons, etc., to give the exact
quantity of gelatine required. A safe rule in making jellies is to use 2
ozs. of gelatine to every one and three-quarter quarts of liquid. In
summer 2 ozs. of gelatine will be needed to each quart and a half.
(This must include all liquid flavourings and be very carefully
measured.)
The best gelatine is now so pure, that it is practically unnecessary
to go to the trouble of making jelly from calf’s feet, a receipt for which
has, however, been given.
 More elaborate jellies are made by the addition of fruit. To do this,
pour jelly into a mould to the depth of half an inch. When set,
arrange on it a layer of perfectly fresh ripe fruit—strawberries,
cherries, grapes, pine-apple, peaches, oranges, etc.—adding
another layer of jelly, and when that is set, more fruit, and so on, until
the mould is full. During the process the mould should be kept on
ice, so that the jelly will set quickly.
Before putting jelly into a mould, dip it in very cold water, and
invert for a moment. Pour in the jelly while still wet.
Use a silver or wooden spoon for stirring, and do not stir jelly while
it is cooling.
To colour jelly pink, add a few drops of cochineal.
To loosen the jelly when ready to serve, dip the mould quickly into
hot water. Dry the mould before turning out.

Calf’s Foot Jelly

4 calf’s feet
4 quarts water
1 pint wine or water
1 lb. crushed lump sugar
4 whites of eggs
2 lemons
¹⁄₂ stick cinnamon
1 tea-spoon grated nutmeg
Clean the calf’s feet thoroughly. Boil them in the water until it is
reduced to half the original quantity. This will take about eight hours.
Skim occasionally. Pour into a large basin. Set aside for twelve
hours. Remove the fat very carefully. Put back into a large pan,
being careful to keep back the dregs. Add the sugar whisked up with
the whites, the juice of the lemons, the grated rind of one, and the
spice. Let it boil for ten minutes. Skim. Add the wine and boil up
again for two minutes. Strain through a jelly bag two or three times,
and keep in a cold place.
 Gelatine Jelly

A little over ¹⁄₂ oz. isinglass

1 gill cold water
¹⁄₂ pint boiling water
3 ozs. sugar
1 lemon
1 white and the shell of 1 egg
1 gill brandy
Soak the isinglass in the cold water for an hour. Put it into the
boiling water. Add the sugar, the finely-pared rind of the lemon, the
white and crushed shell of an egg. Boil one minute. Pour in a table-
spoon cold water. Set aside ten minutes. Strain through a jelly bag.
Add one gill brandy or sherry when cool. Pour into a wetted mould.

Cranberry Jelly
Stew some cranberries in plenty of water until they are soft. Rub
them through a sieve. Put the pulp into an enamelled saucepan.
When it boils add sugar in the proportion of one pound to every pint
of pulp. Stir continually for a few minutes and pour into a mould.

*Claret Jelly
1 bottle claret
1 lemon
1 gill red currant jelly
¹⁄₂ lb. loaf sugar
A little over 1 oz. isinglass
1 gill brandy
Soak the gelatine in a very little water. Add it to the claret with the
juice and rind of the lemon, jelly, the crushed loaf sugar and brandy.
Boil altogether for five minutes. Put once through a jelly bag. Dip a
mould with a hollow centre into cold water. Pour in the jelly. Serve
with whipped cream in the centre of the mould. Instead of claret and
red currant jelly, a white wine and quince jelly can be used.

*Gelée Fouettée

¹⁄₂ pint champagne

¹⁄₂ pint water
2 lemons
6 ozs. lump sugar
A little over 1 oz. gelatine
Make a syrup of the water and sugar. Add the soaked gelatine,
juice of two lemons and the finely-pared peel of one lemon. Boil
three minutes. Strain through a jelly bag. When cold, but still liquid,
add the champagne and beat on ice until very frothy. Put into a
mould or serve in glasses.

*Lemon Froth
1 oz. gelatine
¹⁄₂ pint boiling water
¹⁄₂ pint cold water
3 lemons
6 ozs. lump sugar
Whites of 6 eggs
Dissolve the gelatine and sugar in the boiling water with the finely-
pared lemon peel. Add the cold water and the juice of the lemons.
Skim with a silver spoon. Strain into a large basin. When beginning
to set, add the whites beaten to a stiff froth. Beat well together and
pile up in a glass dish. Serve with sweetened whipped cream.

Maraschino Jelly