Laws of Motion i) Contact and non-contact forces: CGS. and S.l. units, Scope - Examples of contat forces (fictional force, normal reaction fore, tension fore as applied though stings and force exerted during collision) and non-contact forces (gravitational, electric and magnetic). General propeniee of non-contact forves. C.GS. and S.1. units of force and their relation with gravitational units, (ii) Newton's first law of motion (qualitative discussion), introduction of the idea of inertia, mass and force. Scope - Newton's first law; statement and qualitative discussion; definitions of inertia and force from first law: examples of inertia as illustration of first law (Inertial mass not included). (ii) Newton's second law of motion (including F = ma); weight and mass. Scope - Detailed study of the second law. Linear momentum, p = my; change in momentum Ap = A(mv) = may for mass remaining constant rat of change of momentum; Apldy=mavlAr= ma or { 22 Far Simple numerical problems combining F = Ap/Ai = ma and equations of motion. Units of force-only C.GS, and S.1. (iv) Newton's third law of motion (qualitative discussion only); simple examples. Scope - Statement with qualitative discussion, examples of action-reaction pairs (F,, and F,,); action and reaction always act on different bodies. (vy) Gravitation Scope - Universal law of gravitation (statement and equation) and its importance. Gravity, acceleration due to gravity, free fall, weight and mass, weight as force of gravity, comparison of mass and weight; gravitational units of force, simple numerical problems (problems on variation of gravity excluded). (A) CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT FORCES j 3.1 EFFECT OF FORCE the brakes. A stone tied to one end of a string, oe . whirling at a constant s in a horizontal circle, We are familiar that a force when applied on @ changes its direction of Ba continuously due to ody can produce the following two main effects: the force of tension in the string (which acts (1) It can change the state of rest or of motion normal to the direction of motion of stone). In of the body i.e., it can produce and alter motion in cricket, tennis and badminton, the direction of he body. motion and the speed of the ball (or cock) is Examples : The push exerted by a broom moves changed by hitting it in a direction other than its he trash. A ball lying on the ground moves when it direction of motion. A player applies force with a s kicked. The pull exerted by a horse moves a cart. hockey stick to change the speed and direction of The pull exerted by a railway engine moves a train, ™otion of the ball. ‘ The force due to gravity (or the earth’s pull) makes (2) It can change the size or shape of the body an apple fall. A Tielder on the ground stops a moving i.e., it can change the dimensions of the body. ball by applying force with his hands. Examples : On loading a spring hanging from When force is applied on the pedal by a cyclist, a rigid support, the length of the spring increases. the speed of the cycle increases. A freely falling By hammering a small piece of silver sheet, a big object continuously gains speed due to the earth’s thin foil is made (here the force increases the Pull acting along its direction of motion. The speed surface area). The steam pushing ton a of a moving vehicle is slowed down by applying pressure cooker occupies a Iarge volume in the : pr cp ed 61 ———e ———————atmosphere. On pressing a pice of rubber shape changes. In a cycle pump, when the pi is lowered, the air in the barrel is compres occupy a smaller volume. Note : A fre when applied on a free rigid object does not change the inter-spacing between its constituent partic nd therefore it does ” change the dimensions of the object, but causes ‘tion in it, On the other hand, a force gid object, changes the constituent particles and dimensions and d to only m when applied on a non- inter-spacing between i therefore causes a change in its can also produce motion in it. Thus ‘A force is that physical cause which changes (or tends to change) either the size or the shape or the state of rest or of motion of a body. Kinds of forces : From the point of view of application, forces are classified in two categories, namely, (i) the contact forces and (ii) the non- contact forces. 3.2 CONTACT FORCES The forces which are applied on bodies by making a physical contact with them, are called contact forces. These forces are produced and experienced when a body comes in contact with another body. Examples : (1) The force of friction (frictional force), (2) normal reaction force, (3) Force of tension exerted by a string, (4) Force exerted by a spring, (5) Force exerted on two bodies during collision, etc. (1) Frictional force : When a body slides (or rolls) over a rough surface, a force starts acting on the body in a direction opposite to the motion of the body, along the surface in contact. This is called frictional force or the force of friction. In Fig. 3.1, when a book placed on the table PUSH FORCE OF FRICTION TABLE Fig. 3.1 Force of friction 62 (Q @) top is pushed to the right, the force of friction acts on the book towards the left. This fore, comes into play as soon as the book tends move and resists the motion of the book oq the table top. Normal reaction force + When a body i placed on a surface, the body exerts a force downwards, equal to its weight, on the surface but the body does not move (or fall) because the surface exerts an equal and opposite force ‘on the body normal to the surface which is called normal reaction force. For example, in Fig. 3.2, when you hold a block on your Palm, the block exerts a force due to its Weight downwards on your palm and you have to exe, a reaction force upwards on the block norma, to the palm to keep the block in position, Similarly in Fig. 3.1, the book exerts a force (= weight) on the table top downwards ang the table top exerts an equal reaction force upwards normal to the top of the table. REACTION FORCE ON BLOCK DUE TO PALM ¥ FORCE DUE TO WEIGHT OF BLOCK ON PALM Fig. 3.2. Force of reaction Tension force as applied through strings: When a body is suspended by a string attached to arigid support, the body, due to its weight W, pulls the string vertically downwards and the string in its stretched condition pulls the body upwards by aforce which balances the weight of the body. Sueront This force developed in the string is called 7 pavers 4 tension (or the force of IN THE STRING tension) T, Fig, 3.3 shows the two forces which are equal and oppaties in PULING eee equilibrium position. v Fig. 3.3 Force of sit osIf we cut the string slightly above the body, we see that the string moves slightly upwards with jerk due to tension in the string acting upwards and then falls downwards due to its own weight, (4) Force exerted by a spring : Consider a spring with its one end kept fixed (Fig, 3.4(a)}. If its other end is cither stretched [Fig, 3.4(b)] or compressed [Fig. 3.4(c)], the spring exerts a force F opposite to the direction of displacement of its free end, the magnitude of this force is directly proportional to the magnitude of displacement i.e., its elongation or compression, This force is called restoring force. A spring- balance works on this principle, Fixed (@) Spring in normal position ——+ F Restoring force (b) Restoring force on a stretched spring F<+— Restoring force (c) Restoring force on a compressed spring Fig. 3.4 Restoring force exerted by a spring Similarly a horizontal spring with two objects A and B attached at its two ends in its normal form (a) Normal form of spring when it exerts no force on any object Restoring force F<«<—_ K\00000000K2N (0) Compressed spring pushes away the objects Restoring force —F Restoring force EV 00000 00K (c) Stretched spring pulls in the objects Fig. 3.5. Restoring force exerted by a spring 3.3 NON-CONTACT FOR Restoring force forces or forces at a distance. F 63 or shape, does not exert ai attached at its ends (Fig. iny force on the object a i (a)]. But if the spring is compressed, it pushes away each object with a restoring force F at its ends (Fig. 3.5(b)}, while if the spring is stretched, it pulls in each object with 4 restoring force F at its ends (Fig. 3.5(c)]. In each case, the spring has a tendency to come back to its original form or shape. (5) Force exerted during collision : When two bodies collide, they push each other. As a result, equal and opposite forces act on each body. These forces are the force of action and force of reaction. In Fig. 3.6, a body B while in motion, collides with a moving body A and exerts a force Fy, on the body A which is called the force of action. At the same instant, the body A also exerts an equal and opposite force of reaction Fy, on the body B. As a result of these forces, the two bodies move apart after the collision. MOTION OF A MOTION OF B (Pf A (a) Two bodies moving towards each other. 8 B a 3 (©) Force exerted during collision. MOTION OF A Fg = FORCE ON A Fay = FORCE ON B DUE TO B DUE TO A. A (c) Bodies moving away from Fig. 3.6 Collision The forces experienced by Examples : (1) Gra’ tational force, (2) Electrostatic force and (3) Magnetic force. force : In the universe, each (1) Gravitational ee Se particle attracts the othermass, This force of attraction between them is called gravitational force. because of its mass, attracts around it. The force on a body due to earth's attraction is called the force of gravity or the weight of the body. It ‘causes motion in the body towards the earth (ie., downwards) if the body is free to move. Thus, it is the force due to gravity that makes a body fall, when released from a height. The body also attracts the earth by an equal force, but no motion is caused in the earth because of its huge mass. Examples : (i) A ball placed on a table starts rolling down when the table is tilted. (ii) If a body is thrown up in air, it goes up, reaches to a height and then returns to the ground. (ii)_A coin falls down when it is released at a height. b) Electrostatic force : Two like charges repel, while two unlike charges attract each other. The force between the charges is called electrostatic force. This force acts between the charged objects even when they are separated, Example ; When a comb is rubbed on dry hairs, it gets charged. If this comb is brought near the small bits of paper, opposite charges are induced on the bits of Paper and they (A) MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE : (Choose the correct answer fro below). 1. A force can change ; (a) the size or shape of a body (©) the state of rest or of motion ofa body (C) the dimensions of a body (d) All of the above 1m the options given Ans. (a) All of the above 8 a contact force ? (b) gravitational force (@ magnetic force, Ans. (c) frictional force 2.Which of the following is (a) electrostatic force (©) frictional force begin to move towards the comb. The ting of paper bits is due to the electrostatic fos of attraction exerted between the Unig charges on the comb and the paper bits, * (3) Magnetic force : Two like magnetic poles pe while two unlike magnetic poles attract each other. The force between the magnetic Poles called the magnetic force. This force acts when the magnetic poles are at a separation, Example : When a pole of a magne ql brought near a small iron n; (Withou touching it), an opposite polarity is induceg on the nail and it moves towards the Magnes, The motion of nail is due to the magneri, force of attraction exerted between the unlike poles on the magnet and the nail. General character of non-contact forces (i) The gravitational force is always of attractive nature, while the electrostatic force and the magnetic force can be either attractive o; repulsive. (ii) The magnitude of non-contact forces between two bodies depends on the distance of separation between them. It decreases with the increase in separation and increases as the separation decreases, Its magnitude varies inversely as the square of distance of separation i.e., on doubling the separation, the force becomes one-fourth. Ld 3. The non-contact force is : (@) force of reaction. (b)- force due to gravity (©) tension in string (d) force of friction Ans. (6) force due to gravity A ball placed on a table starts rolling down whet the table is tilted. This is an example of : (@) contact force (b) non-contact force (©) both (a) and (b) (4) none of these Ans. (b) non-contact fort 5. When a comb is rubbed on dry hai, it gets This is an of: (a) Gravitational force (b) normal reaction force >(c) magnetic force ig) electrostatic force ‘ Ans. (d) electrostatic fore © of gravitational force is always o, The nat (a) repulsive A000 00000084 (a) pushes, pulls (C) pushes, pushes (b) pulls, pushes (@ pulls, pulls ‘Ans. (a) pushes, pulls VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE : 1. Define a contact force. (B) 2. Define a non-contact force, 3 Classify the followi contact forces ; (a) frictional force, Ing amongst contact and non- (b) normal reaction force, (6) force of tension in w string, (A) gravitational force, (e) electrostatic force, (1) magnetic force. Ans. Contact force : (a), (by and (e), Non-contact force : (d), (e) and (f) 4. Give one example in each case where (by attractive ‘ (a) the force is of contact, and {o) depenats on the bodies involved (b) force is at a distance, (a) None of the above S. State one factor on which the magnitude of a Ans. (b) attractive Ron-contact force depends, How does it depend on P the factor stated by you ? 4. wagnitude of a non-contact force between two \ ; ; Loti with an increase in their separation ‘Ans. Distance; Magnitude of force decreases as and .... With a decrease in their separation. the ene increases ) increases, decreases (b) decreases, increases | ® The separation between two masses is reduced to Me eects (i) eae een half. How is the magnitude of gravitational force ) increases, inerea ' 7 a ‘Ans, (b) decreases, increases between them ier ae ail ey 8. On Se ee Hat came ao ease, 7. Give one example in each of the following cases the — where a force : them becomes : ‘ (a) stops a moving body. (@) one-eighth poachenstanie S aoe eae body. (©) one-fourth (d) remains the same (©) changes the size of a body. Ans. (c) one-fourth (d) changes the shape of a body. 9. A spring balance works on the principle of : (Gutsomn cancer: (a) gravitational force (b)_ magnetic force | Ped ty giv leo enone eae (c) restoring force (@) frictional force : epee es a e : am (0) memertig tints (b) Non-contact forces. 10. A horizontal spring with two object A and B| >. state the effects of a force applied on (I) a non- attached to its two ends are shown in the figure rigid, and (i) a rigid body. How does the effect of below. If the spring is compressed, it..... each object the force differ in the two cases 2 see tet le Mechel, cr. each obleo 3. What is a frictional force ? Draw a neat labelled No0000008S diagram showing a frictional force acting on a body. 4. What is a normal reaction force ? Draw a neat labelled diagram showing a normal reaction force acting on a body. (D) LONG ANSWER TYPE : 1. @ A ball is hanging by a string from the ceiling of the roof. Draw a neat labelled diagram showing the forces acting on the ball and the string. (6) A spring is compressed against a rigid wall. Draw a neat and labelled diagram showing the forces acting on the spring. (©) A wooden block is placed on a table top. Name the forces acting on the lock and draw neat and labelled diagram to show the point o! application and direction of these forces. petals ty ena 65(B) NEWTO N'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION AND INERTIA j 3.4 NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION In chapter 2, we have ad about linear Dea Now the question arises < what is the cause Ui motion (ie., what produces motion in an object) Iris our common experience that a force is 10 be appliod on an object to proxtuce motion in Examples : To move a cycle, the cyclist has to apply force on its pedal. In a car, the petrol engine provides the force needed to move the car. To move a horse-cart, the horse applies force by stretching its muscles. To move a boat ahead, a force is applied by the oar on the water to push it backward and the force of reaction exerted by water moves the boat ahead. Before Galileo, scientists were of the view that a force is needed not only to start a motion but also to keep an object moving even with uniform velocity. In other words, an object remains in motion so long as the external force applied to produce motion remains present (i.¢., a force must act continuously to keep the body in motion). This view was based on the observation that the motion of a body ceases when force is withdrawn from it. Examples : A cycle remains moving so long the. force is applied on its pedal. If we stop pushing the pedal, the cycle stops. Similarly, if we turn off the engine of a car, the car stops. The horse-cart stops after the horse stops moving and the boat stops after we stop pushing the oar. Galileo did not approve the above view. From his experiments, he found that no force is needed satin tt of mig a eaten et it will remain in motion Ree ae applied to set the body in is withdrawn, provided th is other force such as fre that there is no Tyday life experience, we , it moves a fo rest. In fact it between the ball longer distance before coming to rest. If someh it would have been possible t0 reduce the for, of friction completely, the ball would have remained in motion forever after kicking it once ‘Thus, it is concluded that in the absence of ih, force of friction, no force is required to keep a object moving after bringing it in motion. In Other words, an object, if once set in motion, move, with uniform velocity if no force acts on it. Thy, a body continues to be in the state of rest or in the state of uniform motion unless an externa force is applied on it. This is called Galileo's lay of inertia. From the above discussion, we conclude that (i) Ifa body is at rest, it remains at rest unless a force is applied on it. (ii) If a body is moving, it will continue to move | with the same speed in the same direction unless a force is applied on it. Newton put the above observations in the form of a law which is called Newton’s first law of motion. Statement : According to Newton’s first law of motion, if a body is in a state of rest, it will remain in the state of rest and if it is in the state of motion, it will remain moving in the same direction with the same speed unless an external force is applied on it. Qualitative discussion Newton’s first law can be understood in the following two parts : (i) definition of inertia, and (ii) definition of force. (i) Definition of inertia : in the first part, New?’ first law gives the definition of inertia, to which an object cannot change its etd itself Ifthe object is in the state of resh iW remain in the state of rest and if it is movi"8 i" some direction, it will continue to move the same speed in the same direction umles external force is applied on it. oeexamples : A book lying on a table top will main placed at its place unless it is displaced, fem rly, a ball rolling on a horizontal plane keeps “ rolling unless the foree of friction between the pall and the plane stops it. The property of an object by virtue of which it tends to retain its state of rest or of motion, is called inertia. It is the inherent property of each object. (ii) Definition of force : The second part of Newton's first law defines force, according to which force is that external cause which can move a stationary object or which can change the state of motion of a moving object. Examples : A book lying on a table gets displaced from its place when it is pushed. A moving bicycle stops when a retarding force is applied by the brakes on its wheels. Thus force is qualitatively defined as follows : Force is that external cause which tends to change the state of rest or the state of motion of an object. Note : (i) Force is a vector quantity. (ii) The sum of two equal and opposite forces is zero. (iii) A body acted upon by several forces can also have the resultant net force on it equal to zero. 3.5 MASS AND INERTIA Inertia is an inherent property of each body by virtue of which it has a tendency to resist the change in its state of rest or state of motion. The property of inertia is because of the mass of the body. The greater the mass, the greater is the inertia of body. Thus, a lighter body has less inertia than a heavier body. In other words, more the mass of a body, more difficult it is to move the body from rest (or to stop the body ifitis initially in motion). Thus mass is a measure of inertia, Examples : (1) A cricket ball is more massive than a tennis ball. The cricket ball acquires much smaller velocity than a tennis ball when the two balls are pushed with equal force for the same duration, In case when they are moving with the Same velocity, it is more difficult to stop the cricket ball (which has more m; : Yass) in compari tennis ball (which has less mass). nn “Me (2) It is difficult (i.e Le, a larger force {0 set a loaded trolley (which has more nee motion than an unloaded mass) in tion than ; trolley (which has | mass). Similarly, it is difficult to stop a eel trolley than an unloaded one, ne if both i initially with the same velocity. neareea® 3.6 KINDS OF INERTIA AND ITS EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATION OF FIRST LAW oy Inertia is of the following two kinds : (1) Inertia of rest, and (2) Inertia of motion. (1) Inertia of rest If a body is at rest, it will remain at rest unless an external force is applied to change its state of rest. This property of body is called the inertia of rest. Examples : (1) When a train suddenly starts moving forward, the passenger standing in the compartment tends to fall backwards : The reason is that the lower part of the passenger’s body is in close contact with the train. As the train starts moving, his lower part shares the motion at once, but the upper part due to inertia of rest cannot share the motion simultaneously and so it tends to remain at the same place. Consequently, the lower part of the body moves ahead and the upper part is left behind, so the passenger tends to fall backwards. (2) When a hanging carpet is beaten with a stick, the dust particles start falling out of it : The reason is that the part of the carpet where the stick strikes, comes in motion at once, while the dust particles settled on ifs fur, remain in position due the part of the carpet moves |, leaving behind the dust ywn due to the earth’s pull. or giving jerks to) the ine frais "ai down : The stem (or branches) of the come in motion, while the reason is that when tree are shaken, th i in i of rest. fruits due to inertia, remain In the a a Thus, the massive d weakly attaches erentdetached from the branches and fall down due to the pull of gravity. (4) On striking the coin at the bottom of a pile of carrom coins with a striker, lowest coin only moves away, while the rest of the pile remains intact hit The reason is that as the striker the lowest coin, it moves (i.¢., changes its of rest), while the remaining pile due to inertia of rest remains where it is and ultimately takes the place of the original pile due to the force of gravity. (5) When a smooth card placed over the mouth of a tumbler is flicked sharply in the horizontal direction, the card flies away, but the coin kept over the card falls into the tumbler : The reason is that when the card is flicked (Fig. 3.7(a)], a momentary force acts on the card, so it moves away (Fig. 3.7(b)]. But the coin kept on it does not share the motion at once and it remains at its place due to inertia of rest. The coin then falls down into the tumbler due to the pull of gravity. Moved away =“ Fig. 3.7 Falling of coin kept on card (6) When a corridor train suddenly starts, the sliding doors of some compartments may open : The reason is that the frame of sliding door being fixed on the floor of the train also comes in motion on start of the train, but the sliding door remains in its position due to inertia. Thus the frame moves ahead with the train while door slides opposite to the direction of motion of the train. Thus the door may open. (2) Inertia of motion : A body in a state of motion, continues to be in the state of motion with the same speed in the Same direction in a Straight line unless an external force is applied on it to change its state, This property of s body is called the inertia of motion. Examples : (1) A cyclist riding along a level road does not come to rest immediately after he stop, pedalling : The reason is that the bicycle continues to move due to inertia of motion even after the cyclist stops applying the force on the pedal. The bicycle comes to rest after some time as a result of the retarding force of friction between the tyres of bicycle and the ground. 2) When a passenger jumps out of a moving train, he falls down : This is so because inside the train, his whole body was in a state of motion with the train. On jumping out of the moving train, as soon as his feet touch the ground, the lower part of his body comes to rest, while the | upper part still remains in motion due to inertia of motion. As a result, he falls in the direction of motion of the train and gets hurt. To avoid falling, as the passenger’s feet touch the ground, he should start running on the ground in the direction of motion of the train for some distance. (3) When a running car stops suddenly, the Passenger tends to lean forward : The reason is that in a running car, the whole body of the passenger is in the state of motion. When the car stops suddenly, the lower part of his body, being in contact with the car, comes to rest immediately but his upper part remains in the state of motion, due to inertia. Thus his body leans forward. (4) An athlete often runs before taking a long jump : The reason is that by running he brings his entire body in the state of motion. When the body is in motion, it becomes easier to take a long jump. (5) A ball thrown vertically upwards by a person in a moving train, comes back to his hand: The reason is that at the moment when ball was thrown, it was in motion along with the Person and the train. It remains in the same state of forward motion even during the time the ball remains in air. The person, the inside air and the ball, all move ahead by the same distance due to inertia and so the ball falls back into his palm on its return. -SS MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE : (Choose the correct answer from the options given below). 1, Newton's first law in ad (a) the definition of inert (b) the definition of force (c) both (a) and (b) (a) none of the above Ans, (c) both (a) and (by Pa isa quantity. Lar (b) vector (a) 8 (c) directionless (4) none of these Ans, (b) vector 43. The property of an object by virtue of which it tends to retain its state of rest or of motion is called : (b) inertia (@)_ mass (a) friction (6) force Ans, (b) inertia 4. The property of inertia is more in : (a) a car (b) a truck (©) a horse cart (b) a toy car, Ans. (b) a truck 5.A force is needed to : (a) change the state of motion or state of rest of the body (b) keep the body in motion (c) keep the body stationary (d) keep the velocity of body constant. ‘Ans. (a) change the state of motion or state of rest of the body 6. A tennis ball and a cricket ball, both are stationary. To start motion in them : (a) a less force is required for the cricket ball than for the tennis ball (b) a less force is required for the tennis ball than for the cricket ball (c) same force is required for both the balls (4) nothing can be said. 3 Ans. (b) a less force is required for the tennis ball than for the cricket ball 7.A student has four balls — table tennis ball, tennis ball, cricket ball and a football. The correct ascending order of inertia (a) table tennis ball, tennis ball, football, cricket . 69 > 5. ball (b) cricket ball, footh; ball (c) table tennis ball, football, all all, tennis ball, table tennis cricket ball, tennis (4) football, cricket bal, table tennis ball, tennis all : Ans. (a) table tennis ball, tennis ball, football, cricket ball Which one of the following is not an example of inertia of rest ? (a) When a train suddenly starts moving forward, the passenger standing in the compartment tends to fall backwards. (b) When a hanging carpet is beaten with a stick, dust particles start falling out of it. (c) On shaking the branches of a tree, the fruits fall down. (d) When a passenger jumps out of a moving train, he falls down, Ans. (4) When a passenger jumps out of a moving train, he falls down. ‘An athlete often runs before taking a long jump. This is an example of : (a) Newtons’ first law (b) inertia of rest (©) inertia of motion (4) both (a) and (c) Ans, (4) both (a) and (c) |. In inertia of motion, the body continues to be in a state of motion with . speed in direction unless an external force is applied. (a) variable, zigzag _(b) same, same (©) same, variable (4)_variable, same Ans, (b) same, same VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE : Name the physical quantity which causes motion in a body. ‘Ans. Force Is force needed to keep a moving body in motion ? ‘Ans, No A ball is moving on a perfectly smooth horizontal surface. If no force is applied on it, will its speed decrease, increase or remain unchanged ? ‘Ans. will remain unchanged ‘What is Galileo's law of inertia ? State Newton's first law of motion. 2ition of force on the basis of 6. Give qualitative defi Newton's first law of motion. 7. Name the factor on which ine and state how it depends on the f you. ia of a body depends factor stated by ‘Ans. Mass; more the mass, more is the inertia 8, Name the nwo kinds of inertia. Ie of each of the following : 9. Give one exampl tia of motion. (a) inertia of rest, and (b) inet moving uniformly at a constant tion of nwo forces (i) upward ight). What ‘Ans. Zero 10, An aeroplane is height under the ac force (lift) and (ii) downward force (wei is the net force on the aeroplane. (C) SHORT ANSWER TYPE = 1. A ball moving on a table top eventually stops. Explain the reason. ‘Ans, Force of friction between the ball and table top opposes the motion 2. What is meant by the term inertia ? 3. Give nwo examples to show that greater the mass, greater is the inertia of the body. "More the mass, more difficult it is to move the body from rest’, Explain this statement by giving an example. 5. Two equal and opposite forces act on a stationary body. Will the body move ? Give reason to your answer. ‘Ans. No. Net force on the body is zero, so the body will remain stationary due to inertia of rest 6. Two equal and opposite forces act on a moving object. How is its motion affected ? Give reason, ‘Ans. Motion remains unaffected, Reason : Net force on the object is zero, 7. Why does a person fall when he jumps out from ? | | | moving trai 8. Why does a coin placed on a card, drop into the tumbler when the card is rapidly flicked with the finger ? ] 9. Why does a ball thrown vertically upwards in a moving train, come back to the thrower’s hand ? People often shake branches of a tree for getting down its fruits. Why ? (D) LONG ANSWER TYPE : 1. State and explain the law of inertia (or Newton's first law of motion). 2. Explain the following : (a) When a train suddenly moves forward, the passenger standing in the compartment tends to fall backwards. (6) When a corridor train suddenly starts, the sliding doors of some compartments may open. (o) After alighting from a moving bus, one has to run for some distance in the direction of bus in order to avoid falling. (@) Dust particles are removed from a carpet by beating it. (©) It is advantageous to run before taking a long jump. 10. (C) LINEAR MOMENTUM AND NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION 3.7 LINEAR MOMENTUM (p = mv) It is our common experience that if two bodies of different masses are moving with the same velocity and they are brought to rest in same time, the force needed to stop the heavier body is more than that for the lighter body. Similarly, if two bodies of the same mass are moving with different fee then to stop them in the same time, the ‘orce needed for the faster moving body is more ea for the slower moving body. Thus, the force see led 10 stop a moving body in a definite time lepends both on the mass of the bi i velocity. Act pels Mee ctually the force needed to stop a ing body in a given time depends on the 70 product of both the mass and velocity, which is called the linear momentum of the moving body. Thus Linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity. The linear momentum of a body is denoted by the letter p. The word momentum is generally used for linear momentum. __ For a body of mass m moving with velocity » linear momentum p is expressed as Gl)iris. vector quantity having the direction of pption of the body (Ge. along the velocity of body). unit = From relation p = mv, Unit of momentum = unit of mass x unit of velocity ‘Thus, the S.L unit of momentum is kg m sand the CGS. unit is gem s', 38 CHANGE IN MOMENTUM (Ap = mAv) From eqn. (3.1), change in momentum Ap = A(nv) wone(3.2) Here the symbol A (called del or delta) before a quantity denotes a small change in that quantity. The change in product my can be either due to change in mass m or due to change in velocity v or due to change in both the mass m and velocity y. If mass remains constant, then change in momentum can only be due to a change in velocity y. Then from eqn. (3.2), for constant mass, change in momentum Ap = A(my) = mAv 3.3)" In case of atomic particles moving with velocity comparable to the velocity of light (=3 x 108 m s“!)**, it was observed that the mass of the particle does not remain constant, but it increases with increase in velocity, according to the relation m = my/fi- (o/c) where my is the mass of the particle when it is at rest (i.e, v = 0). In such a case where an object or a particle is moving at extremely high speed, we cannot write A(mv) = mAv. The relation Ap = mAv is true only if the velocity v of the moving particle is much smaller than the velocity of light c (or v << ¢). It happens when the velocity of particle is of the order of 10° m s* or less than this, then the variation in mass with velocity is small enough and mass can be considered to be constant. However the relation ‘denotes a small change in the does not change, the and 50m * The symbol A before mv product of m and v. If mass m product my will change only due to change in ¥, can be written before the symbol A. The represents a small change in v only. + c, the speed of light, is the ultimate speed. No material particle can ever acquire a speed equal to or greater than ¢. ll ate 1 Ap = A(mv) is always true, whi a . whether ies or it remains constant. pee ee 3.9 RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM When a force is applied on a moving body, its velocity changes. Due to change in velocity of the body, its momentum also changes. __Let a force F be applied on a body of mass m for time t due to which its velocity changes from uto v. Then Initial momentum of the body Final momentum of the body Change in momentum of the body in 1 second = mv —mu = m(v—u) Rate of change of momentum = Change in momentum _ m(v-u) Time 1 Change in velocity Time Mu v But acceleration a = Rate of change of momentum mass x acceleration -- GA) This relation holds true when mass of the body remains constant. ‘Thus when a force acts on a body, the rate of change in momentum of body is equal to the product of mass of the body and acceleration produced in it due to that force, provided that the mass of the body remains constant. Alternative method For a body of mass m moving with velocity v, its linear momentum is p = mv. In time Ay, if its linear momentum changes by Ap on applying a force on it, then the rate of change of linear momentum is dp ee) = m % (Gf mass m remains at constant) Av y But 77 =@ (acceleration), ‘the mass of rocket * For example in rocket motion, the ms ecish decreases as the burnt gases expel out mass does not remain constant. ——————— —————so rate of change of momentum P= ma = mass x acceleration. The nee eqn. is same as eqn. (3.4). 3.10 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION (DERIVATION OF F= ma) Newton's first law of motion defines force only qualitatively. A force is that physical cause which changes the state of motion of a body when it is applied on it. It means that the force produces acceleration in the body ie., the force is the cause of acceleration. Now we shall see that Newton’s second law of motion gives the quantitative value of force, ie., it relates force to the measurable quantities like acceleration and mass. It is our common experience that if we push a tennis ball gently, a small acceleration is produced and it acquires a small velocity in a certain time, but if the same tennis ball is pushed hard, a larger acceleration is produced in it and it acquires a large velocity in the same time interval. Thus the magnitude of two forces can be compared by measuring the accelerations produced by them when they are applied one by one on the same body. If a force F, produces an acceleration of 5 m s? and a force F, produces an acceleration of 10 m son the same body, then the magnitude of force F, is two times the magnitude of force F,. Experimentally Newton found that the acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to the force applied on it, Similarly if we try to produce same change in velocity in the same time (i.e., to produce same acceleration) in a football and a tennis ball, initially both at rest, we need to apply a large force on the football than on the tennis ball. Thus the force needed to produce same acceleration in two bodies of different masses is not same. Itis more for the bod ce ve mass and less for the body of smal ler ca 3 FE snd a - recs to produce an acceleration of ody of mass 2 kg, then to Produce same acceleration (= 5 m s?)ina bod: 5m: ly of mass 4 force needed is of double the magnitude es on Perimentally Newton found thatthe force needa 2 to produce same acceleration in different bodies , proportional to their masses. On the basis of his experiments, Newton concluded that (i) The acceleration produced in a body of give, mass is directly proportional to the force applied on it. ie., a F (if mass remains constant) 35) A graph plotted for acceleration a againg force F is a straight line as shown in Fig. 3.3 y < Mass 3 constant § «Force F—~ ** Fig. 3.8 Graph showing the variation of acceleration with force (ii) The force needed to produce a given acceleration in a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body. i.e., Fx m (if acceleration remains the same) 6) A graph plotted for force F against mass m is a straight line as shown in Fig. 3.9. Y; Acceleration constant Force F—> Mass m—= > * Fig. 3.9 Graph showing the variation of force with mass Combining eqns. (3.5) and (3.6), «[Fekma] 09 Here K is a constant. The unit of force is 5° chosen that K becomes 1, when m = 1 and a= I. Thus, that amount of force is taken as one unit of force which when applied on a body of unit mass: Produces a unit acceleration in the body. With the unit of fore 3.7) take the following form Shoes” oo | enero —or '8) This is the mathematical expression of xewion's second law of motion, Note : If a given force is applied on bodies of different masses, the acceleration Produced in them is inversely proportional to theit masses ie ax & (fora given force F). A graph plotted for acceleration @ against mass m is a curve (hyperbola) as shown in Fig. 3.10, F = constant Acceleration a, Mass m— Fig. 3.10 Graph showing the variation of acceleration with mass 3.11 C.G.S. AND S.I. UNITS OF FORCE The force is related to mass and acceleration as: Force = mass x acceleration or F=ma On this basis, the S.J. unit of force is newton. One newton is the force which when acts on a body of mass 1 kg, produces an acceleration of | ms. ie, 1 newton = 1 kg x 1 ms? The standard symbol of newton is N. In CGS. system, the unit of force is dyne. One dyne is the force which when acts on a body of mass 1 g, produces an acceleration of lem s* ie, 1 dyne = 1g x 1 cms? Relationship between newton and dyne I newton = 1 kg x 1 ms? 1000 g x 100 cm s~ 10° dyne. 1 newton = 105 dyne 3.9) 3.12 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION IN TERMS OF RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM When force is applied on a body, it produces " 10° g x cm s* Thus acceleration in the body due to which the velocity and hence the momentum of body changes. From eqn. (3.4 Momentum is e acceleration i.e., ), the rate of change of qual to the product of mass and am From eqn. (3.8), by Newton's second law of motion, force F = ma. ma (if mass remains constant). *. Force = Rate of change of momentum A(my) _ mAv pei; At = ma (if mass remains constant)...(3.10) Thus Newton’s second law of motion can be stated in terms of change in momentum as follows. or Statement : According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum of @ body is directly proportional to the force applied on it and the change in momentum takes Place in the direction in which the force is applied. Explanation According to Newton’s second law of motion, _ dp _ Atm) 7. ar i - This is the general form of Newton’s second law of motion when the momentum changes either due to change in mass or due to change in velocity or due to change in both the mass and velocity. Ttis observed that the mass of a Particle increases with increase in velocity but it becomes perceptible only when the velocity v of the particle is comparable with the speed of light ¢ (3 x 108 ms"). At velocities v << c (ie. when v << 106m s7), the change in mass is not perceptible*. At such velocities (v << ¢), mass m can be considered to be constant. Then Newton's second law takes the form F=m42 = ma, Thus, for the relation F = m4% = ma to hold, two conditions are needed : (i) when velocitieslocity of light, and are much smaller than the velocity of tg (ii) when mass remains ¢ vonstant. th Newton's second law is the fundamental [3 motion. The first law of motion is also included in the second law. This we can see as follows. ton's first law of motion from To obtain Newton second law of motion From Newton's second law, F =a If F=0, thena =0 This means that if no force is applied on the body, its acceleration will be zero. If the body is at rest, it will remain at rest and if it is moving, it will remain moving in the same direction with the same speed. Thus @ body not acted upon by any external force, does not change its state of rest or of motion. This is the statement of Newton’s first law of motion. Examples of second law of motion in daily life The mathematical expression of the second law of motion is F = Ap/At. It gives Ap = FAt, so a given change in momentum of a body can be brought about either by applying a large force for a small duration or by applying a small force for a long duration. For example, in hitting a cricket ball by a bat, hammering a nail, hitting the ping-pong ball by a racket, etc. a required momentum is imparted to the body by applying a force of large magnitude for a short duration. On the other hand in the following examples the momentum of a moving body is brought to zero in a large duration So as to reduce the impact of force exerted by the moving body or on the moving body. Examples : (1) While catching a ball, the cricketer withdraws his hands along with the ball ___Letu be the velocity of the ball of mass m when it reaches the hands of the player catching it. The initial momentum of the ball = mu When the cricketer Stops the ball (y = 0), its x0=0, final momentum = m Change in momentum = fing ee inal momentum — initial momentum =0- mu =~ mu = mu (oumerically) Here ~ momentum direction of If the cricketer does not pull back his hands stops the ball as soon it touches his hands, he yea very little time f, to stop the ball. Then the for exerted by the ball on the hands of the cricketer rs Change in momentum _ mu H ; F\ = Time interval 1, ° Butif the cricket, pulls back his hands along with the ball, he takes much longer time f, to stop the ball. The force ny i ; mu exerted by the ball on his hands is F,= “gin, fa ty > ty, therefore F, < F, or the force exerted on the hands of cricketer by the fast moving ball is less whe, he withdraws his hands. Thus cricketer avoig, the chances of injury to his palms by withdrawing his hands alongwith the moving ball while Catching it. (2) Athletes often lands on sand (or foam) after taking a high jump When an athlete lands from a height on a hard floor, he may hurt his feet because his feet come to rest almost instantaneously (i.e., in a very shor interval of time), so a very large force is exerted by the floor on his feet. On the other hand, when he lands on sand (or foam), his feet push the sand (or foam) for some distance, therefore the time duration in which his feet come to rest, increase: As a result, the force exerted on his feet decreases and he is saved from getting hurt. (3) When glass vessels fall on a hard floor, they break, but they do not break when they fall on a carpet (or sand) When a glass vessel falls from a height on # hard floor, it comes to rest almost instantaneous!) (ie., in a very short time) so the floor exerts # large force on the vessel and it breaks. But ifit fb On a carpet (or sand), the time duration in which tf vessel comes to rest, increases and so the carpet (0 Sand) exerts a less force on the vessel and it 4% not break, | 74 eech force is required to produce an mn of 2 ms? in a body of mass O8 kg ? O8kg.a=2ms1 ma 08 kg x 2m 5? = 16 newton (or 16 N), A force acts for 0-1 s on a body of mass 1-2 kg initially at rest. The force then ceases to act and the body moves through 2m in the next 1-0 s, Find the magnitude of force, 1, How mu Given ™ = Foree F y ‘When force ceases to act, the body will move with a constant velocity. Since it moves a distance 2 m in 105, therefore its uniform velocity is 2 m s!. Thus under the influence of force, the body acquires a velocity 2m s“ in 0-1 s, ie,u=0,v=2mst, -1 s and m = 1-2 kg Changein velocity Time (2-0)ms* Ols Now acceleration a= or a= t =20ms? From the relation F = ma, Force F = 1.2kgx20ms?=24N 3. A ball of mass 10 g is moving with a velocity of 50 ms“, On applying a constant force on ball for 205, it acquires a velocity of 70 m s“, Calculate : (i) the initial momentum of ball, (i) the final momentum of ball, (ii) the rate of change of momentum, (iv) the acceleration of ball, and (¥) the magnitude of force applied. Given, m= 10 g = 4 kg = 0-01 kg, w= 50 ms", 1220s, v=70msl, (Initial momentum of ball = mass initial velocity = mu = 001 kg x 50 ms“! =05kgmst Ec (Ay MULTIPLE, CHOICE TYPE : (Choose the cor rect answer from the options given below), 1. The force needed to stop a moving body ina definite time depends on ; 75 (iii) (iv) Given, m Gi) Final momentum of the ball = mass x final velocity = O01 kg x 70 ms"! =07kgmst Rate of change of momentum = Final momentum — Initial momentum Time interval zi = 07-03 MS” = 0.1 kg ms? (or 0-4 N) if Acodention a= 7H = (0-5 ms— =10ms? t s wv) Force = mass x acceleration 1a 01 kg x 10m s?= 01 N 4 . A cricket ball of mass 100 g moving with a speed of 30 ms“ is brought to rest by a player in 0-03 s. Find (® the change in momentum of ball, (ii) the average force applied by the player. = 100 pe kg = 0-1 kg, w=30ms", 1003s. Initial momentum = mu Gi) 0-1 x 30=3.0 kg mst my 01x0=0 Final momentum momentum 0-30=-30kgms! Final momentum, Change in momentum = Initial (ii) Average force Change in momentum 0 kgms~! = ime 003s =-100N. (Negative sign here shows that the force is applied in a direction opposite to the direction of motion of ball), (a) mass of the body (b)_ velocity of the body (©) both (a) and (b) —(d) none of these Ans. (c) both (a) and (b)2, The linear momentum of a body of mass m moving. with velocity v is : (a) vim (b) mlv (©) mv (@) Vimy Ans, (c) mv 3. The unit of linear momentum is @ Ns (b) kg ms? Ns? (@) kg?mst Ans. (a) N's 4. Linear momentum is a: (a) scalar quantity (©) vector quantity (©) directionless quantity (d) none of these Ans. (b) vector quantity 5. Newton's first law of motion defines force : (a) quantitatively (c) both (a) and (b) (b) qualitatively (@ none of these Ans. (b) qualitatively 6. According to Newton’s second law, the acceleration Produced in a body is : (@) inversely proportional to the force applied on it (©) directly proportional to the force applied on it (©) not dependent on force (@) none of these Ans. (b) directly proportional to the force applied on it 7. The correct form of Newton’s second law is: P Ay (a) F= at (b) Fema, A (©) Fav" (d) F=my Ans. (a) F = 42 at 8. The mathematical expression of Newton's second law of motion is : (a) Famxy (bt) F=mxa (©) F=py @ Fema aes Ans. (b) F=m x a poe eet force F the’ graph plorn d seceleration against mass ig; Pitted for @ 6) tT a Acceleration Acceleration ges (mi) =e mass (m—> |. The acceleration produced in a bod: . The S.I. unit of force is : . According to Newton’s second (c) ‘ net HeSeres mass (m) —> NS mass (m)—> veh (a a given magnitude depends on: > * a, (a) sizeof the body (b) shape ofthe body (©) mass of the body (4) none of these Ans. (c) mass of the body (a) dyne (b) gems? (©) Newton @) Joule Ans. (c) Newton 1 Newton is equal to : (a) 103 dyne (b) 108 dyne (c) 10! dyne (d)_ 10° dyne Ans. (4). 105 dyne . The force required to produce an acceleration of 5 ms” in a body of mass 2 kg is : (a) 2.5N (b) 20N (©) 10N (@) 25N Ans. (c) 10N law of motion, the change in momentum takes place in a direction : () opposite to the direction of force applied (b) perpendicular to the directi (©) similar to the direction of (4) none of these Ans. (c) similar to the direction of force applied MAV/At to hold true, the sary is/are : equal to the velocity of light much smaller than the velocity ion of force applied force applied (@) velocities are (b) velocities are of light (©) mass constant (4) both (6) Ans. (d) both (b) and () Two balls of 4m and 8m are in motion wit Velocities 2v and v respectively. The ratio of tht! Momentum be: me (@) 2:1 © 1:2 dst @) 1:4 ‘Ans. (¢) 1:12 in a body of ion of 10m 87 in jon will be caused by the Ske? Ans Ems wing at a speed of {A forve causes an acceler ‘mass 500 g. What acoclera same force in a body of miss Jcket ball of mass 150 g M0 ‘ 7 Arce bal of ao rest by a player it 0.03 s. Find the average force applied by ‘Ans. 125 N voce F sc BULLET oun Fig 3.14 Action and reaction on firing a bullet from a gun (6) Rocket motion : In a rocket, fuel is burnt inside the rocket and the burnt gases at high pressure and high temperature are expelled out of the rocket through a nozzle, Thus, rocket exerts a force F (action) on gases to expel them through a nozzle backwards. ‘The outgoing gases exert an equal and opposite force R (reaction) on the rocket due to which it moves in the forward direction (Fig. 3.15).. R FORCE ON ROCKET ROCKET (reaction) FORCE ON GASES GASES Fig, 3.15 Action and reaction in rocket motion ¥, (action) (1) Motion of man on ground : When a mat applies a force F (action) backward by his foot on the ground against the force of friction, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force R (reaction) forward on his foot. The+ ” VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE ; Define linear momentum and state its $1 unit a body of mass m moving with a velocity ¥ is acted upon by a force, Write expression for change in momentum in each of the following cases : (i) when << 6 (i) When ¥ > ¢, and (ii) When v Fig. 3.11 (Hint : Acceleration = slope of x graph) Ans. 0-4 N “ oT ——— eeehorizontal component of the force of reaction R enables the man to move forward (Fig. 3.16). Obviously it will be difficult for a man to move on a slippery road where friction is less. ‘on foot (reaction) ‘on ground (Action) Fig. 3.16 Action and reaction while a ‘man moves on ground EXERCISE-3(D) MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE : (Choose the correct answer from the options given below). 1. Newton's third law : (a) defines the force qualitatively (b) defines the force quantitatively (©) explains the way a force acts on a body (d) gives the direction of force. ‘Ans. (c) explains the way a force acts on a body 2. Which law of motion explains how a force acts on a body or an object ? (a) Newton’s third law (b) Newton’s second law (©) Newton's first law (A) All of the above ‘Ans. (a) Newton's third law 3. To every action there is always : (4) an equal reaction (b) an equal and opposite reaction (©) an equal reaction in the same direction (A) none of these Meee Ee & equal and opposite reaction on act on the : ‘@) same body in opposite directions i pis een in opposite directions lies, but in same direction ay 80 (8) (9) Motion of boat away from the shore While stepping down from it : In order to get out g¢ the boat man exerts a force (action) on tp board of the boat. This creates a force ¢ reaction which enables him to step out of boat. At the same instant, the boat tends leave the shore due to the force exerted by man (i.¢., action). For the safety of passen, the boat-man ties the boat to a pole on the shor so that it does not move away. Catching a ball : While catching a bal, yy ball exerts a force (action) on the Palm of cricketer and the cricketer exerts an force (reaction) on the ball to stop it, —J (d) same body in same direction. Ans. (b) different bodies in Opposite directions 5. The motion of a boat moving away from the shore is an example of : (a) Newton's first law (b) Newton’s second law (c) Newton’s third law (d) not related with Newton’s law Ans. (c) Newton's third law 6. In an interaction of two bodies A and B, which of the following statements is correct ? © fa-Fa © RAPE, © Rg=-Fa @ Be > hy Ans. (c) fy, =-Fu 7. A footballer hits a football with a force of 10 What force does the footballer experience ? 2 5 (b) 10N sae (@ 15N :: Ans. (b) 108 8. Out of the following statements, which on¢ correct (a) the f action and reaction on a body is7*® (©) actian and reaction act on different bosis® Ppa diet ion.(c) action and reaction are always in it direction on the same body. opposite | 2. State and explain the law of action and reaction, by : : giving two examp! te (@) action and reaction act on different bodies i od eta ies in| 3. Explais ; i the same direction, Haplaln the motion of: ryche, ith hehe of |. When a shot is fired from a gun, et . the recoiled. Explain. Saco When You step ashore from a siaonary boat, it tends : : (0 leave the shore. Explain. @ bres ee a poy see withdraws | 6. When two is wes joined at their free ends, is han 1g wit L ends, are pulled apart, both show the same reading. action and reaction act on different , opposite direction. bodies in| 4. 49. Which of the following are examples of " third law of motion ? emis | oes Ans.(b) (iy Athletes often land on sand after taking ahigh | _ Explain. jum oer - 7. To move a boat ahead in water, the boatman has to (iii) Motion of a man on ground push the water backwards by his oar. Explain. (a) Gii) &) Gi) 8. A person pushing a wall hard is able to fall back. ow (d) all of the above Give reason. hme (ay (iy | 2 Hight ball fang on ground, aftr striking the ‘ground rises upwards. Explain the reason. (By VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE : 1, State Newton's third law of motion. ), NUMERICALS 5 2, Name and state the action and reaction in the 1. A boy pushes a wall with afore of 10 N oveuds following cases = ‘cast. What force is exerted by the wall on the boy ? ‘Ans. 10 N towards west (a) firing a bullet from a gun, (b) hammering a nail, 2. In Fig. 3.17, a block of weight 15 N is hanging (©) a book lying on a table, from a rigid support by a string. What force is (d) a moving rocket, exerted by (¢) a person walking on the floor, (®) a moving train colliding with a stationary train. 3. “The action and reaction both act simultaneously” Is f this statement true ? ‘Ans. Yes wets 4. “The action and reaction are equal in magnitude’. 1s this statement true ? ‘Ans. Yes Fie 17 5. Comment on the statement ‘the sum of action and (@ block on the string, reaction on a body is zero. (b) string on the block. {Hint : The statement is wrong] Name them and show them in the diagram. ‘Ans. (a) 15 N downwards (weight), (C) SHORT ANSWER TYPE : State the usefulness of Newton’s third law of moti » 15 .N upwards (tension) (E) GRAVITATION 3.14 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION of this force, Sir Isaac Newton gave a law, known Each mass particle of the universe attracts other Newton's law of gravitation. / mass particles. The force of attraction between two ‘According to Newton, the force of attraction ‘odies is (i) directly Particles because of their masses, is called the acting between two R a travtationel force of attraction, For the magnitude proportional 10 the product of their masses ¥ enemies — — 8wo the square of the ii) inversely proportional t ‘ . force acts along the distance between them. Thi line joining the two particles. mF im Fig. 318 Gravitational force between two bodies In Fig, 3.18, let there be two bodies of masses mm, and m, ata separation r. The magnitude of force of attraction F acting between them is Fe mm, (directly to the product of masses) and F« I/r (inversely to the square of distance) Combining the two relations, 7m Fe a2 (3.12) or where G is a constant of proportionality which is known as gravitational constant. The value of G remains same at all places and it is independent of the nature of particles, temperature, medium, etc. Therefore, it is a universal constant and is known as universal gravitational constant. It may be mentioned here that force is a vector quantity, hence it is necessary to indicate its = direction also. The direction of force F,, on mass ‘m, is towards m, along the line joining the masses Zs ‘m, and m,, whereas the force F,, on mass m, is towards mass m, along the same line. Both these forces are equal in magnitude, but opposite in ss Fa direction (i.¢., F, = — Fy). Thus it is an action- reaction force i.e., a particle exerts a force on other particle, equal and opposite to the force that the second particle exerts on the first particle. Unit and value of universal gravitational constant FxP m, xm; From eqn. (3.12), G= newton x metre* kilogram x kilogram =Nm’kg? The value of G is 6.67 x 10"! N m? kg, “ S.L unit of G = 82 attraction between two bodies of masses m, = | and m, = 1 kg kept at a separation of r= 1 mis the moon (mass = 7-36 x 10” kg) and the eanh (mass = 5-96 x 10% kg), taking the distance of moo, from the earth to be 3-80 x 108 m, is the gravitational force of attraction is highly significant between heavenly bodies, but it is insignificant between ordinary bodies. important to note that the gravitational force between two masses : used this law the sun, the the earth and In eqn. (3.12), if m, = 1 kgs my = 1 kg and, Im, then G = F, Thus s Gravitational constant G is numerically equat yy the magnitude of force of attraction betwee, two masses each of | kg placed at a separation of Im. Examples : (1) The gravitational force g Aly ery = GTA © 6.67 x OM N, oy (2) The gravitational force of attraction between (667x107) x(5-96%10™)x (736x107) i (380x10°)? =2x 10°N. From the above two examples, it is clear that In fact, regarding the gravitational force, it is (i) is always attractive. (ii) is directly proportional to: the’ product of the masses. is inversely proportional to the square of ii) separation between them, i.e. it obeys the inverse isquare law. Thus, on doubling the separation between the two masses, the force of attraction between them is reduced to one- fourth. (iv) is significant between heavenly bodies, but is insignifi¢ant between ordinary bodies becaus* of si itude of G. Impor of the law of gravitation : Newto” xplain the motion of planets aro!eS. ee according to the law of gravitation, the earth axtracts every object around it, towards its Centre, Th force With which the earth attracts ee ¢ a body is cy tne force due to gravity on the body, hice re taken to act vertically downwards at the centre of gravily of the body. In vertical Motion near: the earth’, surface for height much smaller than : earth, the force of gravity on the 'Y is assumed be same throughout. 0 The force due to gravity on a body of mkept on the surface of earth of Mass Mi ea R, is equal to the force of attract earth and that body. It is given a es GMm Rrroy (3.13) Taking the mass of earth M = 5:96 x 1024 kg and the radius of earth R = 6.37 x 195 m, the force of gravity on a body of mass m = | kg on the surface of earth will be (6-67107")x(5-96x10"*) x1 a (637x108)? cc Thus earth attracts a body of mass 1 kg by a force of 9-8 N towards its centre. Note : As earth attracts an object towards it, the object also attracts the earth towards it by an equal force. Since the object is free to move, it starts moving towards the earth, but the earth because of its large inertia, does not move towards the object. 3.16 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY Galileo was the first scientist to study the motion of different bodies under the force of attraction of earth (i.e., gravity), From his experiments, Galileo found that if bodies of different masses and sizes (or shapes) are simultaneously made to fall in vacuum. (ce., in absence of air)* from the same height, they all reach the earth surface simultaneously and with Same velocity. Thus, all bodies travel the same distance in the same interval of time. Moreover, he found that the velocity of a freely falling body does * In presence of air, viscous force and force due to buoyancy Si on the body upwards. These forces depend on size, shape and velocity of the body, so they are — a magnitude for different bodies. Therefore downwai il feceleration will not remain same (equal 10 g) for a ies, so they will not reach the ground si zu t LY — oe cians, ate the radius of Th SS Not remai rate, ie ihe but it increases at a constant — lotion i, Uniformly ace Of a freely falling body is a Sed elerated motion. This acceleration is bodies. In other words, the acceleration i ; ua rely falling body does not depend on the man ee body, its size and its shape, etc. This eration 'Scalled the acceleration due to gravity The rate at which the velocity of a freely falling dy increases, is called the acceleration due to 8ravity. In other words, it is the acceleration Produced in a freely falling body due to the Sravitational force of attraction of the earth. The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by the letter g. Its SL. unit is m s?. It is a vector quantity directed vertically downwards towards the centre of earth. Experimentally, it is found that the value of acceleration due to gravity g does not remain Constant. On the earth’s surface, the value of. ‘Varies from place to place. On equator, it is slightly less as Compared to that at poles. The mean value of gon the earth surface is 9-8 m s. At altitudes above the earth’s surface or at depth below the earth surface, the value of g decreases. The value of g is zero at the centre of earth. Note : The value of g is different on different Planets and satellites. The value of g on moon’s surface is nearly one-sixth the value of g on earth’s surface. ; Rel ip between g and G : Let g be the acceleration due to gravity at a planet (or satellite) of mass M and radius R. By Newton's law of motion, the force due fo gravity on a body of mass m on its surface is given by F = mass x acceleration due to gravity or F=mg w(3.14) By Newton’s gravitational law, this attractive force is given by = a (3.15) From eqns. (3.14) and (3.15),he acceleration due 1G. Obviously yends on ates The above eqn. (3.16) rel it vitational constani to gravity g with the gravitational consta the volke cf -g ona planet (or satellite) depe the mass and radius of that planet (or satellite). (1) Taking the mass of earth kg and the radius of earth R = 637 x 10° m, the acceleration due to gravity at a place on the surface of earth comes out to be (667x107!) x(5-96x10"4) (6:37%10°)? (2) On the surface of moon (mass M = 7:36 x 10” kg and radius R = 1-75 x 106 m), the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of moon is (6:67 x107!")x (736x107 % (175x108)? 1 6 Searh: 2 =98ms?, Searth 98m 1-6 ms? 8 moon = Obviously, $8 moon = 3.17 FREE FALL In chapter 2, we have studied one dimensional motion. The motion of a freely falling body from a height or the motion of a body thrown vertically » upwards from the surface of earth, is one dimensional motion under gravity. The acceleration of a vertically falling body is a = + g and that of a body going vertically upwards is a =~ g*, If a body falls from rest freely from a height h, under gravity then u= 0 and acceleration ais replaced by g (acceleration due to gravity), then equations of motion ar @) v = ¢ s 1 Gi) h = he ~-G.17) iii) P= 2h But if the initial velocity of fall of the body is 4, then equations of motion are : @ v = utgr (i) A = pb x ul+ 2 ge (iii) = 2+ 2h If a body is thrown vertically up ial velocity u to a height h, there wilt — g), then equations of motion a retardation (a = (i) v = 4-8 | oe = ut- 58h ut 58! (ii) A = Gi) v= we -2gh At the highest point of reach, final velog;, “Gilg, v =0, thus maximum height reached hf, =“ ; z (from equation v? = «? — 2gh) and the time taken, by ¥ 4 the body to rise to the highest point t= — (from equation v = u ~ gf). The same will be the time takes to come back to the initial point afte, reaching the highest point. So the total time of = and the total distance travelleg 2 journey t= u by the body A’ = 2a, = i 3.18 MASS AND WEIGHT (a) Mass The mass of a body contain. Mass is a scalar quantity. Its $I. unit is kilogram (symbol kg). It is constant for a given body at rest and does not change by changing the place of the body. It is an intrinsic property of the body. Its measured by a physical balance (or beam balance) because the value of g (acceleration due to gravity) | mass of a body S velocity*, but this change is hen the velocity of the body ¥ ¢ 10° m s* ie., reaches close to the speed of ligl c(=3x 108 ms-, 80 for a body Moving with vel ity less than 106 m piste ties taken to be cons} the quantity of matter iis a vector quantity. Its direction ; tant Sean © 2 caro of one : The S.L. uni ight is |, NS. system, the gravitational unit o} eae cas unit is amen 'Snewton force is kilogram force (kg) S N = 10° dyne. Relationship between weight and mass : The eight of a body is related to its mass as follows: &e., kgf = force due to gravity on a mass of I kg Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity mass | kg x acceleration duc to gravity gms? g newton Since average value of g is 9-8 ms, 1 kgf = 9-8 newton (or 9-8 N) In C.GS. system, the gravitational unit of force is gram force (gf). Since the value of g varies from place to place, [One gram force is the force due to gravity on the weight of a given body also varies from Place | a mass of 1 g. to place. The gravitational unit of weight in M.K.S, “+ 1 ef = force due to gravity on a mass of | g One kilogram force is the force due to gravity on a mass of | kg. " oe Wemxg ie, «= 3.20) Note : From eqn. (3.20), the S.I. unit of acceleration due to gravity g can also be written as newton per kilogram (or N kg”) in place of metre/second? (or m s~), system is kilogram force (kgf) and in C.G.S. system = mass Ig x acceleration due to gravity is gram force (gf), where 8 a s I kgf = 9-8N cia Since average value of g is 980 cm s~, and 1 gf = 980 dyne Obviously a body of mass m kg will weigh m kgf. “° LL 8f= 980 dyne The weight of a body can be measured by a Further, | kgf = 1000 gf spring balance directly in newton and also by a To an approximation 1 kgf is assumed to be physical balance in kgf. nearly equal to 10 N. Then 1 N = 0-1 kgf or Comparison of mass and weight 100 gf. Thus one can feel a force of 1 N by holding a mass of 100 g on his palm as shown in Fig. 3.19. " Obviously, if we say that 1 kgf = 9-8 N, we mean that we have to exert a force of 9-8 N to hold amass of 1 kg on our palm. 2 1N * 1. It is the force with which the earth attracts a body. 1. Itis a measure of the quantity of matter contained in the body, at rest. . It is a vector quantity 3. Its S.1 unit is newton (N). 4, Itis measured by a spring) balance which is calibrated to read in newton, . It is not constant for a body, but varies from place to place due to change in the value of g. 4-Itis measured by a Physical (or beam) balance. w Fig, 3.19 Force of 1 N exerted by palm on amass of 100 grams to hold it