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，昏，．

John L. Worrall
 Contents vii

Chapter 4 PROACTIVE P。LICING, DIRECTED PATROL,

AND RECENT ADVANCEMENTS 73
Proacti ve Arrests 74
Proactive Arrests for High-Risk Repeat Offenders 74
Proactive Arrests for Specific Offenses 75
TARGETING D RUG OFFENDERS 75
TARGETING D RUNK D RIVERS 76
TARGETING IMMIGRANTS 76
Does It Work? 77
Directed Patrol 77
Classic Studies 78
Lawrence Sherman and the Hot Spots 79
DIRECTED PATROL OF D RUG HOT SPOTS 79
DIRECTED PATROL OF G UN VIOLENCE H OT SPOTS 80
Stop, Question, and Frisk 81
STOP, Q UESTION, AND FRISK: EFFECTS ON ( RIME 81
Does It Work? 82
Broken Windows and Disorder Reduction 82
Fear, Disorder, and Crime 83
Quality-of-Life Policing 84
M ICRO- LEVEL RESEARCH 84
M ACRO- LEVEL RESEARCH 85
Disorder Reduction 85
Missing the Boat on Broken Windows 85
Does It Work? 85
Focused Deterrence 86
Group Violence Reduction 86
Does It Work? 86
Partnering 87
Police-Corrections Partnerships 87
W HAT DOES THE RESEARCH SHOW? 88
Multijurisdictional Drug Task Forces 88
Milita 叩 Partnerships and Militarization 89
THE POLICE- M ILITARY CONNECTION 90
POLICE PARAMILITARY UNITS 90
Does It Work? 91
Technology and Less-Lethal Weapons 92
Safely Ending Pursuits 92
Crime Detection Devices 92
Less-Lethal Weapons 92
CONDUCTED ENERGY D EVICES 93
Does It Work? 93
Using Data to Inform Decisions 94
viii Contents

COMPSTAT 94
Fusion Centers and Intelligence-Led Policing 95
Predictive Policing 96
Does ltWo『k? 97
Summary 97 • Notes 97
Chapter 5 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN POLICING 102
Fixing Strained Police-Community Relations 103
Procedural Justice 103
The President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing 104
Community Justice 104
Problem-Oriented Policing 105
Community Policing: Some History 106
Reasons for Community Policing 107
Community Policing: What is it? 109
The Definition Problem Rears Its Head 110
Community Policing: Is it Really Happening? 111
Structura l Change 111
Attitudinal Change 111
Research on Community Policing Effectiveness 112
Moving the Police into the Community 113
C『TIZEN CONTACT PATROL 113
IMPROVING THE POLICE IMAGE 114
ORGANIZING NEIGHBORHOOD WATCH PROGRAMS 114
H OSTING COMMUNITY M EETINGS 115
DISSEMINATING CRIME CONTROL NEWSLETIERS 115
STOREFRONTS AND SUBSTATIONS 116
SPECIALIZED PATROLS 116
OPERATION IDENTIFICATION 117
POLICE- SPONSORED TELEVISION AND W EBSITES 117
POLICE IN SCHOOLS 118
Does ltWo『k? 119
Integrated Community Policing 119
T HE SEATILE A PPROACH 119
T HE HARTFORD APPROACH 120
Does ltWo『k? 120
Bringing the Community to the Police 121
C『TIZEN PATROL 121
C ITIZEN POLICE ACADEM IES 121
Does ltWo『k? 122
Third-Party Policing 122
Beyond the Criminal Law 123
Some Examples of Third-Party Policing 124
Does ltWo『k? 125
Summary 125 • Notes 126
 Contents ix

Chapter 6 PROSECUT。RS AND CRIME CONTROL 30 ’

Prosecutors 131
The Shift Toward Strategic Prosecution 131
The Harder Side of Prosecution 132
No-Drop Prosecution Policies 133
Juveni le Waiver 134
RAISING THE A GE OF M AJORITY: A RETREAT FROM W AIVER? 134
Police-Prosecution Partnerships 135
PARTNERING TO REDUCE G UN VI OLENCE 135
Federal-State Partnerships 136
RICHMOND’ S, VI RGINIA, PROJECT EXILE 136
TEXAS EXILE 137
Pr叫 ect Safe Neighborhoods 137
( ROSS-DESIGNATION 138
Does It Work? 140
The Softer Side of Prosecution 140
Victim Assistance 140
Community Prosecution 142
THE STRUCTURE OF COMMUNITY PROSECUTION 143
N ONTRADITIONAL RESTRAINING O RDERS 143
( ODE ENFORCEMENT 144
N UISANCE A BATEMENT 144
FORFE『TURE 144
COMMUNITY PROSECUTION RESEARCH 144
Deferred Prosecution 144
Deferred Sentencing 145
Does It Work? 147
A Plea Bargaining Pandemic? 147
Arguments for and against Plea Bargaining 147
Attempts to Limit Plea Bargaining 149
Ad Hoc Plea Bargaining 151
Does It Work? 151
Summary 152 • Notes 153

PART THREE LEGISLATION, COURTS, AND CORRECTIONS

Chapter 7 CRIME C。NTROL THROUGH LEGISLATION 56 ’
Legislative Bans 157
Where There’s a Demand, There’s a Supply 157
Historica l Lessons 158
GAMBLING A ND PROSTlTUTION 158
PROHIBITION 158
Bans and Their Enforcement 159
x Contents

Gun Bans 159

BAN SPECIFIC G UNS AND G UN POSSESSION 160
Drug Bans 160
T HE SCOPE OF A MERICA’ s DRUG PROBLEM 160
D RUG B AN PROBLEMS 162
Does ltWo『k? 165
Legislative Gun Controls 165
Altering Gun Designs 165
Regulating Gun Transactions 165
Denying Gun Ownership to Dangerous Persons 166
Buybacks 168
The R i ght-to-Car叩 Controversy 168
Concealed Car叩 Laws 169
Does ltWo『k? 169
Public Noti行cation and Related Laws 169
Megan ’s Law 170
LEGAL ISSUES 170
EFFECTS ON ( RIM E 171
Punitive Sanctions for Sex Offenders 172
Sex Offender Residency Restrictions 172
Does ltWo『k? 173
Other Legislative Approaches 173
Wh ite-Collar Crime Laws 173
Does ltWo『k? 175
Antiterrorism Laws 175
T HE USA PATRIOT A CT 175
T HE USA FREEDOM A CT 177
Does ltWo『k? 179
Summary 179 • Notes 179

Chapter 8 CRIME CONTROL IN THE COURTS

AND BEYOND 83 ’
Courts and Incapacitation 184
Pretrial Incapacitation 184
PREVENTIVE D ETENTION 185
SETIING B AIL AT A HIGH LEVEL 185
Does ltWo『k? 186
Diversion 186
Examples of Programmatic Diversion 187
Diversion Evaluations 188
Does ltWo『k? 189
Shaming 189
A Brief History of Shaming 190
 Contents xi

Examples of Shaming Penalties 190

P UBLIC EXPOSURE P ENALTIES 191
D EBASEMENT P ENALTIES 191
A POLOGY P ENALTIES 191
R EVERSE B URGLARY? 191
Criticisms of Shaming 192
Braithwaite’S Reintegrative Shaming 192
Shaming and Recidivism 193
Does It Work? 193
Restorative Justice 194
Examples of Restorative Justice 196
What the Research Shows 197
Does It Work? 198
Antigang Injunctions 198
Does It Work? 198
Problem-Solving Courts 199
Drug Courts 200
P OSSIBLE LIMITATIONS OF D RUG COURTS 200
THE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE 200
Domestic Violence Courts 202
THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE 202
A D OMESTIC VIOLENCE COURT IN O PERATION 203
THE EVIDENCE 203
Community Courts 204
THE MIDTOWN COMMUNITY C OURT 204
THE RESEARCH 204
Teen Courts 205
Other Specialized Courts 206
HOMELESS C OURTS 206
M ENTAL HEALTH COURTS 207
R EENTRY COURTS 208
Does It Work? 208
Summary 208 • Notes 209

Chapter 9 SENTENCING 2 4 ’
Nonprison Sentences 215
Traditiona l Fines 215
Day Fines 216
Fees 216
Forfeiture 217
Restitution 218
Does It Work? 219
Types of Prison Sentences 219
xii Contents

Prison Strategies Without Regard to Sentence Length 220

Selective Incapacitation 220
Civil Commitment 221
More Prisoners, Less Crime? 222
Less Prisoners, More Crime? 224
Supermax Prisons 225
Does ltWo『k? 226
Does Sentence Length Matter? 226
Thinking about Various Types of Offenders 226
ζan Incarceration Cause Crime? 227
Sentence Length and Crime 227
Does ltWo『k? 228
Determinate Sentencing 228
The Hydraulic Displacement of Discretion 228
Impact on Prison Populations 228
Impact on Crime 229
Does ltWo『k? 229
Sentence Enhancements 229
Sentence Enhancements for Guns 229
M ORE ON DETERRENCE 229
M ORE ON INCAPACITATION 230
STATE-SPECIFIC RESEARCH 230
M ums『TE RESEARCH 230
Sentence Enhancements for Hate-Motivated
Offenses 231
Does ltWo『k? 231
Mandatory Sentencing 231
A Life of Their Own? 232
Mandato叩 Sentences for Drug Offenders 232
Mandatory Sentences for Drunk D『iving 233
Mandato叩 Sentences for Persistent Offenders 233
Three-Strikes Legislation 234
T HE SUPPORTERS 234
T HE C RITICS 234
SOME LEGISLATIVE DETAILS 234
T o D ETER OR NOT T o D ETER 236
DETERRENCE AND INCAPACITATION 236
V ARIATIONS IN ENFORCEMENT 236
T HE R ESEARCH 237
Mandato叩 Death Sentences? 238
Does ltWo『k? 238
 Contents xiii

Capital Punishment 238

Our Stubborn Adherence to Capita l Punishment 239
Does the Death Pena lty Deter Crime? 239
Brutalization? 240
Does It Work? 240
Castration 240
Methods of Castration 241
European Origins 241
ζalifornia ’s Law 241
Effects on Recidivism 241
Does It Work? 242
Summary 242 • Notes 242
Chapter 1 O PR。BATION, PAR。LE, AND INTERMEDIATE
SANCTIONS 249
The Organization and Administration of Probation
and Parole 251
Probation 251
Parole 252
Common Probation and Parole Conditions 252
Probation and Parole Issues 253
To Serve or to Supervise 254
Caseload Concerns 255
PROBATION AND RECIDIVISM 255
PAROLE AND R ECIDIVISM 255
CASELOADS AND C RIME 257
Offender Characteristics over Time 258
Are Parolees Equipped to Reenter Society? 258
Consequences to Society of Prisoner Reent叩 259
Improving Probation and Parole 261
Reent 叩 Initiatives 261
Does It Work? 262
Intermediate Sanctions 263
The Net Widening Problem 263
A Typology of Intermediate Sanctions 263
Community Restraints 264
INTENSIVE SUPERVISION PROBATION 264
H OME C ONFINEMENT AND ELECTRONIC M ONITORING 265
GPS M ONITORING 267
Structure and Discipline 267
A DULT B OOT CAMPS 268
JUVENILE B OOT CAMPS 268
xiv Contents

Hybrid Intermediate Sanctions 269

SHOCK PROBATION 269
H ALFWAY Houses 269
DAY R EPORTING (ENTERS 270
FOSTER AND G ROUP HOMES 270
SCARED STRAIGHT 270
Does ltWo『k? 271
Summary 271 • Notes 272

Chapter 11 REHABILITATION, TREATMENT, AND 』OB

TRAINING 278
A Movement Toward the Left 279
Some Definitions 279
Criminals are not Created Equal 280
Risk 280
Needs 281
Responsivity 281
Rehabilitation 281
Targeting Cognitive Skills 281
MORALS T RAINING 282
REASON ING T RAINING 283
Anger Management 285
Improving Victim Awareness 286
Life Skills Training 287
Does ltWo『k? 288
开eatment 288
Treating Drug Addicts 288
IN PRISON 288
O UT OF PRISON 290
DRUG TESTING AND TREATMENT 290
Treating Sex Offenders 291
IN PRISON 291
O UT OF PRISON 291
T HE BIG PICTURE 291
Does ltWo『k? 292
Job 开aining 292
The Employment-Crime Connection 292
Job Training for Convicts 293
EDUCATION AS JOB T RAINING293
VOCATIONAL T RAINING 293
CORRECTIONAL INDUSTRIES 294
W ORK RELEASE 294

Job Training for the General Population 295

 Conte nts xv

Housing Dispersal and Mobility Programs 295

Does It Work? 296
More Lessons from Meta-Analysis 296
Summary 297 • Notes 297

PART FOUR APPROACHES BEYOND THE CRIMINAL

』USTICE SYSTEM

Chapter 12 INDIVIDUAL, FAMILl巳 AND HOUSEHOLD CRIME

CONTROL 303
Government May Still be Involved 304
Individual Crime Control 305
Guns and Personal Defense 306
MEASURING G UN PREVALENCE 306
How OFTEN ARE GUNS USED IN SELF- DEFENSE? 307
DEBUNKING THE " G。OD Guv TO THE RESCUE " NARRATlVE 308
GUN PREVALENCE AND (RIME 308
ANECDOTAL ACCOUNTS 309
ARMED RESISTANCE AND CRIME COM PLETION 310
ARMED RESISTANCE AND V ICTIM INJURY 310
Do CRIMINALS CARE? 310
COMPENSATING RISKS AND 0FFSETIING BEHAVIOR 310
GUNS AND ACCIDENTAL DEATHS 312
COMPARING THE UNITED STATES TO O THER NATIONS 312
A GUN IN EVERY HOME? 312
Risk-Avoidance Behaviors 313
CHARACTERISTICS OF VICTIMS 313
RESEARCH COMPUCATlONS 315
Risk-Management Behaviors 315
SELF-DEFENSE TRAINING315
FORCEFUL RESISTANCE 316
NONFORCEFUL RESISTANCE 316

Does It Work? 316

Household and Family Crime Control 317

The Aim of Crime Control in Households and
Families 317
How Fami lies Influence Delinquency and Youth
Victimization 317
Varieties of Crime Control in Households and
Families 319
PARENT TRAINING AND EDUCATION 319
FAM ILY PRESERVATION THERAPY 322
MULTISYSTEMIC T HERAPY 323
FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO FAMILIES 323
Does It Work? 324
Summary 325 • Notes 325
xvi Contents

Chapter 13 CRIME CONTROL IN THE C。MM UNITY

AND IN SCHOOLS 33 ’
Community Crime Control 332
What Is Community? 332
The Social Ecology of Crime 333
POVERTY 333
MOBILITY AND C HANGE 333
RACIAL COM POS『TION334
POPULATION DENSITY 334
MORE ON FAM ILIES 334
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION AND COLLECTIVE EFFICACY 335
CONCENTRATED DISADVANTAGE 336
COMMUNITIES AND CRIME: A Two-WAY RELATIONSHIP? 336
Financial Assistance to Communities 336
ENTERPRISE ZONES 337
COMMUNITY D EVELOPMENT BLOCK GRANTS 337
COMMUNITY INVESTMENT PROGRAMS 338
JUSTICE R EINVESTMENT 338
Other Methods of Community Crime Control 340
MOBILIZING RESIDENTS 340
ANTIGANG INITIATIVES 340
YOUTH M ENTORING 342
AFTER-SCHOOL PROGRAMS 343
PUBLICITY CAMPAIGNS 344
Does It Work? 345
School-Based Crime Control 346
Crime in Schools 346
The Role of Schools in Crime Control 346
The Role of the Government in School-Based
Crime Control 347
Targeting the School Environment 347
BUILDING A DMINISTRATIVE CAPACITY 347
N ORMATIVE EDU巳ATION 348
MANAGING CLASSROOMS AND EDUCATION 349
SEPARATE CLASSROOMS FOR A T- RISK YOUTHS 349
Targeting Students 350
INSTRUCTIONAL INTERVENTIONS 350
DRUG ABUSE R ESISTANCE EDUCATION 351
G ANG RESISTANCE EDUCATION 352
BEHAVIOR M ODIFICATION 352
O THER METHODS OF CRIME CONTROL IN SCHOOLS 353
Does ltWo『k? 353
Summary 354 • Notes 354
 Contents xvii

’
Chapter 4 REDUCING CRIMINAL OPPORTUNITIES THROUGH
ENVIRONMENTAL MANIPULATION 360
Some Perspective 361
A Quick Return to Theory 362
Rational Offenders 362
Crime Pa忧ern Theory 364
Territorial Functioning and Defensible Space 364
The Return of the Broken Windows Theo叩 365
How Environmental Manipulation Occurs 366
Access Control 367
Surveillance 367
Activity Support 367
Motivation Reinforcement 367
The Effectiveness of Environmental Manipulation 368
Residential Areas 368
RESIDENCES 368
AREAS SURROUNDING RESIDENCES 369
COMPREHENSIVE APPROACHES 370
Life Beh ind the Wall: Gated Communities 371
Does It Work? 373

Businesses 373
STORES 374
BANKS 375
BARS AND TAVERNS 375
Does It Work? 375
Transportation 376
PUBLIC T RANSIT 376
AIRPORTS 377
Does It Work? 377
Other Places 378
PARKING G ARAGES 378
O PEN SPACES 378
PARKING M ETERS AND PUBLIC PHONES 379
Does It Work? 380
Summary 380 • Notes 381
xvi i i Contents

PART FIVE CONCLUSI 。N

Chapter 15 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER AND EXPLAINING

CRIME TRENDS 385
A Quick Review 386
Effective Crime Control 386
Failures 387
Uncertainties 388
Three Important Themes 389
Beyond the Justice System 389
Early Int ervention Is Key t o Success 390
M ore Research Is Needed 390
Explaining Crime Trends 391
Libera l Explanat ions 393
ECONOM IC CONDITIONS 393
DEMOGRAPHIC SHI FTS 394
CITIZEN A TTITUDES 395
FAMILY CONDITIONS 395
GUN CONTROL 396

Conservative Explanat ions 397

MORE AND BETIER POLICING 397
MORE PRISONERS 398
O THER CRIMINAL JUSTICE Pouaes 398
MORE CONCEALED WEAPONS PERMITS 399
MORE CAPITAL PUNISHMENT 399
Other Explanations 399
C ULTURAL SHIFTS 399
WANING OF THE (RACK EPIDEM IC 400
LEGAUZATlON OF ABORTION 400
Summary 401 • Notes 401

Appendix 404
Name Index 412
Subject Index 414
 PREFACE

”
NEW TO T IS EDITION
• New sections in Chapter 3 on de-policing and the alleged Ferguson effect; use
of automatic vehicle location (AVL) systems to reduce patrol downtime; and the
relationship between clearance rates and detective resources.
• New sections in Chapter 4 on immigration enforcement,“stop question and frisk”
(SQF), disorder-reduction strategies, broken windows theory testing, focused
deterrence, group violence reduction, and predictive policing.
• New sections in Chapter 5 on procedural justice and the President’ s Task Force
on 21st Century Policing. New systematic review and meta-analysis research on
community policing’ s effectiveness is also included.
• New section in Chapter 6 on the crime prevention e仔ects of raising the age of
m勾ority.
• New sections in Chapter 7 on sex offender residency restrictions' efficacy and
concealed car叩 on college campuses. A completely revised section on antiterror-
ism legislation is also included.
• New sections in Chapter 9 on restitution and the relationship between reduction
of prison populations and crime.
• New section in Chapter 12 on whether concealed caπy can deter mass shooter
situations.
• New sections in Chapter 14 on community investment programs and the Bureau
of Justice Assistance’s Justice Reinvestment Initiative.

Thepu甲ose of this book is to identify what works and what does not work to control
crime in the United States. This is a difficult task- Herculean, as one reviewer of the
first edition put it- but still a necessary one. A few books (cited several times through-
out the chapters to come) have attempted to do what 由is book does, but most of them
have not been very accessible to nonexperts, particularly undergraduate students in the
fields of criminal justice, criminology, and policy studies. The first reason I decided to
write this book was therefore to reach a wider audience, especially people with little
background in the area, while keeping the content to a reasonable length.
Other crime control books do not cover enouoh I:> of what is done to control crime
in America. That is, the amount of material on crime control that has made its way into
textbooks and into the crime policy literature in general has been relatively modest.
This book will make it abundantly clear that a great deal is done in the United States in
response to crime, much of which has yet to be researched or laid out in the pages of a
textbook- until now. I believe that the field needs a more comprehensive look at crime
control in America, which was my second reason for writing this book. I’ m sure you
will agree, after having read the book, that 由e range of alternatives for dealing with
crime is quite extensive.
Some competitive texts tend to take a strong ideological stance, almost to the
point at which a balanced review of the literature is not presented. My third reason
for writing this book, then, was to present a comprehensive view of crime control in

XIX
xx Preface

America while maintaining a neutral ideological stance. To be sure, even the 命iest of
introductory textbooks cannot be totally objective. Every book reflects a perspective;
由is one reflects mine. But whether you agree or disagree with my perspective, you
will come to realize that it is not a predictable one. I lean in no particular ideological
direction, I am not registered with any specific political party, and I have no specific
agenda to further by writing this book.
I have been teaching crime control courses at the university level for more than
15 years. They are the courses I most look forward to teaching. 币1e subject of crime
control tends to liven up discussions in many a course, much more than other topics.
(When was the last time undergraduates expressed excitement over chi-square tests
or theoretical integration?) Even the most reserved students tend to chime in when
opinions are voiced as to the best method of targeting crime in America. Three-strikes
laws, the death penalty, and other approaches have brought some of my classes to the
brink of an all-out brawl. I hope that this book leads to much (constructive) discourse
in other university classes, as well.

PRESENTATION
There is no easy way to organize the study of crime control in the United States. Some
authors have organized it according to ideological perspectives. Others have presented
it in something of a linear fashion, in the order in which the criminal process plays out
(starting with police, then going on to courts, sentencing, corrections, and so for由）. I
part with past approaches and present crime control from its point of origination. That
is, most of the chapters in this book discuss crime control in terms of who does it and/
or where it comes from. But I also follow something of a l!inear progression by begin-
ning with police and then moving on to prosecution, courts, sentencing, and correc-
tions before getting into less traditional topics.
Importantly, much is done to control crime that is informal in nature, which does
not rely on involvement by the criminal justice system or other forms of government
intervention. For example, when a person purchases a firearm to protect himself or
herself, that person is engaging in informal crime control. Likewise, a person who
installs a home security system is engaging in informal crime control. Approaches
such as these have been largely overlooked in previous books on crime control, so a
significant effort has been made to include them here. Indeed, three chapters discuss
由e effectiveness (and ineffectiveness) of what I call “ approaches beyond the criminal
justice system.”

CRIME CONTROL APPROAC ES ”

As will become clear in Chapter 1, the title of this book was chosen quite deliberately. In
fact, the book’ s title is the first point at which my perspective comes out. I have chosen
由e te汀n “crime control, ” not because I don ’ t believe in crime prevention, but because
most of what is done to deal with crime is not proactive. Additionally, I have avoided
the term “ crime control policy” and elected instead to discuss “ approaches ” to the crime
problem. Doing so makes it possible to discuss not just formal crime control policies
but also some of the less formal methods gove口lffiental entities and private parties take
to make America a safer place. For those who prefer “ prevention” mlieu of “ control,”
some of the book’ s content covers genuinely prevention-oriented approaches. Even so, I
 Preface xxi

think you will come to agree that most approaches to the crime problem that have been
taken in the United States amount to control rather than prevention.

UNIQUE CONTENT
Another one of my motivations for writino <:> this book was to include topics and
approaches that always seem to come up in my classes but have rarely been included
in the text I assigned for the course (for example, I have yet to find a book in our field
that discusses the effect of civil asset forfeiture on the drug problem). Yet another
impetus for this project was a desire on my part to educate readers about many of
the lesser-known and underexplored methods of crime control in America. When I
share these with my students, many of whom are outgoing seniors who have already
received the bulk of their criminal justice education, they often express su叩rise, if not
total shock.
By way of overview, some of the relatively unique content (in comparison to
competitive texts) consists of sections or chapters on residency requ让ements for cops,
college degrees for cops, police-corrections partnerships, multijurisdictional drug task
forces, COMPSTAT, citizen patrol, citizen police academies, no-drop prosecution poli-
cies, federal- state law enforcement partnerships, community prosecution, deferred
sentencing and prosecution, fines, fees, forfeiture, sentence enhancements, cherni-
cal castration of sex offenders, civil commitment, antigang injunctions, job training,
shaming, problem-solving courts, self-protective behaviors, and several others.

DOES IT WORK?
As Chapter 1 will discuss at great length, it is nearly impossible to claim that a particu-
lar form of crime control is effective or ineffective. Additional research, new analytic
techniques, and the like can cast doubt on what has been considered gospel truth. At
the other extreme, a slew of studies confirming a single finding would tend to sug-
gest an effective approach, but time passes and things change, which makes scientific
knowledge very tenuous and uncertain, especially in the crime control context. Yet in
an effort to avoid beating the “we才ust-don’t-know-for-sure” horse to a bloody pulp, I
have decided to include “ Does It Work ?” sections in all but the first and last chapters.
In these sections, I attempt to summarize the state of the literature as it currently stands.

c” APTER OVERVIEW
The book is divided into five parts. Part One lays a foundation for assessing the evi-
dence. Chapter 1 discusses what is meant by crime, crime control, and effectiveness.
It also discusses many of the issues associated with research in the social sciences. For
example, Chapter 1 points out how difficult experimental research is in o盯 field, and it
highlights the tentative nature of scientific knowledge. Chapter 2 continues in this vein
by introducing various crime control perspectives that readers should be familiar with.
It also presents the goals of crime control, including deterrence, retribution, incapaci-
tation, and rehabilitation一-each of which informs, to varying degrees, the approaches
discussed throughout the book.
Part 1、10 consists of the law enforcement approach to the crime problem. Because
most research on the law enforcement approach has been concerned with police, thr出
xxii Preface

chapters are devoted to the e仔ectiveness of police approaches. Chapter 3 discusses

traditional policing (e.g., hiring more cops), then Chapters 4 and 5 discuss more
imaginative approaches, including directed patrol and community policing. Chapter
6 discusses the effectiveness of prosecutorial approaches to the crime problem. This
is another unique feature of this book; it does not appear that anyone has attempted to
publish a summary of prosecutorial approaches to the crime problem with attention to
their effectiveness.
Part Three consists of courts, corrections, and legislative approaches to the crime
problem. Chapter 7 discusses crime control through legislation, including legislative
bans, gun control, sex offender laws, and laws aimed at control of white-collar crime
and terrorism. Chapter 8 covers crime control in the courts and beyond. It looks at the
effectiveness of approaches ranging 仕om pretrial incapacitation, diversion, sh创ning to
restorative justice, antigang injunctions, and problem-solving courts.
Chapter 9 focuses on sentencing policy, including the effectiveness of fines,
forfeiture, civil commitment, mandatory sentencing, sentence enhancements, capital
pun is阳nent, castration, and several other sentencing strategies. Chapter 10 focuses on
probation, parole, and intermediate sanctions. Examples of the latter include intensive
supervision probation, home confinement, electronic monitoring, boot camps, shock
probation, halfway houses, and day reporting centers. Final!ly, Chapter 11 examines the
effectiveness of rehabilitation, treatment, and job training.
Part Four moves the book ’ s focus away from the criminal justice system to
approaches taken by individuals, families, schools, and communities. Chapter 12
begins with individual-level crime control, including buying a gun to protect one-
self, risk avoidance, and risk manaoement behaviors. It then discusses the effective-
ness of household and family-based"'crime control. Chapter 13 covers both community
and school-based crime control. Examples of the former include financial assistance
to communities, resident mobilization programs, and youth mentoring. School-
based approaches include targeting the school environment, such as through efforts
to build administrative capacity, and interventions aimed at students, such as Drug
Abuse Resistance Education’ Gano b
Resistance Education’ and behavior modifica-
tion. Continuing with the focus on crime control beyond the criminal justice system,
Chapter 14 looks at efforts to reduce criminal opportunities through environmental
manipulation. In that chapter, we cover e仔orts to discourage crime by altering the
physical appearance of places.
Part Five consists of a single chapter, one that summarizes previous chapters and
then presents and critically reflects on several explanations that have been offered for
the crime decline that took place throughout the 1990s. Explanations are organized
into liberal, conservative, and miscellaneous categories. The message that this section
presents is that there were (and continue to be) many different forces at work that help
to explain national trends in crime.

APPENDIX
I assume that not everyone who picks up this book is intimately familiar with the
criminal justice system in America. Accordingly, the appendix presents an ultra-brief
introduction to the criminal justice system. It discusses sources of crime statistics, the
actors involved in the justice system (in terms of executive, legislative, and judicial
 Preface xxiii

functions), the criminal process (pretrial, adjudication, and beyond conviction), and
sanctions. It is not intended to replace an introductory text, but I feel that it gets much
important information across.

INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS
Instructor ’s Manual with Test Bank. Includes content outlines for classroom discus-
sion, teaching suggestions, and answers to selected end-of-chapter questions from 由e
text. This also contains a Word document version of the test bank.
TestGen. ηus computerized test generation system gives you maximum flexibility
in creating and administering tests on paper, electronically, or online. It provides state-of-
the-art features for viewing and editing test bank questions, dragging a selected question
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your own questions 仕om scratch. TestGen’ s random generator provides the option to
display different text or calculated number values each time questions are used.
Power Point Presentations. Our presentations offer clear, straightforward outlines
and notes to use for class lectures or study materials. Photos, illustrations, charts, and
tables from the book are included in the presentations when applicable.
To access supplementary materials online, instructors need to request an instruc-
tor access code. Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an
instructor access code. Within 48 hours after registeri吨， you will receive a confiηning
e-mail, including an instructor access code. Once you have received your code, go to
the site and log on for full instructions on downloading the materials you wish to use.

ALTERNATE VERSIONS
eBooks. This text is also available in multiple eBook formats. These are an exciting
new choice for students looking to save money. As an alternative to purchasing the
printed textbook, students can purchase an electronic version of the same content.
With an eTextbook, students can search the text, make notes online, print out read-
ing assignments that incorporate lecture notes, and bookmark important passages for
later review. For more information, visit your favorite online eBook reseller or visit
www.mypearsonstore.com.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to the researchers everywhere for their efforts to inform crime control
policy. This book is a literature review, and it would not have been possible but for their
e仔orts. Thanks also goes to Gary Bauer, Jennifer Sargunar, and Rinki Kaur. Also, the
reviewers who provided valuable feedback on this edition deserve thanks. They are:
Carina Aqu让陀， Everest College; Janet Foster Goodwill, Yakima Valley Community
College; Coy Johnston, Arizona State University; Laurie Collins-Levy, Washington
State University - Vancouver and Cindy Scott, Northern Arizona University. Finally, I
must once again thank my family, especially my wife, Sabrina, for putting up with me
on yet another book p叫ect；由e compulsion to write is difficult to shake.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

John L. Worrall is Professor of Criminology and Director of the

M.S. Program in Justice Administration and Leadership (JAL) at 由e
University of Texas at Dallas (UTD). Both his M.A. (criminal jus-
tice) and Ph.D. (political science) were received from Washington
State University, where he graduated in 1999. Dr. Worrall has pub-
lished articles and book chapters on a variety of topics ranging from
legal issues in policing to crime measurement, having been ranked
one of the most prolific sole and lead authors in the discipline.
He has also authored a number of other popular books, including
Introduction to Criminal Justice (with Larry Siegel) and Criminal Procedure: From
First Contact to Appeal. Dr. Worrall is Executive Director of the Academy of Criminal
Justice Sciences and continues to serve as editor of the journal Police Quarterly, a
position he has held since 2008.

XXIV
......
1
Identifying and Evaluating
Crime Control

Crime Cont rol and Prevention Qualitative and Qu削itative Res阳·ch

The Crime Problem in America
Types of Crime
Th巳 Ever-Expanding Criminal Law
Incidence of Crime
Costs of Crim巳 and Criminals
ls Fear of Crime Worse Than Crime Itself?
Approaches, Not J ust Policies
Laws
Official Policies, Written and Unwritten
Unofficial Approaches
On the Importance of Definitions
Defining th巳 Crim巳 Problem
Defining the Solution
Defining th巳 Desired Outcome
Evalua ting Success: An Impossible Task?
The Hard and Soft Sciences
Th巳 Elusive Criminal Justic巳 Experiment
You Can Prove Anything with Statistics
Macro- and Micro-Level Crime Control
Displacement and Diffusion
Measuring Displacement and Diffusion
The Tentative Na阳re of Scientific Knowledge
The Measures Used
When New Data Become Available
Alternative Settings: Th巳 Generalization
Problem
Other Concerns
Fun创ng and Political Priorities
Academic Crusaders and B拥dwagon Science
Evidence-Based Justice
E仔ective Does Not Always Mean Best
A Preview of the Book
Guns and Drugs: Th巳 R巳al Attention Getters
Summa ry
Notes

L E ARNI NG OBJEC TIVES

• Distinguish between crime control and prevention.

• Discuss the dimensions of the crime problem in America.
• Explain various “ approaches” to the crime problem.
• Summarize the importance of definitions in the crime control debate.
• Discuss what crime control evaluations are problematic.
• Define displacement and diffusion.
• Explain why scientific knowledge is tentative.
• Explain how funding and political ideologies guide crime control priorities.
• Summarize the concept of evidence-based justice.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 NOMBRE MOYENNE DES
TEMPÉRATURES. MAXIMUM MINIMUM
1853. — MOIS. des
du mois. du mois.
observat. 8 h. matin. Midi. 5 h. soir.
Moyennes de l’année 11,95 17,45 18,29

Nous devons ajouter comme corollaire à ce tableau qu’à Batna, en

1853, il a plu tous les mois de l’année, et que les mois où la pluie a
été la plus fréquente ont été mai, octobre, novembre et décembre ; il
a neigé en janvier, février, mars, novembre et décembre ; la dernière
neige est tombée dans la plaine le 27 mars, et la première le 28
novembre.
[42] MM. Balansa et du Colombier nous ont fourni d’utiles documents
sur la végétation de la région montagneuse. — Mon ami M. T. Royer,
ancien capitaine du génie, et M. Thoman ont bien voulu faire tous les
calculs pour la détermination des altitudes d’après nos observations
barométriques ; toutes ces altitudes ont été calculées en prenant pour
base les moyennes des observations recueillies par nous à
Philippeville et à Batna.
[43] Les explorateurs qui ont le plus contribué à faire connaître la
végétation de la région saharienne sont MM. Balansa, Guyon, Hénon,
P. Jamin et Reboud.
 Note du transcripteur :

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Page 33, " — annua Wickstr. " a été remplacé par " Wikstr. "
Page 38, " Cerastium Atlantium " a été remplacé par " Atlanticum "
Page 62, " Kalbfussia Salzmanni Schulz. Bip. " a été remplacé par " Schultz. "
Page 69, " qui apparait dans " a été remplacé par " apparaît "
Page 89, " Clamydophora pubescens " a été remplacé par " Chlamydophora "
Page 90, " Dæmia cordata " a été remplacé par " Dœmia "
Page 101, " [Sinapis]— arvenis " a été remplacé par " arvensis "
Page 141, " Monocotydélones " a été remplacé par " Monocotylédones "
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RAPPORT SUR
UN VOYAGE BOTANIQUE EN ALGÉRIE, DE PHILIPPEVILLE A
BISKRA ET DANS LES MONTS AURÈS, ENTREPRIS EN 1853
SOUS LE PATRONAGE DU MINISTÈRE DE LA GUERRE ***

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