eTextbook 978-0137074853 Criminology

Today: An Integrative Introduction (6th

Edition)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0137074853-criminology-today-an-inte
grative-introduction-6th-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

eTextbook 978-1305950443 Abnormal Psychology: An

Integrative Approach

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-1305950443-abnormal-
psychology-an-integrative-approach/

eTextbook 978-1305271531 Interpersonal Process in

Therapy: An Integrative Model

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-1305271531-
interpersonal-process-in-therapy-an-integrative-model/

eTextbook 978-0134444017 Operations Research: An

Introduction (10th Edition)

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0134444017-
operations-research-an-introduction-10th-edition/

eTextbook 978-9814738255 Global Business Today 9th

Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-9814738255-global-
business-today-9th-edition/
eTextbook 978-0134163734 Criminal Law Today (6th
Edition)

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0134163734-criminal-
law-today-6th-edition/

eTextbook 978-0134145594 Criminal Justice Today: An

Introductory Text for the 21st Century

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0134145594-criminal-
justice-today-an-introductory-text-for-the-21st-century/

eTextbook 978-0321984623 The Atmosphere: An

Introduction to Meteorology (MasteringMeteorology
Series)

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0321984623-the-
atmosphere-an-introduction-to-meteorology-masteringmeteorology-
series/

(eTextbook PDF) for Meteorology Today: An Introduction

to Weather, Climate and the Environment 12th Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-pdf-for-meteorology-
today-an-introduction-to-weather-climate-and-the-
environment-12th-edition/

eTextbook 978-1337093224 American Government and

Politics Today, 2017-2018 Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-1337093224-american-
government-and-politics-today-2017-2018-edition/

acquired academic credentials or who are as-
sociated with credentialed others; also called
alternative criminology.
corporate crime A violation of a criminal
statute by an organization or its executives,
employees, or agents acting on its behalf and
for its benefit.4
corporate fraud A type of organizational
fraud, such as accounting schemes, self-dealing
by corporate executives, obstruction of justice,
insider trading, kickbacks, and misuse of corpo-
rate property for personal use.
correctional psychology The branch of
forensic psychology concerned with the diag-
nosis and classification of offenders, the treatment
of correctional populations,and the rehabilitation
of inmates and other law violators.
correlation A causal, complementary, or re-
ciprocal relationship between two measurable
variables. See also statistical correlation.
Cosa Nostra A criminal organization of
Sicilian origin (literally means “our thing”); also
called the Mafia, the Outfit, the Mob, the syndicate,
or simply the organization.
crime Any human conduct in violation of
the criminal laws of the federal government or
a local jurisdiction with the power to make
such laws.
crime typology A classification of
crimes along a particular dimension, such as
legal categories, offender motivation, victim
behavior, or characteristics of individual
offenders.
Crime Victims’ Rights Act A 2004 fed-
eral law that establishes statutory rights for
victims of federal crimes and gives victims the
necessary legal authority to assert those rights
in federal courts.
criminal anthropology The scientific study
of the relationship between human physical
characteristics and criminality.
criminal behavior A method used to gain
valued resources from others by exploiting or
deceiving them.5
criminal career The longitudinal sequence
of crimes committed by an individual offender.
criminal enterprise A group of individuals
with an identified hierarchy engaged in signifi-
cant criminal activities.
GLOSSARY
criminal homicide The illegal killing of one
human being by another.
criminal homicide (UCR) The UCR cat-
egory that includes and is limited to all offenses
of causing the death of another person without
justification or excuse.
criminalist A specialist in the collection
and examination of the physical evidence of
crime.
criminality A behavioral predisposition that
disproportionately favors criminal activity.
criminality index The actual extent of the
crime problem in a society. The criminality in-
dex is computed by adding the actual crime
rate and the latent crime rate.
criminalize To make illegal.
criminal justice The scientific study of
crime, the criminal law, and components of the
criminal justice system, including the police,
courts, and corrections.
criminal justice system The various agen-
cies of justice, especially the police, courts, and
corrections, whose goal it is to apprehend, con-
vict, punish, and rehabilitate law violators.
criminal law The body of law that regulates
actions that have the potential to harm the inter-
ests of the state or the federal government.
criminaloid A term used by Cesare Lombroso
to describe the occasional criminal who is en-
ticed into criminality primarily by environmental
influences.
criminal psychology The application of the
science and profession of psychology to questions
and issues relating to law and the legal system;also
called forensic psychology.
criminal receiver See fence.
criminologist One who is trained in the
field of criminology; also one who studies
crime, criminals, and criminal behavior.
criminology An interdisciplinary profession
built around the scientific study of crime and
criminal behavior, including their forms,
causes, legal aspects, and control.
criminology of place A perspective that em-
phasizes the importance of geographic location
and architectural features as they are associated
with the prevalence of criminal victimization;
also called environmental criminology.
critical criminology A perspective that holds
that crime is the natural product of a capitalist
system.
cross-impact analysis A technique of futures
research that attempts to analyze one trend or
event in light of the occurrence or nonoccur-
rence of a series of related events.
cultural transmission The idea that delin-
quency is transmitted through successive genera-
tions of people living in an area through the same
process of social communication as languages,
roles, and attitudes are transmitted.
culture conflict theory A sociological per-
spective on crime that suggests that the root
cause of criminality can be found in a clash of
values between variously socialized groups over
what is acceptable or proper behavior; also
called cultural deviance theory.
cybercrime Any crime that involves the use
of computers or the manipulation of digital
data as well as any violation of a federal or state
cybercrime statute.
Cyber Security Enhancement Act (CSEA)
A federal law found in the Homeland Security
Act of 2002 that directs the U.S. Sentencing
Commission to take specific factors into ac-
count in creating new sentencing guidelines for
cybercriminals.
cyberspace The computer-created matrix of
virtual possibilities, including online services, in
which human beings interact with one another
and with the technology itself.
cyberstalking An array of high-technology
options, including e-mail and the Internet, that
an offender uses to harass or “follow” another
individual.
cyberterrorism A form of terrorism that
makes use of high technology, especially com-
puter technology and the Internet, in planning
and carrying out terrorist attacks.
cycloid A term developed by Ernst
Kretschmer to describe a particular relationship
between body build and personality type. The
cycloid personality, which was associated with a
heavyset, soft type of body, was said to vacillate
between normality and abnormality.
dangerous drug A controlled substance
other than cocaine, opiates, and cannabis prod-
ucts. Amphetamines, LSD, methamphetamines,
methcathinone, and phencyclidine (PCP), as
3

well as designer drugs, are all considered dan-
gerous drugs.
dangerousness The likelihood that a given
individual will later harm society or others.
Dangerousness is often measured in terms of
recidivism, or the likelihood of new crime
commission or rearrest for a new crime within
a five-year period following arrest or release
from confinement.
dark figure of crime The numerical total
of unreported crimes not reflected in official
crime statistics.
data confidentiality The ethical require-
ment of social scientific research to protect the
confidentiality of individual research participants
while preserving justified research access to the
information participants provide.
data encryption The process by which
information is encoded, making it unreadable
to all but its intended recipients.
date rape The unlawful forced sexual inter-
course with a woman against her will that occurs
within the context of a dating relationship.
Daubert standard A test of scientific accept-
ability applicable to the gathering of evidence
in criminal cases.
DCS–3000 An FBI-developed network di-
agnostic tool that is capable of assisting in crim-
inal investigations by monitoring and capturing
large amounts of Internet traffic.
death penalty See capital punishment.
deconstructionist theory A postmodern
perspective that challenges existing criminological
theories in order to debunk them and that works
toward replacing traditional ideas with concepts
seen as more appropriate to the postmodern era.
decriminalization The redefinition of cer-
tain previously criminal behaviors as regulated
activities that become “ticketable” instead of
“arrestable.”
defensible space The range of mechanisms
that combine to bring an environment under
the control of its residents.
Delphi Method A technique of futures re-
search that uses repetitive questioning of experts
to refine predictions.
demographics The characteristics of popula-
tion groups,usually expressed in statistical fashion.
4
GLOSSARY
demography The study of the characteris-
tics of population groups.
descriptive statistics The statistics that de-
scribe, summarize, or highlight the relationships
within data that have been gathered.
designer drug A new substance designed by
slightly altering the chemical makeup of other
illegal or tightly controlled drugs.6
desistance A person’s cessation of criminal
activity or termination of a period of involve-
ment in offending behavior.
desistance phenomenon The observable
decrease in crime rates that is invariably associ-
ated with age.
determinate sentencing A criminal pun-
ishment strategy that mandates a specified and
fixed amount of time to be served for every
offense category. Under the strategy, for exam-
ple, all offenders convicted of the same degree
of burglary would be sentenced to the same
length of time behind bars. It is also called fixed
sentencing.
deterrence The prevention of crime. See also
general deterrence; specific deterrence.
deterrence strategy A crime-control strategy
whose goal is to lessen motivation for a crime by
increasing the perceived sureness or severity of its
penalty.7
deviant behavior Any human activity that
violates social norms.
differential association The sociological
thesis that criminality, like any other form of be-
havior, is learned through a process of association
with others who communicate criminal values.
differential identification theory An ex-
planation for crime and deviance that holds that
people pursue criminal or deviant behavior to
the extent that they identify themselves with
real or imaginary people from whose perspec-
tive their criminal or deviant behavior seems
acceptable.
Digital Theft Deterrence and Copyright
Damages Improvement Act A 1999 federal
law (Public Law 106–160) that amends Section
504(c) of the Copyright Act increasing the
amount of damages that could be awarded in
cases of copyright infringement.
disclosure (of research methods) The
provision of information to potential subjects
informing them of the nature of the research
methods to be used by the social scientific study
in which their involvement is planned.
discrediting information Any information
that is inconsistent with the managed impres-
sions being communicated in a given situation.
displacement A shift of criminal activity
from one location to another.
displastic A mixed group of offenders
described by constitutional theorist Ernst
Kretschmer as highly emotional and often
unable to control themselves. They were
thought to commit mostly sexual offenses and
other crimes of passion.
distributive justice The rightful, equitable,
and just distribution of rewards within a society.
dizygotic (DZ) twin A twin who develops
from a separate ovum and who carries the genetic
material shared by siblings.
DNA fingerprinting See DNA profiling.
DNA profiling The use of biological residue
found at a crime scene for genetic comparisons
in aiding the identification of criminal suspects.
domestic terrorism The unlawful use of
force or violence by an individual or group based
and operating entirely within the United States
and its territories, without foreign influence,
directed at the U.S. government, the civilian
population, or any segment thereof for political
or social objectives.8
dramaturgical perspective A theoretical
point of view that depicts human behavior as
centered around the purposeful management of
interpersonal impressions; also called dramaturgy.
dramaturgy See dramaturgical perspective.
drug-defined crime A violation of the laws
prohibiting or regulating the possession, use, or
distribution of illegal drugs.
drug-related crime A crime in which drugs
contribute to the offense (excluding violations
of drug laws).
drug trafficking The manufacturing, distrib-
uting, dispensing, importing, and/or exporting of
a controlled substance or a counterfeit substance.9
Durham rule A standard for judging legal
insanity that holds that an accused is not crim-
inally responsible if his or her unlawful act was
the product of mental disease or mental defect.

ecological theory A type of sociological
approach that emphasizes demographics (the
characteristics of population groups) and
geographics (the mapped location of such
groups relative to one another) and that sees
the social disorganization that characterizes
delinquency areas as a major cause of crimi-
nality and victimization.
ectomorph A body type originally described
as thin and fragile, with long, slender, poorly
muscled extremities and delicate bones.
ego The reality-testing part of the person-
ality; also called the reality principle. More
formally, it is the personality component
that is conscious, most immediately controls
behavior, and is most in touch with external
reality.10
electroencephalogram (EEG) The electri-
cal measurement of brain wave activity.
encryption See data encryption.
endomorph A body type originally described
as soft and round or overweight.
Enlightenment A social movement that
arose during the eighteenth century and that
built upon ideas like empiricism, rationality, free
will, humanism, and natural law; also called Age
of Reason.
environmental crime A violation of the
criminal law committed by businesses, business
officials, organizational entities, and/or individ-
uals that damages some protected or otherwise
significant aspect of the natural environment.
environmental criminology A perspec-
tive that emphasizes the importance of geo-
graphic location and architectural features as
they are associated with the prevalence of
criminal victimization; also called criminology
of place.
environmental scanning A technique of
futures research. It is a “systematic effort to
identify in an elemental way future develop-
ments (trends or events) that could plausibly
occur over the time horizon of interest.”11
ethnic succession The continuing process
whereby one immigrant or ethnic group suc-
ceeds another by assuming its position in
society.
ethnocentrism The phenomenon of “culture-
centeredness” by which one uses one’s own
GLOSSARY
culture as a benchmark against which to judge
all other patterns of behavior.
eugenic criminology A perspective that
holds that the root causes of criminality are
passed from generation to generation in the
form of “bad genes.”
eugenics The study of hereditary improve-
ment by genetic control.
evidence based Any evidence built on scien-
tific findings, especially practices and policies
founded on the results of randomized,controlled
experiments.
evidence-based criminology A form of
contemporary criminology that makes use of
rigorous social scientific techniques, especially
randomized, controlled experiments and the
systematic review of research results; also called
knowledge-based criminology.
evolutionary ecology An approach to under-
standing crime that draws attention to the ways
people develop over the course of their lives.
experiment See controlled experiment;
quasi-experimental design.
experimental criminology See evidence-
based criminology.
expert system A system of computer hard-
ware and software that attempts to duplicate
the decision-making processes used by skilled
investigators in the analysis of evidence and in
the recognition of patterns that such evidence
might represent.
exposure-reduction theory A theory of
intimate homicide that claims that a decline in
domesticity, accompanied by an improvement
in the economic status of women and a growth
in domestic violence resources, explains ob-
served decreases in intimate-partner homicide.
expressive crime A criminal offense that
results from acts of interpersonal hostility, such
as jealousy, revenge, romantic triangles, and
quarrels.
external validity The ability to generalize
research findings to other settings.
felony A serious criminal offense, specifically
one punishable by death or by incarceration in
a prison facility for a year or more.
felony murder An unlawful homicide that
occurs during the commission or attempted
commission of a felony or certain felonies spec-
ified by law.
feminist criminology A corrective model
intended to redirect the thinking of mainstream
criminologists to include gender awareness.
fence An individual or a group involved in
the buying, selling, and distribution of stolen
goods.
first-degree murder A criminal homicide
that is planned or involves premeditation.
focal concern A key value of any culture,
especially a delinquent subculture.
folkways A time-honored custom. Although
folkways carry the force of tradition, their vio-
lation is unlikely to threaten the survival of the
group. See also mores.
forcible rape (UCR) The carnal knowl-
edge of a female forcibly and against her will.
Assaults or attempts to commit rape by force or
threat of force are also included in the UCR
definition; however, statutory rape (without
force) and other sex offenses are excluded.
foreign terrorist organization (FTO) A
foreign organization that engages in terrorist
activity threatening the security of U.S. nation-
als or the national security of the United States
and that is so designated by the U.S. secretary
of state.
forensic psychiatry A branch of psychia-
try having to do with the study of crime and
criminality.
forensic psychology The application of the
science and profession of psychology to questions
and issues relating to law and the legal system;also
called criminal psychology.
forfeiture See asset forfeiture.
frustration-aggression theory A theory
that holds that frustration, which is a natural
consequence of living, is a root cause of crime.
Criminal behavior can be a form of adaptation
when it results in stress reduction.
future criminology The study of likely fu-
tures as they impinge on crime and its control.
futures research “A multidisciplinary branch
of operations research [whose principal aim] is to
facilitate long-range planning based on (1) fore-
casting from the past supported by mathematical
models, (2) cross-disciplinary treatment of its
5

subject matter, (3) systematic use of expert judg-
ments, and (4) a systems-analytical approach to its
problems.”12
futurist One who studies the future.
gateway offense An offense, usually fairly
minor in nature, that leads to more serious
offenses.
gender gap The observed differences between
male and female rates of criminal offending in a
given society.
general deterrence A goal of criminal sen-
tencing that seeks to prevent others from com-
mitting crimes similar to the one for which a
particular offender is being sentenced.
general strain theory (GST) A perspective
that suggests that law-breaking behavior is a
coping mechanism enabling those who engage
in it to deal with the socioemotional problems
generated by negative social relations.
general theory A theory that attempts to
explain all (or at least most) forms of criminal
conduct through a single overarching approach.
general theory of crime A perspective on
crime, developed by Travis Hirschi and Michael
Gottfredson, that asserts “that the operation of
a single mechanism, low self-control, accounts
for ‘all crime, at all times,’ [including] acts rang-
ing from vandalism to homicide, from rape to
white-collar crime.”13
genetic determinism The belief that genes
are the major determining factor in human
behavior.
globalization A process of social homoge-
nization that everyday experiences can foster by
standardized cultural expressions through the
diffusion of goods and ideas around the world.14
guilty but mentally ill (GBMI) A find-
ing that offenders are guilty of the criminal
offense with which they are charged, but be-
cause of their prevailing mental condition,
they are generally sent to psychiatric hospitals
for treatment rather than to prison. Once they
have been declared cured, such offenders can
be transferred to correctional facilities to serve
out their sentences.
habitual offender statute A law intended
to keep repeat criminal offenders behind bars.
These laws sometimes come under the “three
strikes and you’re out” rubric.
6
GLOSSARY
hacker A person who uses computers for
exploration and exploitation.
hard determinism The belief that crime
results from forces beyond the control of the
individual.
hate crime A criminal offense in which the
motive is hatred, bias, or prejudice based on the
actual or perceived race, color, religion, national
origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation
of another individual or group of individuals.
Hate Crimes Sentencing Enhancement
Act A federal law (28 U.S. Code, Section
994) enacted in 1994 as part of the Violent
Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act that
required the U.S. Sentencing Commission to
increase penalties for crimes in which the
victim was chosen due to actual or perceived
color, ethnicity, religion, gender, disability, or
sexual orientation.
hedonistic calculus The belief, first pro-
posed by Jeremy Bentham, that behavior holds
value to any individual undertaking it accord-
ing to the amount of pleasure or pain it can be
expected to produce for that person. See also
utilitarianism.
heritability A statistical construct that esti-
mates the amount of variation in the traits of a
population that is attributable to genetic factors.
Heroin Signature Program (HSP) A
Drug Enforcement Administration program
that identifies the geographic source of a heroin
sample through the detection of specific chem-
ical characteristics in the sample peculiar to the
source area.
homicide The killing of one human being
by another.
household crime (NCVS) An attempted
or completed crime that does not involve con-
frontation, such as burglary, motor vehicle theft,
and household larceny.
human agency The active role that peo-
ple take in their lives; the fact that people are
not merely subject to social and structural
constraints but actively make choices and
decisions based on the alternatives they see
before them.
human development The relationship be-
tween the maturing individual and his or her
changing environment, as well as the social
processes that the relationship entails.
human ecology The interrelationship be-
tween human beings and the physical and
cultural environments in which they live.
human smuggling A type of illegal immigra-
tion in which an agent is paid to help a person
cross a border clandestinely.15
human trafficking See trafficking in
persons.
hypoglycemia A medical condition charac-
terized by low blood sugar.
hypothesis An explanation accounting for
a set of facts that can be tested by further
investigation.16
id The aspect of the personality from which
drives, wishes, urges, and desires emanate. More
formally, this division of the psyche is associated
with instinctual impulses and demands for imme-
diate satisfaction of primitive needs.17
identity theft The unauthorized use of an-
other individual’s personal information to com-
mit fraud.
illegitimate opportunity structure A sub-
cultural pathway to success that the wider society
disapproves of.
impression management The intentional
enactment of practiced behavior that is intended
to convey to others one’s desirable personal
characteristics and social qualities.
incapacitation The use of imprisonment or
other means to reduce the likelihood that an
offender will be capable of committing future
offenses.
individual-rights advocate One who seeks
to protect personal freedoms in the face of
criminal prosecution.
inferential statistics Any statistics that spec-
ify how likely findings are to be true for other
populations or in other locales.
informed consent The ethical requirement of
social scientific research that research subjects be
informed as to the nature of the research about to
be conducted, their anticipated role in it, and the
uses to which the data they provide will be put.
infrastructure The basic facilities, services,
and installations needed for the functioning of
a community or society, such as its transporta-
tion and communications systems, water and
power lines, and public institutions.18

insanity (legal) A legally established inability
to understand right from wrong or to conform
one’s behavior to the requirements of the law.
insanity (psychological) A persistent men-
tal disorder.19
insider trading A type of equity trading
based on confidential information about im-
portant events that may affect the price of the
issue being traded.
institutional robbery A robbery that occurs
in a commercial setting, such as a convenience
store, gas station, and bank.
instrumental crime A goal-directed offense
that involves some degree of planning by the of-
fender and little or no precipitation by the victim.
instrumental Marxism A perspective that
holds that those in power intentionally create
laws and social institutions that serve their
own interests and keep others from becoming
powerful.
integrated theory An explanatory perspec-
tive that merges (or attempts to merge) concepts
drawn from different sources.
interactional theory A theoretical approach
to exploring crime and delinquency that blends
social control and social learning perspectives.
interactionist perspective See social
process theory.
interdiction An international drug-control
policy whose goal is to stop drugs from entering
the country illegally.
internal validity The certainty that experi-
mental interventions did indeed cause the
changes observed in the study group; also the
control over confounding factors that tend to
invalidate the results of an experiment.
international terrorism The unlawful use
of force or violence by an individual or group
with a connection to a foreign power or whose
activities transcend national boundaries against
people or property to intimidate or coerce a gov-
ernment, the civilian population, or any segment
thereof for political or social objectives.20
Internet The world’s largest computer net-
work for moving data and making information
accessible.
intersubjectivity A scientific principle that
requires that independent observers see the
GLOSSARY
same thing under the same circumstances for
observations to be regarded as valid.
intimate-partner assault A gender-neutral
term used to characterize assaultive behavior
that takes place between individuals involved in
an intimate relationship.
irresistible-impulse test A standard for
judging legal insanity that holds that a defen-
dant is not guilty of a criminal offense if the
person, by virtue of his or her mental state or
psychological condition, was not able to resist
committing the crime.
jockey A professional car thief involved in
calculated steal-to-order car thefts.
joyriding An opportunistic car theft, often
committed by a teenager, for fun or thrills.
Juke family A well-known “criminal family”
studied by Richard L. Dugdale.
just deserts model The notion that criminal
offenders deserve the punishment they receive
at the hands of the law and that punishments
should be appropriate to the type and severity of
crime committed.
justice model A contemporary model of
imprisonment in which the principle of just
deserts forms the underlying social philosophy.
Kallikak family A well-known “criminal
family” studied by Henry H. Goddard.
Kefauver Committee The popular name
for the federal Special Committee to Investigate
Organized Crime in Interstate Commerce,
formed in 1951.
Kriminalpolitik The political handling of
crime; also a criminology-based social policy.
labeling theory An interactionist perspec-
tive that sees continued crime as a consequence
of limited opportunities for acceptable behav-
ior that follow from the negative responses of
society to those defined as offenders; also called
social reaction theory.
La Cosa Nostra A criminal organization
of Sicilian origin; also called Mafia. The term
literally means “our thing.”
larceny The unlawful taking or attempted
taking of property (other than a motor vehicle)
from the possession of another, by stealth, with-
out force or deceit, with intent to permanently
deprive the owner of the property.
larceny-theft (UCR) The unlawful taking,
carrying, leading, or riding away of property
(other than a motor vehicle) from the possession
or constructive possession of another (attempts
are included).
latent crime rate A rate of crime calculated
on the basis of crimes that would likely be com-
mitted by those who are in prison or jail or
who are otherwise incapacitated by the justice
system.
law-and-order advocate One who suggests
that under certain circumstances involving crim-
inal threats to public safety, the interests of society
should take precedence over individual rights.
Law Enforcement Assistance Adminis-
tration (LEAA) A federal program, estab-
lished under Title 1 of the Omnibus Crime
Control and Safe Streets Act of 1967, designed
to provide assistance to police agencies.
learning theory See social learning theory.
left realism A conflict perspective that insists
on a pragmatic assessment of crime and its as-
sociated problems; also called radical realism or
critical realism.
left-realist criminology An approach to
criminology based on ideas inherent in the
perspective of left realism.
legalization The elimination of laws and crim-
inal penalties associated with certain behaviors—
usually the production, sale, distribution, and
possession of a controlled substance.
liberal feminism A feminist perspective in
criminology that sees gender-role socialization
as the primary source of women’s oppression.
life course The different pathways through
the age-differentiated life span; also the course
of a person’s life over time.
life course persister An offender who, as a
result of neuropsychological deficits combined
with poverty and family dysfunction, displays
patterns of misbehavior throughout life.
life course perspective A perspective that
draws attention to the fact that criminal behavior
tends to follow a distinct pattern across the life
cycle; also called life course criminology.
lifestyle theory Another term for the rou-
tine activities approach of Lawrence Cohen
and Marcus Felson. See also routine activities
theory.
7

Mafia A criminal organization of Sicilian
origin; also called La Cosa Nostra.
mala in se An act that is thought to be wrong
in and of itself.
mala prohibita An act that is wrong only
because it is prohibited.
Marxist criminology A perspective on crime
and crime causation based on the writings of Karl
Marx.
Marxist feminism A perspective in feminist
criminology that sees the oppression of women
as caused by their subordinate class status within
capitalist societies.
masculinity hypothesis The belief that,
over time, men and women will commit crimes
that are increasingly similar in nature, serious-
ness, and frequency. Increasing similarity in
crime commission was predicted to result from
changes in the social status of women.
mass murder The illegal killing of four or
more victims at one location within one event.
mesomorph A body type described as ath-
letic and muscular.
meta-analysis A study that combines the
results of other studies about a particular topic
of interest; a comprehensive and systematic
review of other studies.
metatheory A theory about theories and
the theorizing process.
misdemeanor A criminal offense that is less
serious than a felony and is punishable by incar-
ceration, usually in a local confinement facility,
typically for a year or less.
M’Naughten rule A standard for judging
legal insanity that requires that offenders not
know what they were doing, or if they did, that
they not know it was wrong.
modeling theory A form of social learning
theory that asserts that people learn how to act
by observing others.
money laundering The process of convert-
ing illegally earned assets from cash to one or
more alternative forms to conceal factors such
as illegal origin and true ownership.21
Monitoring the Future A national self-report
survey on drug use that has been conducted
since 1975.
8
GLOSSARY
monozygotic (MZ) twin One of two
twins who develop from the same egg and who
carry virtually the same genetic material.
moral enterprise The efforts made by an
interest group to have its sense of moral or eth-
ical propriety enacted into law.
mores The behavioral proscriptions cover-
ing potentially serious violations of a group’s
values. Examples include strictures against mur-
der, rape, and robbery. See also folkways.
motor vehicle theft (UCR) The theft or
attempted theft of a motor vehicle. In the FBI’s
definition, this offense category includes the
stealing of automobiles, trucks, buses, motorcy-
cles, motor scooters, and snowmobiles.
murder An unlawful homicide.
National Advisory Commission on Crim-
inal Justice Standards and Goals A federal
body commissioned in 1971 by President
Richard Nixon to examine the nation’s crimi-
nal justice system and to set standards and goals
to direct the development of the nation’s crim-
inal justice agencies.
National Crime Victimization Survey
(NCVS) A survey conducted annually by the
Bureau of Justice Statistics that provides data on
surveyed households that report they were af-
fected by crime.
National Incident-Based Reporting Sys-
tem (NIBRS) An enhanced statistical-
reporting system to collect data on each
incident and arrest within 22 crime categories.
National Survey on Drug Use and Health
(NSDUH) A national survey of illicit drug
use among people 12 years of age and older that
is conducted annually by the Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Administration.
National Violence against Women
(NVAW) Survey A national survey of the
extent and nature of violence against women
conducted between November 1995 and May
1996 funded through grants from the National
Institute of Justice and the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services National Center
for Injury Prevention and Control.
National Youth Survey (NYS) A longitu-
dinal panel study of a national sample of
1,725 individuals that measured self-reports of
delinquency and other types of behavior.
natural law The philosophical perspective that
certain immutable laws are fundamental to human
nature and can be readily ascertained through
reason. Human-made laws, in contrast, are said to
derive from human experience and history—
both of which are subject to continual change.
natural rights The rights that, according to
natural law theorists, individuals retain in the
face of government action and interests.
negative affective state An adverse emotion
such as anger, fear, depression, and disappoint-
ment that derives from the experience of strain.
negligent homicide The act of causing the
death of another person by recklessness or gross
negligence.
neoclassical criminology A contemporary
version of classical criminology that emphasizes
deterrence and retribution,with reduced empha-
sis on rehabilitation.
neurosis A functional disorder of the mind
or of the emotions involving anxiety, phobia, or
other abnormal behavior.
No Electronic Theft Act A 1997 federal law
(Public Law 105–147) that criminalizes the will-
ful infringement of copyrighted works, including
by electronic means, even when the infringing
party derives no direct financial benefit from the
infringement (such as when pirated software
is freely distributed online). In keeping with
requirements of the NETA, the U.S. Sentencing
Commission enacted amendments to its guide-
lines on April 6, 2000, to increase penalties asso-
ciated with electronic theft.
nonprimary homicide A murder that in-
volves victims and offenders who have no prior
relationship and that usually occurs during the
course of another crime such as robbery.
nothing-works doctrine The belief popu-
larized by Robert Martinson in the 1970s
that correctional treatment programs have little
success in rehabilitating offenders.
nurturant strategy A crime-control strategy
that attempts “to forestall development of crim-
inality by improving early life experiences and
channeling child and adolescent development”
in desirable directions.22
occasional offender A criminal offender
whose offending patterns are guided primarily
by opportunity.

occupational crime Any act punishable by
law that is committed in the course of an indi-
vidual’s legal occupation.23
offense A violation of the criminal law or, in
some jurisdictions, a minor crime, such as jay-
walking, sometimes described as “ticketable.”
offense specialization A preference for en-
gaging in a certain type of offense to the exclu-
sion of others.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention (OJJDP) A national office that
provides monetary assistance and direct victim-
service programs for juvenile courts.
Office of National Drug Control Policy
(ONDCP) A national office charged by Con-
gress with establishing policies, priorities, and
objectives for the nation’s drug-control program.
ONDCP is responsible for developing and dis-
seminating the National Drug-Control Strategy.
omertà The informal unwritten code of orga-
nized crime, which demands silence and loyalty,
among other things, of family members.
Omnibus Anti-Drug Abuse Act A federal
law (Public Law 100–690) enacted in 1988 that
substantially increased federal penalties for
recreational drug users and created a new
cabinet-level position (known unofficially as
the drug czar) to coordinate the drug-fighting
efforts of the federal government.
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets
Act A federal law enacted in 1967 to elimi-
nate the social conditions that create crime and
to fund many anticrime initiatives nationwide.
operant behavior Any behavior that affects
the environment in such a way as to produce
responses or further behavioral cues.
operationalization The process by which
concepts are made measurable.
opportunity structure A path to success.
Opportunity structures may be of two types:
legitimate and illegitimate.
organized crime The unlawful activities of
the members of a highly organized,disciplined as-
sociation engaged in supplying illegal goods and
services, including gambling, prostitution, loan-
sharking, narcotics, and labor racketeering.24
Panopticon A prison designed by Jeremy
Bentham that was to be a circular building with
GLOSSARY
cells along the circumference, each clearly visi-
ble from a central location staffed by guards.
paradigm An example, a model, or a theory.
paranoid schizophrenic A schizophrenic
individual who suffers from delusions and
hallucinations.
Part I offenses The crimes of murder, rape,
robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny,
and motor vehicle theft, as defined under the
FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting Program; also
called major crimes.
Part II offenses The less serious offenses as
identified by the FBI for the purpose of report-
ing arrest data.
participant observation A strategy in data
gathering in which the researcher observes a
group by participating, to varying degrees, in
the activities of the group.25
participatory justice A relatively informal
type of criminal justice case processing that makes
use of local community resources rather than re-
quiring traditional forms of official intervention.
patriarchy The tradition of male dominance.
peacemaking criminology A perspective
that holds that crime-control agencies and the
citizens they serve should work together to al-
leviate social problems and human suffering
and thus reduce crime.
peace model An approach to crime control
that focuses on effective ways for developing a
shared consensus on critical issues that could se-
riously affect the quality of life.
penal couple A term that describes the rela-
tionship between offender and victim; also the
two individuals most involved in the criminal
act: the offender and the victim.
persistence The act of continuing in crime;
also continual involvement in offending.
persistent thief One who continues in com-
mon law types of property crimes despite no
better than an ordinary level of success.
personal robbery A robbery that occurs on
the highway or street or in a public place (also
called mugging) or that occurs in a residence.
pharmaceutical diversion The process by
which legitimately manufactured controlled
substances are diverted for illicit use.
phenomenological criminology The study
of crime as a social phenomenon that is created
through a process of social interaction.
phenomenology The study of the contents
of human consciousness without regard to
external conventions or prior assumptions.
phishing An Internet-based scam whose
goal is to steal valuable personal information
such as credit-card or Social Security numbers,
user IDs, and passwords.26
phone phreak A person who uses switched,
dialed-access telephone services for exploration
and exploitation.
phrenology The study of the shape of the head
to determine anatomical correlates of human
behavior.
piracy See software piracy.
pluralist perspective An analytical approach
to social organization that holds that a multi-
plicity of values and beliefs exists in any com-
plex society but that most social actors agree
on the usefulness of law as a formal means of
dispute resolution.
positivism The application of scientific tech-
niques to the study of crime and criminals.
postcrime victimization Any problem that
tends to follow from initial victimization; also
called secondary victimization.
postmodern criminology A brand of
criminology that developed following World
War II and that builds on the tenets inherent in
postmodern social thought.
postmodern feminism A perspective within
modern criminology that questions the social
construction of concepts that are typically used in
any discussion of crime and justice.
power-control theory A perspective that
holds that the distribution of crime and delin-
quency within society is to some degree
founded upon the consequences that power re-
lationships within the wider society hold for
domestic settings and for the everyday relation-
ships among men, women, and children within
the context of family life.
primary deviance The initial deviance of-
ten undertaken to deal with transient problems
in living.
9

primary homicide A murder involving a
family member, friend, or acquaintance.
primary research Any research character-
ized by original and direct investigation.
professional criminal A criminal offender
who makes a living from criminal pursuits, is
recognized by other offenders as professional,
and engages in offending that is planned and
calculated.
Project on Human Development in
Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) An
intensive study of Chicago neighborhoods
employing longitudinal evaluations to examine
the changing circumstances of people’s lives in an
effort to identify personal characteristics that may
lead toward or away from antisocial behavior.
proletariat The “have-nots,” or the working
class in Marxist theory.
prosocial bond A bond between the indi-
vidual and the social group that strengthens the
likelihood of conformity. Prosocial bonds are
characterized by attachment to conventional
social institutions, values, and beliefs.
prostitution The offering of one’s self for hire
for the purpose of engaging in sexual relations,
or the act or practice of engaging in sexual
activity for money or its equivalent.
protection/avoidance strategy A crime-
control strategy whose goal is to reduce criminal
opportunities by changing people’s routine ac-
tivities, increasing guardianship, or incapacitating
convicted offenders.27
psychiatric criminology Any theory that
is derived from the medical sciences, including
neurology, and that, like other psychological
theories, focuses on the individual as the unit
of analysis. Psychiatric theories form the basis
of psychiatric criminology. See also forensic
psychiatry.
psychiatric theory A theory derived from
the medical sciences, including neurology, and
that, like other psychological theories, focuses
on the individual as the unit of analysis.
psychoactive substance A substance that
affects the mind, mental processes, or emotions.
psychoanalysis The theory of human psy-
chology founded by Sigmund Freud on the con-
cepts of the unconscious, resistance, repression,
sexuality, and the Oedipus complex.28
10
GLOSSARY
psychoanalytic criminology A psychiatric
approach developed by Sigmund Freud that
emphasizes the role of personality in human
behavior and which sees deviant behavior as the
result of dysfunctional personalities.
psychological profiling The attempt to
categorize, understand, and predict the behav-
ior of certain types of offenders based on
behavioral clues they provide.
psychological theory A theory derived
from the behavioral sciences that focuses
on the individual as the unit of analysis.
Psychological theories place the locus of
crime causation within the personality of the
individual offender.
psychopath An individual who has a per-
sonality disorder, especially one manifested in
aggressively antisocial behavior, and who is
lacking in empathy; also called sociopath.
psychopathology A psychological disorder
that causes distress for either the individual or
someone in the individual’s life.29 It is also the
study of pathological mental conditions (mental
illness).
psychopathy A personality disorder charac-
terized by antisocial behavior and lack of affect.
psychosis A form of mental illness in which
sufferers are said to be out of touch with reality.
psychotherapy A form of psychiatric treat-
ment based on psychoanalytical principles and
techniques.
public policy A course of action that gov-
ernment takes in an effort to solve a problem or
to achieve an end.
punishment An undesirable behavioral con-
sequence likely to decrease the frequency of
occurrence of that behavior.
pure research Any research undertaken simply
for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge.
qualitative method A research technique
that produces subjective results or results that
are difficult to quantify.
quantitative method A research technique
that produces measurable results.
quasi-experimental design An approach
to research that, although less powerful than ex-
perimental designs, is deemed worthy of use
when better designs are not feasible.
Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Orga-
nizations (RICO) A statute that was part of
the federal Organized Crime Control Act of
1970 and that is intended to combat criminal
conspiracies.
radical criminology A perspective that
holds that the causes of crime are rooted in so-
cial conditions that empower the wealthy and
the politically well organized but disenfranchise
the less fortunate; also called critical criminology
and Marxist criminology.
radical feminism A perspective that holds
that any significant change in the social status of
women can be accomplished only through sub-
stantial changes in social institutions such as the
family, law, and medicine. Radical feminism ar-
gues, for example, that the structure of current
legal thinking involves what is fundamentally a
male perspective, which should be changed to
incorporate women’s social experiences and
points of view.
randomization The process whereby
individuals are assigned to study groups
without biases or differences resulting from
selection.
rape (NCVS) The carnal knowledge through
the use of force or the threat of force, including
attempts. Statutory rape (without force) is ex-
cluded. Both heterosexual and homosexual rape
are included.
rape (UCR) See forcible rape.
rape myth A false assumption about rape
such as “When a woman says no, she really
means yes.” Rape myths characterize much of
the discourse surrounding sexual violence.
rape-shield law A statute providing for
the protection of rape victims by ensuring that
defendants do not introduce irrelevant facts
about the victim’s sexual history into evidence.
rational choice theory A perspective that
holds that criminality is the result of conscious
choice and that predicts that individuals choose
to commit crime when the benefits outweigh
the costs of disobeying the law.
reaction formation The process by which a
person openly rejects that which he or she wants
or aspires to but cannot obtain or achieve.
realist criminology See left realism.
recidivism The repetition of criminal behavior.

recidivism rate The percentage of convicted
offenders who have been released from prison
and who are later rearrested for a new crime,
generally within five years following release. See
also dangerousness.
reintegrative shaming A form of shaming,
imposed as a sanction by the criminal justice
system, that is thought to strengthen the moral
bond between the offender and the community.
relative deprivation A sense of social or eco-
nomic inequality experienced by those who are
unable,for whatever reason,to achieve legitimate
success within the surrounding society.
replicability A scientific principle that holds
that valid observations made at one time can
be made again later if all other conditions are
the same.
research The use of standardized, systematic
procedures in the search for knowledge.30
research design The logic and structure
inherent in an approach to data gathering.
resilience The psychological ability to success-
fully cope with severe stress and negative events.
restitution A criminal sanction, especially
the payment of compensation by the offender
to the victim.
restorative justice A postmodern perspective
that stresses “remedies and restoration rather than
prison, punishment and victim neglect.”31
retribution The act of taking revenge on a
criminal perpetrator.
reward A desirable behavioral consequence
likely to increase the frequency of occurrence
of that behavior.
risk analysis See threat analysis.
robbery (UCR) The taking of or attempt-
ing to take anything of value from the care,
custody, or control of a person or persons
by force or threat of force or violence or by
putting the victim in fear.
routine activities theory A brand of ra-
tional choice theory that suggests that lifestyles
contribute significantly to both the volume and
the type of crime found in any society; also
called lifestyle theory.
scenario writing A technique intended to
predict future outcomes that builds on environ-
mental scanning by attempting to assess the
GLOSSARY
likelihood of a variety of possible outcomes
once important trends have been identified.
schizoid A person characterized by
schizoid personality disorder. Such disordered
personalities appear to be aloof, withdrawn,
unresponsive, humorless, dull, and solitary to
an abnormal degree.
schizophrenic A mentally ill individual
who is out of touch with reality and who suf-
fers from disjointed thinking.
secondary deviance Any deviant behavior
that results from official labeling and from asso-
ciation with others who have been so labeled.
secondary research A new evaluation of
existing information that had been collected by
other researchers.
secondary victimization See postcrime
victimization.
second-degree murder A criminal homi-
cide that is unplanned and that is often described
as a “crime of passion.”
securities fraud The theft of money result-
ing from intentional manipulation of the value
of equities, including stocks and bonds. Securi-
ties fraud also includes theft from securities
accounts and wire fraud.
selective disinhibition A loss of self-control
due to the characteristics of the social setting,
drugs or alcohol, or a combination of both.
selective incapacitation A social policy
that seeks to protect society by incarcerating the
individuals deemed to be the most dangerous.
self-control A person’s ability to alter his or
her own mental and emotional states and
behavioral responses.
self-report survey A survey in which anony-
mous respondents, without fear of disclosure
or arrest, are asked to confidentially report any
violations of the criminal law that they have
committed.
separation assault Any violence inflicted by
partners on significant others who attempt to
leave an intimate relationship.
serial murder A criminal homicide that in-
volves the killing of several victims in three or
more separate events.
sex trafficking The recruitment, harbor-
ing, transportation, provision, or obtaining
of a person for the purpose of a commercial
sex act.
sibling offense An offense or incident that
culminates in homicide.The offense or incident
may be a crime, such as robbery, or an incident
that meets a less stringent criminal definition,such
as a lover’s quarrel involving assault or battery.
simple assault (NCVS) An attack without
a weapon, resulting either in minor injury or in
undetermined injury requiring less than two
days of hospitalization. See also aggravated
assault.
situational choice theory A brand of
rational choice theory that views criminal
behavior “as a function of choices and deci-
sions made within a context of situational
constraints and opportunities.”32
situational crime prevention A social pol-
icy approach whose goal is to develop greater
understanding of crime as well as more effective
crime-prevention strategies by focusing on
physical, organizational, and social environments
that make crime possible.33
snitch An amateur shoplifter.
social bond The link, created through so-
cialization, between individuals and the society
of which they are a part.
social capital The degree of positive rela-
tionships with others and with social institu-
tions that individuals build up over the course
of their lives.
social class A distinction made between
individuals on the basis of important defining
social characteristics.
social contract The Enlightenment-era con-
cept that human beings abandon their natural
state of individual freedom to join together and
form society. In the process of forming a social
contract, individuals surrender some freedoms
to society as a whole, and government, once
formed, is obligated to assume responsibilities
toward its citizens and to provide for their pro-
tection and welfare.
social control theory A perspective that
predicts that when social constraints on antiso-
cial behavior are weakened or absent, delin-
quent behavior emerges. Rather than stressing
causative factors in criminal behavior, social
control theory asks why people actually obey
rules instead of breaking them.
11

social development perspective An inte-
grated view of human development that exam-
ines multiple levels of maturation simultaneously,
including the psychological, biological, familial,
interpersonal, cultural, societal, and ecological
levels.
social disorganization A condition said to
exist when a group is faced with social change,
uneven development of culture,maladaptiveness,
disharmony, conflict, and lack of consensus.
social disorganization theory A perspective
on crime and deviance that sees society as a kind
of organism and crime and deviance as a kind
of disease or social pathology.Theories of social
disorganization are often associated with the per-
spective of social ecology and with the Chicago
School of criminology, which developed during
the 1920s and 1930s.
social ecology An approach to criminolog-
ical theorizing that attempts to link the struc-
ture and organization of a human community
to interactions with its localized environment.
social epidemiology The study of social epi-
demics and diseases of the social order.
Socialist feminism A perspective within
modern criminology that sees gender oppression
as a consequence of the interaction between the
economic structure of society and gender-based
roles.
socialization The lifelong process of social
experience whereby individuals acquire the
cultural patterns of their society.
social learning theory A perspective that
places primary emphasis on the role of com-
munication and socialization in the acquisition
of learned patterns of criminal behavior and the
values that support that behavior; also called
learning theory.
social life The ongoing and (typically) struc-
tured interaction that occurs between persons
in a society, including socialization and social
behavior in general.
social pathology A concept that compares
society to a physical organism and that sees
criminality as an illness.
social policy A government initiative, pro-
gram, or plan intended to address problems in
society. The “war on crime,” for example, is a
kind of generic (large-scale) social policy—one
consisting of many smaller programs.
12
GLOSSARY
social problems perspective The belief
that crime is a manifestation of underlying so-
cial problems, such as poverty, discrimination,
pervasive family violence, inadequate socializa-
tion practices, and the breakdown of traditional
social institutions.
social process The interaction between and
among social institutions,individuals,and groups.
social process theory A theory that asserts
that criminal behavior is learned in interaction
with others and that socialization processes that
occur as the result of group membership are the
primary route through which learning occurs;
also called interactionist perspective.
social relativity The notion that social
events are differently interpreted according to
the cultural experiences and personal interests
of the initiator, the observer, or the recipient of
that behavior.
social responsibility perspective The be-
lief that individuals are fundamentally responsi-
ble for their own behavior and that they choose
crime over other, more law-abiding courses of
action.
social structure The pattern of social or-
ganization and the interrelationships among
institutions characteristic of a society.
social structure theory A theory that
explains crime by reference to some aspect of
the social fabric. These theories emphasize
relationships among social institutions and
describe the types of behavior that tend to
characterize groups of people rather than
individuals.
sociobiology “The systematic study of the
biological basis of all social behavior.”34
sociological theory A perspective that
focuses on the nature of the power relationships
that exist between social groups and on the
influences that various social phenomena bring
to bear on the types of behaviors that tend to
characterize groups of people.
sociopath See psychopath.
soft determinism The belief that human
behavior is the result of choices and decisions
made within a context of situational constraints
and opportunities.
software piracy The unauthorized and ille-
gal copying of software programs.
somatotyping The classification of human
beings into types according to body build and
other physical characteristics.
specific deterrence A goal of criminal sen-
tencing that seeks to prevent a particular of-
fender from engaging in repeat criminality.
spousal rape The rape of one spouse by the
other. The term usually refers to the rape of a
woman by her husband.
stalking A course of conduct directed at a
specific person that involves repeated visual or
physical proximity; nonconsensual communi-
cation; verbal, written, or implied threats; or
a combination thereof that would cause a rea-
sonable person fear as well as a constellation of
behaviors involving repeated and persistent
attempts to impose on another person unwanted
communication and/or contact.
state-organized crime Any act defined by
law as criminal that is committed by a state of-
ficial during his or her work as a representative
of the state.35
statistical correlation The simultaneous
increase or decrease in value of two numerically
valued random variables.36
statistical school A criminological perspec-
tive with roots in the early 1800s that seeks to
uncover correlations between crime rates and
other types of demographic data.
statute A formal written enactment by a leg-
islative body.37
statutory law Law in the form of statutes or
formal written strictures made by a legislature
or governing body with the power to make law.
stigmatic shaming A form of shaming, im-
posed as a sanction by the criminal justice sys-
tem, that is thought to destroy the moral bond
between the offender and the community.
strain theory A sociological approach that
posits a disjuncture between socially and subcul-
turally sanctioned means and goals as the cause
of criminal behavior; also called anomie theory.
strategic assessment A technique that as-
sesses the risks and opportunities facing those
who plan for the future.
structural Marxism A perspective that
holds that the structural institutions of society
influence the behavior of individuals and
groups by virtue of the type of relationships

created. The criminal law, for example, reflects
class relationships and serves to reinforce those
relationships.
subcultural theory A sociological perspec-
tive that emphasizes the contribution made by
variously socialized cultural groups to the phe-
nomenon of crime.
subculture A collection of values and pref-
erences that is communicated to subcultural
participants through a process of socialization.
sublimation The psychological process
whereby one aspect of consciousness comes to
be symbolically substituted for another.
substantial-capacity test A standard for
judging legal insanity that requires that a person
lack the mental capacity needed to understand
the wrongfulness of his or her act or to conform
his or her behavior to the requirements of the law.
superego The moral aspect of the personal-
ity; much like the conscience. According to
Freud, this part of the psyche develops by
incorporating the community’s (perceived)
moral standards, is mainly unconscious, and
includes the conscience.38
supermale A male individual displaying the
XYY chromosome structure.
superpredator A member of a new genera-
tion of juveniles “who [is] coming of age in
actual and ‘moral poverty’without the benefits of
parents, teachers, coaches and clergy to teach
[him or her] right from wrong and show [him or
her] ‘unconditional love.’ ” 39 The term is often
applied to inner-city youths.
survey research A social science data-
gathering technique that involves the use of
questionnaires.
tagging The process whereby an individual
is negatively defined by agencies of justice; also
called labeling.
target hardening The reduction in criminal
opportunity for a particular location, generally
through the use of physical barriers, architec-
tural design, and enhanced security measures.
technique of neutralization A culturally
available justification that can provide criminal
offenders with the means to disavow responsi-
bility for their behavior.
TEMPEST A standard developed by the U.S.
government that requires that electromagnetic
GLOSSARY
emanations from computers designated as
“secure” be below levels that would allow radio
receiving equipment to read the data being
computed.
terrorism Any premeditated, politically moti-
vated violence perpetrated against noncombatant
targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents,
usually intended to influence an audience.40
test of significance A statistical technique
intended to provide researchers with confi-
dence that their results are, in fact, true and not
the result of sampling error.
testosterone The primary male sex hor-
mone produced in the testes. Its function is to
control secondary sex characteristics and sexual
drive.
Thanatos A death wish.
theory A series of interrelated propositions
that attempt to describe, explain, predict,
and ultimately control some class of events. A
theory gains explanatory power from inherent
logical consistency and is “tested” by how well
it describes and predicts reality.
threat analysis A complete and thorough
assessment of the kinds of perils facing an orga-
nization; also called risk analysis.
three-strikes legislation A criminal statute
that mandates life imprisonment for criminals
convicted of three violent felonies or serious
drug offenses.
total institution A facility from which in-
dividuals can rarely come and go and in which
communal life is intense and circumscribed.
Individuals in total institutions tend to eat,
sleep, play, learn, and worship together.
trafficking in persons (TIP) The exploita-
tion of unwilling or unwitting people through
force, coercion, threat, or deception.
transnational organized crime Any un-
lawful activity undertaken and supported by
organized criminal groups operating across
national boundaries.
trend extrapolation A technique of futures
research that makes future predictions based on
the projection of existing trends.
truth in sentencing A close correspondence
between the incarceration sentence given the
offender and the time actually served prior to
prison release.41
Twelve Tables Early Roman laws written
circa 450 B.C. that regulated family, religious,
and economic life.
unicausal The characteristic of having one
cause. Unicausal theories posit only one source
for all that they attempt to explain.
Uniform Crime Reporting Program
(UCR) A Federal Bureau of Investigation data-
gathering initiative that provides an annual tally
of statistics consisting primarily of information
on crimes reported to the police and on arrests.
utilitarianism See hedonistic calculus.
variable A concept that can undergo mea-
surable changes.
verstehen The kind of subjective understand-
ing that can be achieved by criminologists who
immerse themselves in the everyday world of
the criminals they study.
victim-impact statement A written docu-
ment that describes the losses, suffering, and
trauma experienced by the crime victim or by
the victim’s survivors. In jurisdictions where
victim-impact statements are used, judges are
expected to consider them in arriving at an
appropriate sentence for the offender.
victimization rate (NCVS) A measure of the
occurrence of victimizations among a specified
population group. For personal crimes, the rate is
based on the number of victimizations per
1,000 residents age 12 or older. For household
crimes,the victimization rates are calculated using
the number of incidents per 1,000 households.
victimogenesis The contributory back-
ground of a victim as a result of which he or she
becomes prone to victimization.
victimology The study of victims and their
contributory role, if any, in crime causation.
victim-precipitated homicide A killing in
which the victim was the first to commence the
interaction or was the first to resort to physical
violence.
victim precipitation Any contribution
made by the victim to the criminal event, espe-
cially something that led to its initiation.
victim proneness An individual’s likelihood
of victimization.
Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) A federal
law enacted in 1984 that established the federal
13
 GLOSSARY

Crime Victims Fund. The fund uses monies
from fines and forfeitures collected from federal
offenders to supplement state support of local
victims’ assistance programs and state victims’
compensation programs.
victim-witness assistance program A
program that counsels victims, orients them to
the justice process, and provides a variety of
other services, such as transportation to court,
child care during court appearances, and refer-
rals to social services agencies.
Violence against Women Act (VAWA) A
federal law enacted as a component of the 1994
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement
Act and intended to address concerns about vio-
lence against women. The law focused on im-
proving the interstate enforcement of protection
orders, providing effective training for court per-
sonnel involved with women’s issues, improving
the training and collaboration of police and pros-
ecutors with victim service providers, strength-
ening law enforcement efforts to reduce violence
against women, and increasing services to victims
of violence. President Clinton signed the reau-
thorization of this legislation, known as the Vio-
lence against Women Act 2000, into law on
October 28, 2000.
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforce-
ment Act A federal law (Public Law 103–322)
enacted in 1994 that authorized spending billions
of dollars on crime prevention, law enforcement,
and prison construction. It also outlawed the sale
of certain types of assault weapons and enhanced
federal death-penalty provisions.
Violent Criminal Apprehension Program
(VICAP) The program of the Federal Bureau
of Investigation focusing on serial murder inves-
tigations and the apprehension of serial killers.
virus See computer virus.
white-collar crime Any violation of the
criminal law committed by a person of re-
spectability and high social status in the course
of his or her occupation.
Wickersham Commission A commis-
sion (officially known as the Commission on
Law Observance and Enforcement) created
by President Herbert Hoover in 1931 whose
mandate was to improve justice system prac-
tices and to reinstate law’s role in civilized
governance. The commission made recom-
mendations concerning the nation’s police
forces and described how to improve policing
throughout America.
workplace violence The crimes of murder,
rape, robbery, and assault committed against
persons who are at work or on duty.

CHAPTER NOTES
1. National Institute on Drug Abuse, The Science of Addiction: Drugs,
Brains, and Behavior (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 2007).
2. American Board of Forensic Psychology, http://www.abfp.com/
brochure.html (accessed November 22, 2009).
3. This and other cybercrime-related terms are adapted from Donn
B. Parker, Computer Crime: Criminal Justice Resource Manual
(Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, 1989).
4. Michael L. Benson, Francis T. Cullen, and William J. Maakestad,
Local Prosecutors and Corporate Crime (Washington, DC: National
Institute of Justice, 1993).
5. Adapted from Anthony Walsh, Biosocial Criminology: Introduction and
Integration (Cincinnati:Anderson, 2002), p. 59.
6. James A. Inciardi, The War on Drugs II (Mountain View, CA:
Mayfield, 1992).
7. Bryan Vila, “A General Paradigm for Understanding Criminal
Behavior: Extending Evolutionary Ecological Theory,” Criminology,
Vol. 32, No. 3 (August 1994), pp. 311–359.
8. Adapted from Federal Bureau of Investigation, FBI Policy and Guide-
lines: Counterterrorism, http://www.fbi.gov/contact/fo/jackson/
cntrterr.htm (accessed January 15, 2010).
9. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Drugs, Crime and the Justice System
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, December 1992).
10. American Heritage Dictionary and Electronic Thesaurus (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1987).
11. George F. Cole,“Criminal Justice in the Twenty-First Century: The
Role of Futures Research,” in John Klofas and Stan Stojkovic, eds.,
Crime and Justice in the Year 2010 (Belmont, CA:Wadsworth, 1995).
12. Society of Police Futurists International, PFI:The Future of Policing,
no date.
13. Teresa C. LaGrange and Robert A. Silverman, “Low Self-Control
and Opportunity: Testing the General Theory of Crime as an
Explanation for Gender Differences in Delinquency,” Criminology,
Vol. 37, No. 1 (1999), p. 41.
14. Adapted from “Globalization,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007, Encyclo-
pedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu5369857
(accessed July, 23, 2007).
15. Raimo Väyrynen, “Illegal Immigration, Human Trafficking, and
Organized Crime,” United Nations University/World Institute for
Development Economics Research, Discussion Paper No. 2003/72
(October 2003).
16. American Heritage Dictionary and Electronic Thesaurus.
17. Ibid.
18. Adapted from Dictionary.com, http://dictionary.reference.com
/search?1q=infrastructure (accessed January 10, 2003).
19. American Heritage Dictionary and Electronic Thesaurus.
20. Adapted from Federal Bureau of Investigation, FBI Policy and
Guidelines.
21. Clifford Karchmer and Douglas Ruch, “State and Local Money
Laundering Control Strategies,” NIJ Research in Brief (Washington,
DC: National Institute of Justice, 1992).
22. Vila,“A General Paradigm for Understanding Criminal Behavior.”
23. Gary S. Green, Occupational Crime (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1990).
24. The Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1970, Pub. L. 90–351,Title I,
Section 101.
25. Frank E. Hagan, Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminology
(New York: Macmillan, 1993).

14
 GLOSSARY
26. “Phishing,” TechWeb’s TechEncyclopedia, http://www.techweb.com
/encyclopedia/defineterm?term=phishing (accessed July 30, 2010).
27. Bryan Vila, “Human Nature and Crime Control: Improving the
Feasibility of Nurturant Strategies,” Politics and the Life Sciences
(March 1997), pp. 3–21.
28. American Heritage Dictionary and Electronic Thesaurus.
29. Laurence Steinberg, “The Juvenile Psychopath: Fads, Fictions, and
Facts,” National Institute of Justice Perspectives on Crime and Justice:
2001 Lecture Series, Vol. 5 (Washington, DC: National Institute of
Justice, 2002), pp. 35–64.
30. Abraham Kaplan, The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral
Science (San Francisco: Chandler, 1964).
31. Fay Honey Knopp, “Community Solutions to Sexual Violence:
Feminist-Abolitionist Perspectives,” in Harold Pepinsky and
Richard Quinney, eds., Criminology as Peacemaking (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 183.
32. Ronald V. Clarke and Derek B. Cornish, eds., Crime Control in
Britain:A Review of Police and Research (Albany: State University of
New York Press), p. 8.
33. David Weisburd, “Reorienting Crime Prevention Research and Pol-
icy:From the Causes of Criminality to the Context of Crime,”NIJ Re-
search Report (Washington,DC:National Institute of Justice,June 1997).
34. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1975).
35. William J. Chambliss, “State-Organized Crime—The American
Society of Criminology, 1988 Presidential Address,” Criminology,
Vol. 27, No. 2 (1989), pp. 183–208.
36. American Heritage Dictionary and Electronic Thesaurus.
37. Henry Campbell Black, Black’s Law Dictionary, 6th ed. (St. Paul,
MN:West, 1990).
38. American Heritage Dictionary and Electronic Thesaurus.
39. See John J. DiIulio, Jr., “The Question of Black Crime,” Public
Interest (fall 1994), pp. 3–12. The term superpredator is generally
attributed to DiIulio.
40. U.S.Department of State,Patterns of GlobalTerrorism,2001 (Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002), http://www.state.gov/
s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001 (accessed January 2, 2003).
41. Lawrence A. Greenfeld, “Prison Sentences and Time Served for
Violence,” Bureau of Justice Statistics Selected Findings, No. 4, April
1995.
15
This page intentionally left blank
Sonja Flemming/CBS/Courtesy Everett Collection

CRIMINOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
answer the following questions:
● What is crime? What is the definition of crime that the
author of this text has chosen to use?
● What is deviance? How are crime and deviance
similar? How do they differ?
● Who decides what should be criminal? How are such
decisions made?
● What is criminology? What do criminologists do?
WHAT IS
● How is social policy in the area of crime control
determined? What role does criminological research
play in the establishment of such policy?
● What does it mean to say that “criminal activity is
diversely created and variously interpreted”?
● What discipline has contributed the most to
theoretical understandings of crime causation over
the past century?

From Chapter 1 of Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, Sixth Edition, Frank Schmalleger. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall.All rights reserved.
 WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
WEB EXTRA 1–1
WEB EXTRA 1–2
Introduction
In 2010, the CBS-TV megahit series NCIS (Naval Criminal
Investigative Service) was recognized by Los Angeles’s Paley
Center for Media as the most popular scripted TV show in the
world.1 With over 20 million dedicated viewers in the United
States alone, the show has achieved heights that most other
shows can’t even dream of. Another immensely popular series
on the same network, CSI: Miami, has more than 50 million regu-
lar viewers in 55 countries,2 with programming that extends
well beyond its Miami-based series. The CSI franchise, which
follows teams of crime-scene investigators, now includes shows
featuring New York City and other locales and is available to a
global audience of nearly 2 billion viewers in 200 countries
around the globe.3
The popularity of prime-time television crime shows is not
limited to NCIS or CSI, as other widely followed series demon-
strate. Included are shows like Criminal Minds (CBS), Without a
Trace (CBS), Numb3rs (CBS), White Collar (USA), The Unit
(CBS), The District (CBS), The Shield (FX), The Wire (HBO), Cold
Case (CBS), CIS (CBS), and Law and Order (NBC)—along with
the Law and Order spin-offs, Law and Order: Criminal Intent and
Law and Order: Special Victims’ Unit. Social commentators note
that the plethora of crime shows bombarding the airwaves today
reveals a penchant among American TV viewers for crime-
related entertainment and a fascination with criminal motivation
and detective work.
The public’s interest in real-life stories of criminal victim-
ization, revenge, and reformation has given birth to reality-TV
crime shows, including America’s Most Wanted (which premiered
on Fox in 1988), COPS (Fox), Crime and Punishment (NBC), and
World’s Wildest Police Videos (SPIKE). Similarly, video magazine
shows like 60 Minutes (CBS), 20/20 (ABC), and Nightline (ABC)
frequently focus on justice issues, and any number of movies—
including films like Sherlock Holmes, Cop Out, SWAT, Training
Day, 2 Fast 2 Furious, The Green Mile, Runaway Jury, The Shaw-
shank Redemption, The Collector, Whiteout, and Minority Report—
play off the public’s fascination with crime and the personal
drama it fosters.
Like this chapter, many of today’s television shows deliver
content across a variety of media.View the CSI show’s Web site
at Web Extra 1–1, or become a fan of NCIS on Facebook via
Web Extra 1–2.
18
■ crime
Human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of the federal
government, a state, or a local jurisdiction that has the power to
make such laws.
What Is Crime?
Before we begin the discussion of criminology in earnest, we need
to consider just what the term crime means. Crime can be defined
in a variety of ways, and some scholars have suggested that at least
four definitional perspectives can be found in contemporary crim-
inology. These diverse perspectives see crime from (1) legalistic,
(2) political, (3) sociological, and (4) psychological viewpoints.
How we see any phenomenon is crucial because it determines the
assumptions that we make about how that phenomenon should be
studied.The perspective that we choose to employ when viewing
crime determines the kinds of questions we ask, the nature of the
research we conduct, and the type of answers that we expect to
receive. Those answers, in turn, influence our conclusions about
the kinds of crime-control policies that might be effective.
Seen from a legalistic perspective, crime is human conduct in
violation of the criminal laws of a state, the federal government, or a lo-
cal jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws. Without a law
that circumscribes a particular form of behavior there can be no
crime, no matter how deviant or socially repugnant the behavior
in question may be.
The notion of crime as behavior4 that violates the law de-
rives from earlier work by criminologists like Paul W.Tappan,
who defined crime as “an intentional act in violation of the
criminal law . . . commit-
Without a law that ted without defense or
circumscribes a particular excuse, and penalized by
the state as a felony or
form of behavior, there misdemeanor.”5 Edwin
Sutherland, regarded by
can be no crime. many as a founding fig-
ure in American criminology, said of crime that its “essential
characteristic . . . is that it is behavior which is prohibited by
the State as an injury to the State and against which the State
may react . . . by punishment.”6
A serious shortcoming of the legalistic approach to crime is
that it yields the moral high ground to powerful individuals who
are able to influence the making of laws and the imposition of
criminal definitions on lawbreakers. By making their own laws,
powerful but immoral individuals can escape the label “criminal.”
While we have chosen to adopt the legalistic approach to crime, it
is important to realize that laws are social products, so crime is so-
cially relative in the sense that it is created by legislative activity.
 WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
■ criminalize
To make illegal.
■ statute
A formal written enactment of a legislative body.
■ statutory law
Law in the form of statutes or formal written strictures made by
a legislature or governing body with the power to make law.
A still image from the highly popular CBS-TV show CSI: Crime
Scene Investigation. Cast members appearing in this image
from the “Lab Rats” episode are Hodges (Wallace Langham, far
left), Archie (Archie Kao, far right), Henry (Jon Wellner), and
Mandy (Sheeri Rappaport). Why do many people like to watch
TV crime shows like CSI?
Source: CBS/Ron Jaffe/Landov © 2007 CBS Broadcasting, Inc. All Rights
Reserved
Hence, sociologists are fond of saying that “crime is whatever a so-
ciety says it is.”Criminalization is the method used to criminalize
some forms of behavior—or make them illegal—while other
forms remain legitimate.
Another problem with the legalistic perspective is its insis-
tence that the nature of crime cannot be separated from the na-
ture of law, as the one explicitly defines the other. Not always
recognized by legalistic definitions of crime, however, is the social,
ethical, and individual significance of fundamentally immoral
forms of behavior. Simply put, some activities not yet contravened
by statute still call out for a societal response, sometimes leading
commentators to proclaim,“That ought to be a crime!” or “There
should to be a law against that!”
The legalistic definition of crime also suffers from its seeming
lack of recognition that formalized laws have not always existed.
Undoubtedly, much immoral behavior occurred in past historical
epochs, and contemporary laws probably now regulate most such
behavior. English common law, for example, upon which much of
American statutory law is based, judged behavior in terms of tra-
ditional practice and customs and did not make use of written
LIBRARY EXTRA 1–1
WEB EXTRA 1–3
statutes.Although all American jurisdictions have enacted compre-
hensive legal codes, many states still adhere to a common law tra-
dition.In such“common law states,”individuals may be prosecuted
for violating traditional notions of right and wrong, even though
no violation of written law took place. Such prosecutions rarely
occur, and when they do, they are not often successful.7 You can
learn more about common law at Web Extra 1–3.
Changes in the laws will undoubtedly continue to occur,
perhaps even legitimizing former so-called crimes where funda-
mentally moral or socially beneficial forms of behavior have been
unduly criminalized. Over the last few years, for example, state
legislatures along with members of the general public have de-
bated the pros and cons of same-sex marriages and certain forms
of biomedical research, especially those involving human cloning
and the use of human stem cells.
A second perspective on crime is the political one, where
crime is the result of criteria that have been built into the law by
powerful groups and are then used to label selected undesirable
forms of behavior as illegal. Those who adhere to this point of
view say that crime is a definition of human conduct created by
authorized agents in a politically organized society. Seen this way,
laws serve the interests of the politically powerful, and crimes are
merely forms of behavior that are perceived by those in power as
direct or indirect threats to their interests.Thus, the political per-
spective defines crime in terms of the power structures that exist
in society and asserts that criminal laws do not necessarily bear
any inherent relationship to popular notions of right and wrong.
Even though political processes that create criminal definitions
are sometimes easier to comprehend in totalitarian societies,the po-
litical perspective can also be meaningfully applied to American so-
ciety. John F. Galliher, a contemporary criminologist, summarized
the political perspective on crime when he wrote, “One can best
understand crime in a class-structured society such as the United
States as the end product of a chain of interactions involving pow-
erful groups that use their power to establish criminal laws and sanc-
tions against less powerful persons and groups that may pose a threat
to the group in power.”8 Galliher points out that since legal defini-
tions of criminality are arrived at through a political process,the sub-
ject matter of criminality will be artificially limited if we insist on
seeing crime solely as a violation of the criminal law.
Some criminologists insist that the field of criminology must
include behaviors that go beyond those defined as crimes through
the political process; not doing so, they say, restricts rather than
encourages inquiry into relevant forms of human behavior.9
19
 WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
Adherents of our third perspective, the sociological (also
called “sociolegal”) viewpoint, would likely agree with this state-
ment, seeing crime as “an antisocial act of such a nature that its
repression is necessary or is supposed to be necessary to the
preservation of the existing system of society.”10 Some criminol-
ogists have gone so far as to claim that any definition of crime
must include all forms of antisocial behavior.11 Ron Claassen, a
modern-day champion of restorative justice, suggested, for ex-
ample, that “crime is primarily an offense against human rela-
tionships, and secondarily a violation of a law—since laws are
written to protect safety and fairness in human relationships.”12
A more comprehensive sociological definition of crime was of-
fered by Herman Schwendinger and Julia Schwendinger in 1975:
Crime encompasses “any harmful acts,” including violations of
“the fundamental prerequisites for well-being, [such as] food,
shelter, clothing, medical services, challenging work and recre-
ational experiences, as well as security from predatory individu-
als or repressive and imperialistic elites.”13 The Schwendingers
have challenged criminologists to be less constrained in what
they see as the subject matter of their field, saying that violations
of human rights may be more relevant to criminological inquiry
than many acts that have been politically or legally defined as
crime.“Isn’t it time to raise serious questions about the assump-
tions underlying the definitions of the field of criminology,”
asked the Schwendingers, “when a man who steals a paltry sum
can be called a criminal while agents of the State can, with im-
punity, legally reward men who destroy food so that price levels
can be maintained whilst a sizable portion of the population
suffers from malnutrition?”14 Jeffrey H. Reiman, another con-
temporary criminologist,
Doesn’t a crime by asked similar questions.
“The fact is that the label
any other name still
cause misery and
‘crime’ is not used in
America to name all or
the worst of the actions
suffering? that cause misery and
suffering to Americans,”
said Reiman. “It is primarily reserved for the dangerous actions
of the poor.” Writing about unhealthy and unsafe workplaces,
Reiman asked, “Doesn’t a crime by any other name still cause
misery and suffering? What’s in a name?”15 While a sociolegal
approach to understanding crime is attractive to many, others
claim that it suffers from wanting to criminalize activities that
cause only indirect harm, that is, it is easier for most people to
20
■ deviant behavior
Human activity that violates social
norms.
appreciate the criminality involved in a holdup or a rape than in
cost-cutting efforts made by a businessperson.
Finally, a psychological (or maladaptive) perspective
states that “crime is a form of social maladjustment which
can be designated as a more or less pronounced difficulty
that the individual has in reacting to the stimuli of his envi-
ronment in such a way as to remain in harmony with that
environment.”16 Seen this way, crime is problem behavior,
especially human activity that contravenes the criminal law
and results in difficulties in living within a framework of
generally acceptable social arrangements. According to
Matthew B. Robinson,“The maladaptive view of crime does
not require any of the [traditional] elements . . . in order for
an act to be a crime: no actual harm to others; no prohibition
by law before the act is committed; no arrest; and no con-
viction in a court of law. Any behavior which is maladaptive
. . . would be considered crime. If criminologists adopted this
view of crime,” said Robinson, “the scope of criminology
would be greatly expanded beyond its current state. All
actually or even potentially harmful behaviors could be
examined, analyzed, and documented for the purpose of
gaining knowledge about potentially harmful behaviors and
developing strategies to protect people from all harmful acts,
not just those that are called ‘crime’ today.” 17
As this discussion shows, a unified or simple definition of
crime is difficult to achieve. The four points of view that we
have discussed here form a kind of continuum, bound on
one end by strict legalistic interpretations of crime and on
the other by much more fluid behavioral and moralistic
definitions.
Crime and Deviance
Sociologically speaking, many crimes can be regarded as de-
viant forms of behavior—that is, as behaviors that are in some
way abnormal. Piers Beirne and James Messerschmidt, two
contemporary criminologists, defined deviance as “any social
behavior or social characteristic that departs from the conven-
tional norms and standards of a community or society and for
which the deviant is sanctioned.”18 Their definition, however,
does not count as deviant any sanctionable behavior that is not
punished or punishable. Hence, we prefer another approach to
defining deviance.The definition of deviant behavior that we
 WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
the PROFESSOR | SPEAKS
What Is Crime?
ELLEN G. COHN
Florida
International
University
Put simply, crime is an act that violates a law. So if there is a law against
a certain behavior and you engage in it, you have committed a crime.
On the other hand, if there is no law against a behavior, then it’s not a
Source: Reprinted by permission of Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D. Photo courtesy of Ellen G. Cohn. Logo courtesy of Florida International University.
Illegal
Illegal and Deviant
Deviant
|
FIGURE 1 The Overlap between Deviance
and Crime
will use in this book is as follows: Deviant behavior is human ac-
tivity that violates social norms.
Abnormality, deviance, and crime are concepts that do not
always easily mesh. Some forms of deviance are not violations of
the criminal law, and the reverse is equally true (see Figure 1).
Deviant styles of dress, for example, although perhaps outlandish
to the majority, are generally not circumscribed by criminal law
unless (perhaps) decency statutes are violated by a lack of cloth-
ing. Even in such cases, laws are subject to interpretation and may
be modified as social norms change over time.
In 2009, for example, a judge in Palm Beach County,
Florida, held that a city ordinance barring the wearing of
baggy pants was unconstitutional.19 County Judge Laura John-
son ruled that no matter how “tacky or distasteful” baggy pants
crime, no matter how socially unacceptable it might be. An omission
can be a crime, too; if you don’t do something the law requires you to
do, that’s a crime. Sometimes the situation affects whether a behavior is
considered a crime. Gambling is illegal in some states while playing the
lottery is not.
Laws are constantly changing, creating new crimes and eliminat-
ing old ones. Because not everyone agrees with the law, there are
illegal behaviors that are commonplace.There are laws against speed-
ing, but when I drive to work, it’s rare to see anyone obeying the
speed limit!
This definition basically says that a behavior is a crime only
because the law says so. However, some people see crime as a broader
concept—behavior that violates prevailing social standards of ac-
ceptable behavior. This helps to explain why laws keep changing: as
social attitudes about behaviors change over time, the laws are
changed to conform to new social views. For example, marijuana
was criminalized in the early twentieth century, after drug use
became less socially acceptable. In the late twentieth century, social
attitudes changed again, and many states legalized or decriminalized
marijuana use.
might be to others, they are merely a fashion statement and
that wearing them, especially when no nudity is involved, is a
freedom protected under the Fourteenth Amendment to the
U.S. Constitution. The ordinance had been overwhelmingly
approved by voters only two years earlier.
Some types of behavior, although quite common, are still
against the law even though those who engage in them might
not think of them as deviant. Speeding on interstate highways,
for example, although probably something that most motorists
engage in at least from time to time, is illegal. Complicating mat-
ters still further is the fact that certain behaviors are illegal in
some jurisdictions but not in others. For example, commercial-
ized gambling, especially that involving slot machines and games
of chance, is against the law in most parts of the United States but
has been legitimized in Nevada, on some Indian reservations, on
cruise ships operating outside of U.S. territorial waters, and on
some Mississippi riverboats. Even state governments, seeking
to enhance revenues, have gotten into the gambling business
through state lotteries, which now operate in 38 states, and many
states have laws specifically forbidding participation in online
gambling, due largely to their interest in protecting their own
lottery revenues. Similarly, prostitution, which is almost uni-
formly illegal in the United States, is an activity that is fully
within the law in parts of Nevada as long as it occurs within
licensed brothels and as long as those engaged in the activity meet
state licensing requirements and abide by state laws that require
condom use and weekly medical checkups.
21
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Conclusion.

I. The work on the oxalate and sulphide methods described in

this paper is of no value for determining the atomic weight of
cadmium. It does not even enable us to fix an approximate value.
II. There are a number of errors in the chloride and bromide
methods as they were used in this work, but they are not very large
and partially compensate each other. Their results, 112.383 and
112.396 respectively, may be regarded as approximations to the true
value.
III. The synthesis of cadmium sulphate as carried out is of
especial value in fixing a minimum value for the atomic weight of
cadmium. The result is 112.35, agreeing closely with that obtained by
the bromide and chloride methods.
IV. There is an error in the oxide method due to products of
decomposition of the nitrate being retained. Direct experiments gave
.39 of a unit for this when platinum crucibles were used and .24 of a
unit when porcelain ones were used. The calculated errors for
porcelain and platinum crucibles are .30 and .51 of a unit
respectively, if 112.38 is assumed as the atomic weight of Cadmium.
V. The average of the chloride, bromide, and sulphate methods
is 112.38. This result is to be regarded as tentative and not as final
since the main object of this work has been to find the cause of the
discrepancy in some methods employed in determining this
constant, rather than to make an atomic weight determination.
 Biographical Sketch.

John Emery Bucher was born near Hanover, Pa., August 17,
1872. He entered Lehigh University in 1888 and graduated in 1891.
During the past three years he has been a graduate student in the
Johns Hopkins University.
Subjects: Chemistry, Mineralogy and Mathematics.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and
variations in spelling.
2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings
as printed.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN
EXAMINATION OF SOME METHODS EMPLOYED IN
DETERMINING THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF CADMIUM ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright
in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and
distribute it in the United States without permission and without
paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General
Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the

free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this
work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase
“Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of
the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or
online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand,
agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual
property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to
abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using
and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for
obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™
electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms
of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only

be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by
people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.
There are a few things that you can do with most Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the
full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There
are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™
electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and
help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright
law in the United States and you are located in the United
States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying,
distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works
based on the work as long as all references to Project
Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will
support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free
access to electronic works by freely sharing Project
Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this
agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms
of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with
its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it
without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside
the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to
the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying,
displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works
based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The
Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright
status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project

Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project
Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed,
viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United

States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg
License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United
States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to
anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges.
If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of
paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use
of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth
in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and
distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder.
Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™
License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright
holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files
containing a part of this work or any other work associated with
Project Gutenberg™.
 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute
this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the
Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at
no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a
means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™
works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or

providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite
these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the
medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,”
such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt
data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -

Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU
AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE,
STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER
THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If

you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or
entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by
the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal
tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated
equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly
important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws

regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of
the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform
and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many
fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not
solicit donations in locations where we have not received written
confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or
determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states

where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know
of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from
donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot

make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations
received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp
our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current

donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a
number of other ways including checks, online payments and
credit card donations. To donate, please visit:
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could
be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose
network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several

printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by
copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus,
we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any
particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new
eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear
about new eBooks.