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Acknowledgments
First, we would like to collectively thank those who agreed
to examine earlier drafts of the book-anatomists, edu­
cators, and student members of the editorial review board
from around the world. Your input was invaluable.
We'd also like to thank Richard Tibbitts and Paul Rich­
ardson for their skill in turning our visual ideas into a
reality that is not only a foundation for the acquisition of
anatomical knowledge, but also is beautiful.
Thanks must also go to Madelene Hyde, Bill Schmitt,
Rebecca Gruliow, John Casey, and all the team at Elsevier
for guiding us through the preparation of this book.
We'd also like to thank Professor Richard A. Bucking­
ham of the Abraham Lincoln School of Medicine, Univer­
sity of Illinois for the provision of Fig. 8 . 1 1 4B . Finally,
because we worked separately, distanced by, in some cases,
thousands of miles, there are various people who gave local
support, whom we would like to make mention of individu­
ally. We've gratefully listed them here:
Dr. Leonard Epp, Dr. Carl Morgan, Dr. Robert Shell­
hamer, and Dr. Robert Cardell who profoundly influ­
enced my career as a scientist and an educator.
Richard L. Drake
Dr. Murray Morrison, Dr. Joanne Matsubara, Dr. Brian
Westerberg, Laura Hall, and Jing Cui, for contributing
images for the chapter on the head and neck.
Dr. Bruce Crawford and Logan Lee, for help with images
for the surface anatomy of the upper limb.
Professor Elizabeth Akesson and Dr. Donna Ford, for
their enthusiastic support and valuable critiques.
Dr. Sam Wiseman, for contributing surgical and other
images in the abdomen and head and neck chapters .
A. Wayne Vogl
Dr. Sahar Nasseri (senior specialist registrar) for help
with the images and text and adding critical analysis
on modern imaging.
Drs. J. Healy, J. Lee, G. Rajeswarren, R. Pearce and
B. Roberton for their support and constructive
criticism.
The radiology staff at Chelsea and Westminster Hospital
and The Fortius Clinic.
In particular, Mr. Andrew Williams, FRCS, whose
relentless and unflagging support has been invaluable
(and he mended my leg!) .
Adam W M. Mitchell

Dr. Sydney Friedman, Dr. Elio Raviola, and Dr. Charles

Slonecker, for their inspiration and support and for
instilling in me a passion for the discipline of Anatomy.

Dedications

To my wife, Cheryl, who has supported me; and my parents, who have guided me.
-Richard L. Drake

To my family, to my professional colleagues and role models , and to my students-this book is for you.
-A. Wayne Vogl

To Cathy, Max, and Elsa

-Adam W M. Mitchell

vii
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
The 3rd edition of Gray's Anatomy for Students builds on
the past and looks toward the future.
It maintains the goals and objectives of the 1 st and 2nd
editions while at the same time continuing to incorporate
input from our readers and adjusting the content to align
with the evolving educational environment.
One of the major focuses of our attention as we pre­
pared the 3rd edition was clinical content. The reason for
this is that learning in context has become an important
theme not only in medical education but in anatomical
sciences education generally. We dealt with the clinical
content in two ways. First, we reevaluated and updated
the "In the clinic" boxes, clinical material in the body of
the text, clinical cases at the end of the chapters and in the
online resources, and in the surface anatomy section.
Second, we added new clinical material so that the reader
would have up-to-date examples relating anatomical infor­
mation to clinical situations.
In addition to updating and revising the clinical
content, the section on cranial nerves has been signifi­
cantly expanded. Understanding these important compo­
nents of the nervous system is critical for students at
every level. To facilitate student learning a new figure
summarizing the location, function, and distribution of
each cranial nerve has been added, as has a new figure
summarizing how maj or structures, including cranial
nerves, enter and leave the cranial cavity. We also have
included a new figure illustrating the clinical importance
of vascular structures in and around the cranial cavity.
Another new feature in this edition relates to review
materials. While these useful study aids have always been
available on Student Consult as an online resource, in this
edition the appropriate review materials for each chapter
are listed at the beginning of that chapter. This information
includes an online anatomy and embryology self-study
course, medical clinical cases, physical therapy clinical
cases, self-assessment questions, and more.
We believe that with these changes the 3rd edition of
Gray's Anatomy for Students is a much improved version of
the 2nd edition and hope that the book will continue to be
a valuable learning resource for students.
Richard L. Drake
A. Wayne Vogl
Adam W. M. Mitchell
December 2 0 1 3
ix
This page intentionally left blank
About the Book
The idea
In the past 20 years or so, there have been many changes
that have shaped how students learn human anatomy in
medical and dental schools and in allied health programs,
with curricula becoming either more integrated or more
systems based. In addition, instructional methods focus on
the use of small group activities with the goals of increas­
ing the amount of self-directed learning, and acquiring the
skills for the life-long acquisition of knowledge. An explo­
sion of information in every discipline has also been a force
in driving curricular change as it increases the amount to
be learned without necessarily increasing the time avail­
able. With these changes , we felt it was time for a new text
to be written that would allow students to learn anatomy
within the context of many different curricular designs,
and within ever-increasing time constraints.
We began in the fall of 2 0 0 1 by considering the various
approaches and formats that we might adopt, eventually
deciding upon a regional approach to anatomy with each
chapter having four sections. From the beginning, we
wanted the book to be designed with multiple entry points,
to be targeted at introductory level students in a broad
spectrum of fields, and to be a student-oriented companion
text for Gray's Anatomy, which is aimed at a more profes­
sional audience. We wrote the text first and subsequently
constructed all the artwork and illustrations to comple­
ment and augment the words. Preliminary drafts of chap­
ters, when complete, were distributed to an international
editorial board of anatomists, educators, and anatomy stu­
dents for review. Their comments were then considered
carefully in the preparation of the final book.
The text is not meant to be exhaustive in coverage, but
to present enough anatomy to provide students with a
structural and functional context in which to add further
detail as they progress through their careers. Gray's
Anatomy was used as the maj or reference, both for the text
and for the illustrations, during the preparation of this
book, and it is the recommended source for acquiring
additional detail.
The book
Gray's Anatomy for Students is a clinically oriented, student­
friendly textbook of human anatomy. It has been prepared
primarily for students in a variety of professional programs
(e.g. , medical, dental, chiropractic, and physical therapy
programs) . It can be used by students in traditional, sys­
temic, combined traditional/systemic, and problem-based
curricula and will be particularly useful to students when
lectures and laboratories in gross anatomy are minimal.
ORGANIZATION
Using a regional approach, Gray's Anatomy for Students
progresses through the body in a logical fashion, building
on the body's complexities as the reader becomes more
comfortable with the subject matter. Each chapter can be
used as an independent learning module, and varying the
sequence will not affect the quality of the educational
experience. The sequence we have chosen to follow is back,
thorax, abdomen, pelvis and perineum, lower limb, upper
limb, and head and neck.
We begin with "The body, " which contains an overview
of the discipline of gross anatomy and an introduction to
imaging modalities and general body systems. We follow
this with the back because it is often the first area dissected
by students. The thorax is next because of its central loca­
tion and its contents (i.e. , the heart, the great vessels , and
the lungs) . This also begins a progression through the
body's cavities. The abdomen and pelvis and perineum
follow logically in sequence from the thorax. Continuing
downward toward the feet, the lower limb is next, followed
by the upper limb. The last region discussed is the head and
neck. This region contains some of the most difficult
anatomy in the body. Covering all other regions first gives
the student the opportunity to build a strong foundation
from which to understand this complex region.
CONTENT
Each regional anatomy chapter consists of four consecu­
tive sections: conceptual overview, regional anatomy,
surface anatomy, and clinical cases.
The conceptual overview provides the basis on which
information in the later sections is built. This section can
be read independently of the rest of the text by students
who require only a basic level of understanding and can
also be read as a summary of important concepts after the
regional anatomy has been mastered.
The regional anatomy section provides more detailed
anatomy along with a substantial amount of relevant clin-
ical correlations. It is not an exhaustive discussion but
instead provides information to a level that we feel is neces­
sary for understanding the organization of the region. xi
 About the Book
Throughout this section, two levels of clinical material are
provided. Clinical hooks are fully integrated with the main
anatomical text and function to relate ("hook") the
anatomy discussed directly to a clinical application without
taking students out of their train of thought and without
disrupting the flow of the text. Although fully integrated
with the anatomical text, these passages are differentiated
from it by the use of green highlighting. "In the clinic"
summaries provide students with useful and relevant clini­
cal information demonstrating how applying anatomical
knowledge facilitates the solving of clinical problems.
These are spread throughout the text close to the most
relevant anatomical discussion.
Surface anatomy assists students in visualizing the rela­
tionship between anatomical structures and surface land­
marks. This section also provides students with practical
applications of the anatomical information, combining
visual inspection with functional assessment, as occurs
during any type of patient examination.
The final section of each chapter consists of clinical
cases. These cases represent the third level of clinical
material in the book. In these cases the clinical problem
is described, and a step-by-step process of questions and
answers leads the reader to the resolution of the case. The
inclusion of these cases in each chapter provides students
with the opportunity to apply an understanding of
anatomy to the resolution of a clinical problem.
Illustrations are an integral part of any anatomy
text. They must present the reader with a visual image
that brings the text to life and presents views that will
assist in the understanding and comprehension of the
anatomy. The artwork in this text accomplishes all of
these goals . The illustrations are original and vibrant,
and many views are unique. They have been designed
to integrate with the text, present the anatomy in new
ways, deal with the issues that students find particularly
difficult, and provide a conceptual framework for building
further understanding. To ensure that the illustrations of
the book work together and to enable students to cross­
refer from one illustration to another, we have used stan­
dard colors throughout the book, except where indicated
otherwise.
a rtery
vein
xii �------------� () neNe
lymphatic
-------<( sympathetic fiber
-------<( parasympathetic fiber
==CJ.------J.IO
preganglionic fiber (solid)
�
postganglionic fiber (dotted)
The position and size of the artwork was one of the
parameters considered in the overall design of each page
of the book.
Clinical images are also an important tool in under­
standing anatomy and are abundant throughout the text.
Examples of state-of-the-art medical imaging, including
MRis, CTs, PETs, and ultrasound, as well as high-quality
radiographs, provide students with additional tools to
increase their ability to visualize anatomy in vivo and,
thus, increase their understanding.
What the book does not contain
Gray's Anatomy for Students focuses o n gross anatomy.
While many curricula around the world are being pre­
sented in a more integrated format combining anatomy,
physiology, histology, and embryology, we have focused this
textbook on understanding only the anatomy and its appli­
cation to clinical problems. Except for some brief references
to embryology where necessary for a better understanding
of the anatomy, material from other disciplines is not
included. We felt that there are many outstanding text­
books covering these subj ect areas, and that trying to
cover everything in a single book would produce a text of
questionable quality and usefulness, not to mention enor­
mous size!
Terminology
In any anatomical text or atlas, terminology is always
an interesting issue. In 1 9 8 9 , the Federative Committee
on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) was formed and

was charged with developing the official terminology of
the anatomical sciences. The Terminologia Anatomica
(2nd edition, Thieme, Stuttgart/New York, 2 0 1 1 ) was a
joint publication by this group and the 5 6 member associa­
tions of the International Federation of Associations of
Anatomists {IFAA) . We have chosen to use the terminology
presented in this publication in the interest of uniformity.
Other terminology is not incorrect; we just felt that using
terminology from this single, internationally recognized
source would be the most logical and straightforward
approach.
Although we use anatomical terms for orientation as
much as possible, we also use terms such as "behind" or
"in front of " occasionally to make the text more readable.
In these cases, the context clarifies the meaning.
Anatomical use of adverbs
During the writing of this book, we had many long discus­
sions about how we were going to describe anatomical rela­
tionships as clearly as possible, but maintain the readability
of the text. One issue that arose continually in our discus­
sions was the correct use of the "-ly" adverb form of
About the Book
anatomical orientation terms, such as anterior, posterior,
superior, inferior, lateral, and medial. We reached the fol­
lowing consensus:
-ly adverbs e. g. , anteriorly, posteriorly,
have been used to
modify (describe) verbs in passages where an action or
direction is mentioned. For example, "The trachea
passes inferiorly through the thorax . "
circumstantial adverbs, e. g. , anterior, posterior, have been
used to indicate the fixed location of an anatomical
feature. For example, "The trachea is anterior to the
esophagus. "
Furthermore, both usages may occur in the same
passage. For example, "The trachea passes inferiorly
through the thorax, anterior to the esophagus. "
We have very much enjoyed the process o f putting this
book together. We hope that you enjoy using it to the same
degree.
Richard L. Drake
A. Wayne Vogl
Adam W M. Mitchell
xiii
This page intentionally left blank
Index of Clinical Content

The body Herpes zoster 109

Back pain-alternative explanations 110
I n the Clinic Clinica l Cases
Determination o f skeletal age 14
Sciatica versus lumbago 118
Bone marrow transplants 15
Cervical spinal cord injury 118
Bone fractures 16
Psoas abscess 119
Avascular necrosis 16
Dissecting thoracic aneurysm 119
Osteoporosis 17
Sacral tumor 120
Epiphyseal fractures 18
Degenerative joint disease 22
Joint replacement 24 3 Thorax
The importance of fascias 25
Muscle paralysis 26 I n the Clinic
Muscle atrophy 26 Axillary tail of breast 141
Muscle injuries and strains 26 Breast cancer 141
Atherosclerosis 27 Cervical ribs 150
Varicose veins 28 Collection of sternal bone marrow 152
Anastomoses and collateral circulation 28 Rib fractures 152
Lymph nodes 31 Surgical access to the chest 160
Dermatomes and myotomes 37 Thoracostomy (chest) tube insertion 160
Referred pain 48 Intercostal nerve block 160
Pleural effusion 167
Clinica l Case
Pneumothorax 167
Appendicitis 50
Imaging the lungs 178
High-resolution lung CT 178
Bronchoscopy 178
2 Back Lung cancer 179
Pericarditis 184
I n the Clinic Pericardia! effusion 184
Spina bifida 74
Constrictive pericarditis 184
Vertebroplasty 74
Valve disease 197
Scoliosis 75
Clinical terminology for coronary arteries 201
Kyphosis 76
Heart attack 202
Variation in vertebral numbers 76
Classic symptoms of heart attack 203
The vertebrae and cancer 77
Are heart attack symptoms the same in men and
Osteoporosis 77 women? 203
Back pain 79 Common congenital heart defects 203
Herniation of intervertebral discs 79 Cardiac auscultation 204
Joint diseases 80 Cardiac conduction system 206
Ligamenta flava 82 Ectopic parathyroid glands in the thymus 212
Vertebral fractures 82 Venous access for central and dialysis lines 215
Surgical procedures on the back 84 Using the superior vena cava to access the inferior
Nerve injuries affecting superficial back muscles 99 vena cava 215
Lumbar cerebrospinal fluid tap 106 Coarctation of the aorta 217
XV
 I ndex of Clinical Content

Thoracic aorta 217 Pancreatic cancer 336

Aortic arch and its anomalies 217 Segmental anatomy of the liver 339
Abnormal origin of great vessels 217 Gallstones 341
The vagus nerves, recurrent laryngeal nerves, and Jaundice 341
hoarseness 221 Spleen disorders 342
Esophageal cancer 224 Vascular supply to the gastrointestinal system 351
Esophageal rupture 225 Hepatic cirrhosis 356
Surgery for obesity 365
Clinical Cases
Cervical rib 241 Psoas muscle abscess 371

Lung cancer 242 Diaphragmatic hernias 372

Hiatus hernia 373
Chest wound 242
Myocardial infarction 243 Urinary tract stones 380
Urinary tract cancer 381
Broken pacemaker 246
Nephrostomy 382
Coarctation of the aorta 247
Aortic dissection 247 Kidney transplant 383
Investigation of the urinary tract 385
Pneumonia 249
Esophageal cancer 250 Abdominal aortic stent grah 389
Inferior vena cava filter 391
Venous access 251
Retroperitoneal lymph node surgery 393

Clinical Cases
Traumatic rupture of the diaphragm 410
4 Abdomen Chronic thrombosis of the inferior vena cava 410
Liver biopsy in patients with suspected liver
I n the Clinic cirrhosis 411
Surgical incisions 278 Hodgkin's lymphoma 412
Laparoscopic surgery 279 Inguinal hernia 413
Cremasteric reflex 299 Ureteric stone 413
Masses around the groin 301 lntraabdominal abscess 414
Peritoneum 305 Complications of an abdominoperineal
The greater omentum 308 resection 415
Epithelial transition between the abdominal Carcinoma of the head of the pancreas 417
esophagus and stomach 315 Caval obstruction 418
Duodenal ulceration 315 Diverticular disease 418
Examination of the upper gastrointestinal tract 316 Endoleak aher endovascular repair of abdominal
Examination of the bowel lumen 316 aortic aneurysm 419
Examination of the bowel wall and extrinsic Metastatic lesions in the liver 420
masses 316
Meckel's diverticulum 318
Computed tomography (CT) scanning and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) 318 5 Pelvis and perineum-------'
Carcinoma of the stomach 318
Appendicitis 322 I n the Clinic
Congenital disorders of the gastrointestinal Bone marrow biopsy 444
tract 325 Pelvic fracture 446
Bowel obstruction 326 Common problems with the sacro-iliac joints 448
Diverticular disease 327 Pelvic measurements in obstetrics 454
Ostomies 327 Defecation 456
Annular pancreas 336 Episiotomy 460
xvi
 I ndex of Clinical Content

Digital rectal examination 462 Soft tissue injuries to the knee 613
Carcinoma of the colon and rectum 462 Degenerative joint disease/osteoarthritis 614
Bladder stones 465 Examination of the knee joint 614
Suprapubic catheterization 466 Anterolateral ligament of the knee 615
Bladder cancer 466 Achilles tendon rupture 623
Bladder infection 469 Neurological examination of the legs 625
Urethral catheterization 469 Footdrop 633
Testicular tumors 470 Fracture of the talus 638
Vasectomy 472 Ankle fractures 641
Prostate problems 474 Bunions 645
Ovarian cancer 477 Morton's neuroma 661
Imaging the ovary 477
Clinica l Cases
Hysterectomy 478
Varicose veins 672
Tubal ligation 479
Knee joint injury 673
Carcinoma of the cervix and uterus 480
Fracture of neck of femur 676
The recto-uterine pouch 481
Deep vein thrombosis 677
Pudendal block 491
Ruptured calcaneal tendon 678
Prostatectomy and impotence 495
Popliteal artery aneurysm 679
Abscesses in the ischia-anal fossae 504
Anterior talofibular ligament tear 680
Hemorrhoids 504
Urethral rupture 512

Clinica l Cases
Varicocele 527
7 Upperlimb
Sciatic nerve compression 528
Pelvic kidney 528
I n the Clinic
Left common iliac artery obstruction 529
Fracture o f the proximal humerus 705
Iatrogenic ureteric injury 530
Fractures of the clavicle and dislocations of the
Ectopic pregnancy 530 acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints 711
Uterine tumor 531 Dislocations of the glenohumeral joint 712
Uterine fibroids 532 Rotator cuff disorders 712
Inflammation of the subacromial (subdeltoid)
bursa 713

6 Lowerlimb Quadrangular space syndrome 720

"Winging" of the scapula 727
In the Clinic Imaging the blood supply to the upper limb 737
Pelvic fractures 553 Trauma to the arteries of the upper limb 737
Femoral neck fractures 557 Subclavian/axillary venous access 737
Intertrochanteric fractures 558 Injuries to the brachial plexus 747
Femoral shaft fractures 558 Breast cancer 749
Varicose veins 569 Rupture of biceps tendon 755
Deep vein thrombosis 569 Blood pressure measurement 756
Vascular access to the lower limb 573 Radial nerve injury in the arm 763
Trendelenburg's sign 577 Median nerve injury in the arm 763
Intramuscular injections 581 Supracondylar fracture of the humerus 766
Compartment syndrome 590 Pulled elbow 766
Muscle injuries to the lower limb 599 Developmental changes in the elbow joint 767
Peripheral vascular disease 603 Fracture of the head of radius 768
xvii
 I ndex of Clinical Content

"Tennis" and "golfer's" elbow (epicondylitis) 768 Emissary veins 893

Elbow arthritis 768 Concussion 893
Ulnar nerve injury at the elbow 768 Clinical assessment of patients with head injury 893
Construction of a dialysis fistula 770 Treatment of head injury 893
Fractures of the radius and ulna 774 Cranial nerve lesions 901
Transection of the radial or ulnar artery 783 Overview of cranial nerves 901
Fracture of the scaphoid and avascular necrosis of Parotid gland 913
the proximal scaphoid 797 Facial nerve [V II] palsy (Bell's palsy) 921
Carpal tunnel syndrome 798 Trigeminal neuralgia 921
Snuffbox 801 Scalp laceration 926
De Quervain's syndrome 802 Orbital fracture 928
Tenosynovitis 802 Horner's syndrome 931
Trigger finger 802 Examination of the eye 940
Allen's test 814 Glaucoma 948
Venipuncture 814 Cataracts 948
Ulnar nerve injury 816 Ophthalmoscopy 949
Radial nerve injury 818 High-definition optical coherence tomography 951
Examination of the ear 957
Clinical Cases
Swimmer's ear 957
Shoulder problem after falling on an outstretched
hand 829 Surfer's ear 958

Winged scapula 829 Tympanic membrane perforation 958

Brachial plexus nerve block 830 Mastoiditis 961

Complication of a fractured first rib 830 Lingual nerve injury 987

Median nerve compression 831 Dental anesthesia 989

Immobilizing the extensor digitorum muscle 831 Fascial planes of the head and neck 1004

Torn supraspinatus tendon 832 Central venous access 1005

How to examine the hand 833 Jugular venous pulse 1013

Shoulder joint problem 834 Thyroid gland 1020

Thyroidectomy 1021
Thyroid gland pathology 1021
Ectopic parathyroid glands 1022
8 He ad and neck Recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy 1034
Clinical lymphatic drainage of the head and
neck 1040
In the Clinic
Tracheostomy 1065
Medical imaging o f the head 871
Laryngoscopy 1065
Fractures of the skull vault 872
Deviated nasal septum 1077
Hydrocephalus 877
Cerebrospinal fluid leak 878 Clinical Cases
Meningitis 878 Multinodular goiter 1129
Brain tumors 878 Parotid duct calculus 1130
Stroke 883 Extradural hematoma 1131
Endarterectomy 885 Stenosis of the internal carotid artery 1132
Intracerebral aneurysms 885 Posterior communicating artery aneurysm 1133
Scalp and meninges 890 Recurrent epistaxis 1133
Head injury 891 Complication of orbital fracture 1134
Types of intracranial hemorrhage 891 Pituitary macroadenoma 1135

xviii
Contents
D The body Component parts
Bones 56
56

Muscles 57
What is anatomy? 2 Vertebra l ca nal 59
How can gross anatomy be studied? 2 Spinal nerves 60
Important anatomical terms 2 Relationship to other regions 61
Head 6 1
Imaging 5
Thorax, abdomen, and pelvis 62
Diagnostic imaging techniques 5
Limbs 62
Nuclear medicine imaging 8
Key features 62

I mage interpretation 10 Long vertebra l col u m n and short spinal cord 62

I ntervertebral foramina and spinal nerves 63
Plain radiography 10
I n nervation of the back 63
Computed tomography 10
Magnetic resonance imaging 11 Regional anatomy 64
Nuclear medicine imaging 11 Skeletal framework 64
Vertebrae 64
Safety in imaging 11 I ntervertebral fora min a 72
Posterior spaces between vertebral a rches 73
Body systems 12
Joints 77
Skeletal system 12
Joints between vertebrae in the back 77
Carti lage 1 2
Ligaments 80
Bone 1 3
Joints 1 8 Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments 80
Ligamenta tlava 80
Skin and fascias 24
Supraspinous liga ment and liga mentum nuchae 81
Skin 24
I nterspinous liga ments 82
Fascia 24
Back musculature 84
Muscular system 25
Su perficial g ro u p of back m u scles 84
Cardiovascular system 27
I ntermediate g ro u p of back muscles 90
Lymphatic system 29 Deep g ro u p of back muscles 92
Lym phatic vessels 29 Su boccipita l muscles 97
Lymph nodes 30 Spinal cord 99
Lym phatic tru n ks and d u cts 30 Vascu latu re 1 00
Nervous system 31 Meninges 1 03
Central nervous system 3 1 Arrangement of structu res in the vertebra l
Fu nctional su bdivisions of the CNS 32 c a n a l 1 04
Somatic part o f the nervous system 33 Spinal nerves 1 06
Visceral part of the nervous system 38
Other systems 48
Surface anatomy 111
Back surface anatomy 111
Clinical case SO Absence of lateral curvatures 111
Primary and secondary curvatures in the sagittal

IJ Back
plane 112
Useful non vertebral skeletal landmarks 112
How to identify specific vertebral spinous
Conceptual overview 53 processes 114
General description 53
Visualizing the inferior ends of the spinal cord and
Functions 54 subarachnoid space 115
Su pport 54
Identifying major muscles 116
Movement 54
Protection of the nervous system 55 Clinica l cases 118
xix
 Contents

IJ Thorax How to count ribs 231

Surface anatomy of the breast in women 232
Visualizing structures at the TIVN vertebral
Conceptual overview 123
level 232
General description 123
Visualizing structures in the superior
Functions 124
mediastinum 234
Breathing 1 24
Visualizing the margins of the heart 235
Protection of vita l organs 1 24
Cond uit 1 24 Where to listen for heart sounds 236

Component parts 124 Visualizing the pleural cavities and lungs, pleural
Thoracic wa l l 1 24 recesses, and lung lobes and fissures 236
Superior thoracic aperture 1 26 Where to listen for lung sounds 238
I nferior thoracic aperture 1 26
Diaphragm 1 27 Clinical cases 241
Mediasti n u m 1 28
Pleural cavities 1 28
Relationship to other regions 130 IJ Abdomen
Neck 1 30
U pper l i m b 1 30 Conceptual overview 255
Abdomen 1 30 General description 255
Breast 1 3 1 Functions 256
Key features 132 Houses and protects major viscera 256
Vertebra l level TIVN 1 32 Breath ing 258
Venous shu nts from left to right 1 32 Changes in intraa bdominal pressure 258
Seg menta l neu rovascular supply of thoracic Component parts 259
wa l l 1 34 Wa l l 259
Sym pathetic system 1 36 Abdominal cavity 260
Flexible wa l l and i nferior thoracic aperture 1 36 I nferior thoracic aperture 262
I n nervation of the diaphra g m 1 38 Diaphragm 262
Regional anatomy 139 Pelvic i n let 263
Relationship to other regions 263
Pectoral region 139
Breast 1 39 Thorax 263
Muscles of the pectora l reg ion 1 42 Pelvis 263
Lower l i m b 264
Thoracic wall 143
Key features 265
Skeleta l fra mework 1 43
I ntercosta l spaces 1 50 Arrangement of abdom inal viscera in the adult 265
Skin and muscles of the a nterior and latera l
Diaphragm 161
abdom inal wa l l and thoracic i ntercosta l
Arteria l su pply 1 62
nerves 268
Venous d rainage 1 62
The g roin is a weak a rea in the a nterior abdominal
I n nervation 1 62
wa l l 269
Movements of the thoracic wall and diaphragm
Vertebra l level Ll 271
during breathing 162
The gastroi ntestinal system and its derivatives a re
Pleural cavities 162 su ppl ied by th ree major a rteries 271
Pleura 1 63 Venous shu nts from left to right 273
Lungs 1 67 All venous d rainage from the gastroi ntestinal system
Mediastinum 180 passes throug h the liver 274
Middle mediasti n u m 1 80 Abdominal viscera a re supplied by a large
Superior mediasti n u m 2 1 0 prevertebra l plexus 276
Posterior mediasti n u m 222
Anterior mediasti n u m 230 Regional anatomy 277
Surface topography 277
Surface anatomy 231 Fou r-q uadra nt pattern 277
Thorax surface anatomy 231 Nine-reg ion pattern 278
XX
 Contents

Abdominal wall 280 Component parts 426

Su perficial fascia 280 Pelvic inlet 426
Anterolatera l muscles 282 Pelvic wa l l s 426
Extra peritoneal fascia 288 Pelvic outlet 428
Peritoneum 288 Pelvic floor 429
I n nervation 289 Pelvic cavity 429
Arterial supply and venous d rainage 291 Perineum 430
Lym phatic d rainage 292 Relationship to other regions 432
Groin 292 Abdomen 432
I n g u i n a l canal 294 Lower l i m b 433
I n g u i n a l hernias 299 Key features 434
Abdominal viscera 303 The pelvic cavity projects posteriorly 434
Peritoneum 303 I m porta nt structu res cross the u reters in the pelvic
Peritoneal cavity 304 cavity 435
Organs 3 1 0 The prostate i n men and the uterus in women a re
Arterial supply 343 a nterior to the rectum 436
Venous drainage 354 The peri neum is innervated by sacral spinal cord
Lymphatics 358 seg ments 436
I n nervation 358 Nerves a re related to bone 437
Posterior abdominal region 366 Parasympathetic innervation from spinal cord levels
Posterior abdominal wa l l 367 52 to 54 controls erection 438
Viscera 373 Muscles and fascia of the pelvic floor and perineum
Vasculature 387 i ntersect at the peri neal body 439
Lym phatic system 392 The course of the u rethra is d ifferent in men and
Nervous system in the posterior abdominal women 440
reg ion 394
Regional anatomy 441
Sym pathetic tru n ks and splanchnic nerves 394
Pelvis 441
Surface anatomy 402 Bones 44 1
Abdomen surface anatomy 402 Joints 446
Defining the surface projection of the abdomen 402
Orientation 448
Differences between men and women 448
How to find the superficial inguinal ring 403
True pelvis 449
How to determine lumbar vertebra/ levels 404
Viscera 460
Visualizing structures at the Ll vertebral /eve/ 405 Fascia 48 1
Visualizing the position of major blood vessels 406 Peritoneum 481
Using abdominal quadrants to locate major Nerves 486
viscera 407 Blood vessels 495
Defining surface regions to which pain from the gut is
Lymphatics 5 0 1
referred 408 Perineum 502

Where to find the kidneys 409

Borders and ceilin g 502
Ischia-anal fossae and their a nterior recesses 504
Where to find the spleen 409
Anal triangle 504
Clinical cases 410 U rogen ita l tria ngle 506
Somatic nerves 5 1 3

IJ Pelvis and perineum

Viscera l nerves 5 1 5
Blood vessels 5 1 6
Veins 5 1 6
Conceptual overview 423 Lymphatics 5 1 9

General description 423 Surface anatomy 520

Functions 423 Surface anatomy of the pelvis and perineum 520
Conta i n and su pport bladder, rectum, anal canal, and Orientation of the pelvis and perineum in the
reprod uctive tracts 423 anatomical position 520
Anchors the roots of the external genita lia 425
xxi
 Contents

How to define the margins of the perineum 520 Nerves 603

Identification of structures in the anal triangle 522 Knee joint 606
Tibiofi b u l a r joint 6 1 6
Identification of structures in the urogenital triangle
of women 523
Popl itea l fossa 6 1 6
Leg 618
Identification of structures in the urogenital triangle
Bones 6 1 8
of men 524
Joi nts 620
Clinical cases 527 Posterior compartment of leg 621
Lateral compartment of leg 628
Anterior compartment of leg 630
Foot 633

rl Lower limb
Bones 634
Joi nts 638
Ta rsal tunnel, reti nacula, and arrangement of major
Conceptual overview 535 structu res at the a n kle 646
General introduction 535 Arches of the foot 648
Pla nta r a poneurosis 649
Function 537
Fi brous sheaths of toes 649
Su pport the body weight 537
Extensor hoods 650
Locomotion 537
I ntrinsic muscles 650
Component parts 539
Arteries 657
Bones and joi nts 539
Vei ns 659
Muscles S43
Nerves 659
Relationship to other regions 545
Abdomen 545 Surface anatomy 663
Pelvis 545 Lower limb surface anatomy 663
Perineum 545 A voiding the sciatic nerve 663
Key points 545 Finding the femoral artery in the femoral
I n nervation is by l u m ba r and sacra l spinal triangle 664
nerves 545
Identifying structures around the knee 664
Nerves related to bone 550
Visualizing the contents of the popliteal fossa 666
Su perficial vei ns 550
Finding the tarsal tunnel-the gateway to the
Regional anatomy 551 foot 667
Bony pelvis 5 5 1 Identifying tendons around the ankle and in the
Proxi mal fem u r 554 foot 668
Hip joint 558
Finding the dorsalis pedis artery 669
Gateways to the lower limb 562
Approximating the position of the plantar arterial
Nerves 563
arch 669
Arteries 566
Vei ns 568 Major superficial veins 670

Lymphatics 570 Pulse points 671

Deep fascia and the saphenous opening 571
Femora l triangle 572
Clinical cases 672
Gluteal region 574
Muscles 574

II
Nerves 579
Arteries 582
Veins 583
Lymphatics 583 Conceptual overview 685
Thigh 583 General description 685
Bones 584 Functions 686
Muscles 589 Positioning the hand 686
Arteries 600 The hand as a mechanical tool 689
Vei ns 603 The hand as a sensory tool 689
xxii
 Contents

Component parts 690 Carpa l tunnel and structures at the wrist 798
Bones and joi nts 690 Pa l m a r a poneurosis 800
Muscles 692 Pa l m a ris brevis 800
Relationship to other regions 693 Anatomical sn uffbox 800
Neck 693 Fibrous digital sheaths 801
Back and thoracic wa l l 694 Extensor hoods 802
Key points 695
Muscles 804
I n nervation by cervical and upper thoracic Arteries and vei ns 8 1 0
nerves 695 Nerves 8 1 4
Nerves related to bone 699 Surface anatomy 819
Su perficial vei ns 700
Upper limb surface anatomy 819
Orientation of the t hum b 701
Bony landmarks and muscles of the posterior
Regional anatomy 702 scapular region 819
Shoulder 702 Visualizing the axilla and locating contents and
Bones 702 related structures 820
Joints 705 Locating the brachial artery in the arm 821
Muscles 7 1 3 The triceps brachii tendon and position of the radial
Posterior scapular region 776 nerve 822
Muscles 7 1 7 Cubital fossa (an terior view) 822
Gateways to the posterior sca pular reg ion 71 7
Identifying tendons and locating major vessels and
Nerves 7 1 9
nerves in the distal forearm 824
Arteries and vei ns 7 1 9
Normal appearance of the hand 825
Axilla 721
Position of the flexor retinaculum and the recurrent
Axi l l a ry inlet 723
branch of the median nerve 826
Anterior wa l l 723
Medial wa l l 726 Motor function of the median and ulnar nerves in the
Latera l wa l l 727 hand 826
Posterior wa l l 728 Visualizing the positions of the superficial and deep
Gateways i n the posterior wa l l 730 palmar arches 827
Floor 73 1 Pulse points 827
Contents of the axi l l a 73 1
Arm 750
Clinical cases 829
Bones 75 1
Muscles 754
Arteries and veins 756
Nerves 760
Elbow joint 764 B Head and neck
Cubital fossa 768
Forearm 717
Conceptual overview 837
Bones 773 General description 837

Joints 774 Head 837

Neck 839
Anterior compartment of the forearm 776
Muscles 776 Functions 841

Arteries and vei ns 782 Protection 841

Nerves 784 Contains u pper parts of respi ratory and digestive
tracts 841
Posterior compartment of the forearm 785
Com m u n ication 841
Muscles 785
Positioning the head 841
Arteries and vei ns 791
Connects the u pper and lower respi ratory and
Nerves 792
digestive tracts 841
Hand 792
Component parts 842
Bones 793
Sku l l 842
Joints 795
Cervical vertebrae 844
xxiii
 Contents

Hyoid bone 845 Vessels 91 6

Soft palate 846 Scalp 922
Muscles 846 Layers 922
Relationship to other regions 847 Innervation 924
Thorax 847 Vessels 925
U p per l i m bs 847 Lymphatic d rainage 926
Key features 848 Orbit 927
Vertebra l levels C I I I/IV and CVNI 848 Bony orbit 927
Ai rway in the neck 849 Eyelids 928
Cranial nerves 850 Lacri m a l apparatus 932
Cervical nerves 85 1 Sensory i n nervation 933
Fu nctional separation of the digestive and respi ratory Fissures and fora mina 934
passages 85 1 Fascia l specia l izations 935
Triang les of the neck 854 Muscles 936
Regional anatomy 855 Vessels 941
Skull 855
I n nervation 942
Anterior view 855 Eyeba l l 947
Latera l view 857 Ear 953
Posterior view 859 External ear 954
Su perior view 860 Middle ear 958
I nferior view 860 I nternal ear 965
Cranial cavity 864 Temporal and infratemporal fossae 972
Roof 864 Bony fra mework 973
Floor 865 Tem poromandibular joi nts 975
Meninges 873
Masseter muscle 977
Cra n i a l d u ra mater 873 Tem pora l fossa 978
Arachnoid mater 876 Infratem poral fossa 981
Pia mater 877 Pterygopalatine fossa 992
Arrangement of meninges and spaces 877 Skeleta l fra mework 993
Brain and its blood supply 879
Gateways 994
Bra i n 879 Contents 994
Blood su pply 879 Neck 1000
Venous d rainage 886 Fascia 1 000
Cranial nerves 894
Superficial venous d rainage 1 003
Olfactory nerve [I] 896 Anterior tria ngle of the neck 1 006
Optic nerve [II] 896 Posterior tria ngle of the neck 1 023
Ocu lomotor nerve [ I l l] 897 Root of the neck 1 030
Troch lear nerve [IV] 897 Pharynx 1040
Trigeminal nerve M 898 Skeleta l fra mework 1 04 1
Ophthalmic nerve [V,] 898 Pharyngeal wa l l 1 042
Maxi l l a ry nerve [V2] 898 Fascia 1 045
Mandibular nerve [V3] 898 Gaps in the pharyngea l wa l l and structu res passing
Abducent nerve [VI] 898 through them 1 046
Facial nerve [VI I] 898 Nasopharynx 1 046
Vesti bu lococh lear nerve [VI I I] 899 Oropharynx 1 048
G l ossopharyngea l nerve [IX] 899 La ryngopharynx 1 048
Vagus nerve [X] 900 Tonsils 1 048
Accessory nerve [XI] 900 Vessels 1 049
Hypog lossal nerve [XI I] 900 Nerves 1 05 1
Face 904 Larynx 1052
Muscles 904 La ryngeal cartilages 1 053
Pa rotid gland 9 1 1 Extrinsic liga ments 1 056
I n nervation 9 1 4 I ntrinsic liga ments 1 05 7
xxiv
 Contents

La ryngeal joi nts 1 058 Roof-palate 1 1 OS

Cavity of the larynx 1 059 Ora l fissure and l i ps 1 1 1 3
I ntrinsic m u scles 1 06 1 Oropharyngea l isthmus 1 1 1 4
Fu nction o f t h e l a rynx 1 064 Teeth and ging ivae 1 1 1 4
Vessels 1 066
Nerves 1 068 Surface anatomy 1120
Head and neck surface anatomy 1120
Nasal cavities 1069
Lateral wa l l 1 070 Anatomical position of the head and major
Reg ions 1 07 1 landmarks 1120
I n nervation a n d blood sup ply 1 072 Visualizing structures at the C/11/C/V and CVI vertebral
Skeleta l fra mework 1 072 levels 1121
External nose 1 074 How to outline the an terior and posterior triangles of
Paranasal sin uses 1 074 the neck 1122
Wa l l s, floor, and roof 1 076 How to locate the cricothyroid ligament 1123
Nares 1 080
How to find the thyroid gland 1124
Choanae 1 08 1
Estimating the position of the middle meningeal
Gateways 1 082
artery 1124
Vessels 1 082
I n nervation 1 085 Major features of the face 1125

Oral cavity 1087 The eye and lacrimal apparatus 1126

M u ltiple nerves innervate the oral cavity 1 088 External ear 1127
Skeleta l fra mework 1 088 Pulse points 1128
Wa lls: the cheeks 1 09 1
Floor 1 092 Clinica l cases 1129
Tongue 1 095
Sal ivary g l a nds 1 1 02

XXV
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 It was on the 1st of October, a month in which the weather is
more severe in that climate than is January in Paris, that he
appeared before Narva. The Czar, who in such weather would often
ride 400 leagues to see a mine or a canal, spared his men no more
than himself. Besides, he knew that the Swedes, ever since the time
of Gustavus Adolphus, fought in the depth of winter as well as in
summer, and he wanted to accustom his Russians not to care about
the seasons, so that some day they might at least equal the Swedes.
So at a time when frost and snow force nations in temperate
climates to suspend hostilities Peter was besieging Narva, thirty
degrees from the Pole, and Charles was advancing to its relief. The
Czar had no sooner arrived before the place than he hastened to put
into practice all that he had lately learned on his travels: he drew out
his camp, fortified it on all sides, built walls at intervals, and opened
the trench with his own hands. He had given the command of the
army to the Duke of Croy, a German, and a clever general, who got
little support from the Russian officers.
The Czar himself had only the ordinary rank of lieutenant in his
own army. He thought it necessary to give an example of military
obedience to his nobility, who up till then had been undisciplined and
accustomed to lead bands of ill-armed slaves without experience or
order. There is nothing surprising in the fact that he who at
Amsterdam turned carpenter to procure fleets for himself should at
Narva turn lieutenant in order to teach his people the art of war.
The Russians are strong and indefatigable, and perhaps as brave
as the Swedes, but it requires time to make veterans, and discipline
to make them invincible. The only fairly reliable regiments were
commanded by German officers, but there were very few of them;
the rest were savages torn from their forests, clothed in the skins of
wild beasts, some armed with arrows and others with clubs. Few had
muskets, none had seen a regular siege, there was not one good
gunner in the whole army.
A hundred and fifty cannon, which ought to have reduced the little
town of Narva to ashes, hardly made a breach, while every moment
the artillery of the town were destroying whole lines at work in the
trenches. Narva was practically unfortified, and Count Horn, who
was in command, had not a thousand regular troops, and yet this
immense army was not able to reduce it in ten weeks.
On the 15th of November the Czar heard that the King of Sweden
had crossed the sea with 200 transports and was on his way to the
relief of Narva. There were not more than 20,000 Swedes, but
superiority of numbers was the Czar’s only advantage. He was far,
therefore, from despising his enemy, and used all his skill to crush
him; and not content with 100,000 men he levied another army to
oppose him and harass him in his advance. He had already sent for
30,000 men who were advancing from Plescow by forced marches.
He then took a step which would render him contemptible if so great
a legislator could be so. He left his camp, where his presence was
necessary, to go to meet these reinforcements, which could quite
well reach the camp without his aid; this step made it appear that he
was afraid of fighting, in an entrenched camp, a young and
inexperienced prince, who might attack him.
However that may be, his plan was to hem in the King between
two armies. Nor was this all: a detachment of 30,000 men from the
camp before Narva was posted at a league’s distance from the town,
on the King of Sweden’s route, 20,000 Strelitz were further off on the
same route, and 5,000 others formed an advanced guard. Charles
would have to force his way through all these troops before he could
reach the camp, which was fortified by a rampart and a double ditch.
The King of Sweden had landed at Pernaw, on the Gulf of Riga, with
about 15,000 foot and more than 4,000 horse. From Pernaw he
made a forced march to Revel, followed by all his horse and only
4,000 of his foot. He continually advanced without waiting for the rest
of his troops.
Soon he found himself, with only 8,000 men, in presence of the
enemy’s outposts. He did not hesitate to attack them one after the
other, without giving them time to find out with how small a number
they had to contend. The Russians, when they saw the Swedes
advancing against them, took it for granted that they had a whole
army to encounter, and the advanced guard of 5,000 men, who were
holding a pass between the hills where 100 men of courage might
have barred the passage of a whole army, fled at the first approach
of the Swedes. The 20,000 men behind them, terrified at the flight of
their countrymen, were overcome by fear and caused panic in the
camp to which they fled. All the posts were carried in three days and
a half, and what would have been on other occasions reckoned three
distinct victories did not delay the King an hour. At last he appeared
with his 8,000 men, wearied with the fatigues of so long a march,
before a camp of 80,000 Russians, protected by 150 cannon. He
hardly allowed them time for rest before he gave orders for an
instant attack.
The signal was two musket-shots, and the word in German, “With
God’s help.” A general officer pointed out to him the greatness of the
danger. “Surely you have no doubt,” he replied, “but that I with my
8,000 brave Swedes shall trample down 80,000 Russians!” Then a
moment after, fearing that his speech was boastful, he ran after the
officer. “Do you not agree with me,” he said, “that I have a double
advantage over the enemy? First because their horse will be useless
to them, and secondly because, as the position is cramped, their
numbers will only incommode them, so that I shall really possess the
advantage.” The officer thought it best not to differ from him, and so
they attacked the Russians about noon, on the 30th November.
As soon as the cannon of the Swedes had made a breach in the
entrenchments they advanced with fixed bayonets, having the snow,
which drove full in the face of the enemy, behind them. The Russians
stood the fire for half-an-hour without quitting their posts. The King
attacked the Czar’s quarters, on the other side of the camp, and
hoped to meet him in person, for he was ignorant of the fact that he
had gone to meet his 40,000 reinforcements who were expected
shortly. At the first discharge the King received a ball in the shoulder;
but it was a spent ball which rested in the folds of his black cravat
and did him no harm.
His horse was killed under him, and it is said that the King leapt
nimbly on another, exclaiming, “These fellows make me take
exercise.” Then he continued to advance and give orders with the
same presence of mind as before. Within three hours the
entrenchments were carried on all sides: the King chased the
enemy’s right as far as the river Narva with his left, if one may speak
of “chasing” when 4,000 men are in pursuit of nearly 50,000. The
bridge broke under them as they fled; in a moment the river was full
of dead bodies; the rest in despair returned to their camp without
knowing the direction in which they were going. They found some
huts behind which they stationed themselves; there they defended
themselves for a time because they had no mean of escape; but
finally their generals, Dolgorouky, Gollofkin and Federowitz
surrendered to the King and laid down their arms at his feet. Just
then the Duke of Croy arrived to surrender with thirty officers.
Charles received all these prisoners with as charming and
engaging a manner as if he were feting them in his own Court. He
only put the general officers under a guard; all the under officers and
soldiers were disarmed and taken to the river Narva, where they
were provided with boats to convey them to their own country. In the
meantime night came on, and the right wing of the Russian force
was still fighting. The Swedes had not lost 1,500 men; 18,000
Russians had been killed in their entrenchments, many had been
drowned, many had crossed the river; but still there remained
enough to entirely exterminate the Swedes. But it is not the number
lost, but the panic of survivors which spells defeat in war. The King
made haste to seize the enemy’s artillery before nightfall. He took up
an advantageous position between their camp and the town, and
there got some hours’ sleep on the ground, wrapped in his cloak,
waiting till at daybreak he could fall on the enemy’s left wing, which
was not yet completely routed.
At two o’clock in the morning General Wade, who was in
command of that wing, having heard of the King’s gracious reception
of the other generals and his sending home of the subalterns and
soldiers, asked the same favour of him. The conqueror sent him
word that he need only approach at the head of his troops and
surrender his arms and standards. Soon the general appeared with
his Russians, to the number of about 30,000. Soldiers and officers
marched bare-headed in front of less than 7,000 Swedes. As the
soldiers passed before him they threw down their muskets and
swords; the officers surrendered their ensigns and colours.
 He let the whole band cross the river without keeping one single
prisoner. Had he put them under guard the number of prisoners
would have been at least five times that of the conquerors.
He then victoriously entered Narva, attended by the Duke of Croy
and the other Russian officers; he ordered their swords to be
restored to them, and when he heard that they wanted money,
because the tradesmen of Narva refused to trust them, he sent the
Duke of Croy 1,000 ducats, and 500 to every Russian officer, who
were full of admiration for this treatment, which they had never
conceived possible. An account of the victory was at once drawn up
to send to Stockholm, and to the allies, but the King erased with his
own hands whatever redounded too much to his own credit or to the
discredit of the Czar. His modesty could not hinder them from striking
several medals to commemorate the event at Stockholm. One of
these represented him, on one face, standing on a pedestal, to
which a Russian, Dane and Pole were chained; and on the reverse a
Hercules, armed with a club, trampling a Cerberus, and the
inscription, “Tres uno contudit ictu.”
Among the prisoners made on the day of the battle of Narva was
one who was typical of the revolutions of fortune. He was the eldest
son and heir of the King of Georgia. He was called the “Czarafis,” a
name which means son of the Czar among all the Tartars as well as
in Russia; for the word Czar meant King among the ancient
Scythians, from whom all these peoples are descended, and is not
derived from the name of the Cæsars, so long unknown to these
barbarians. His father, Mitelleski, who was master of the most
beautiful part of the country between the mountains of Ararat and the
eastern extremity of the Black Sea, had been driven from his
kingdom by his own subjects in 1688, and preferred throwing himself
on the mercy of the Emperor of Russia, to applying to the Turks. This
king’s son, at the age of nineteen, helped Peter the Great in his
expedition against the Swedes, and was taken in battle by some
Finnish soldiers, who had already stripped him, and were on the
point of killing him, when Count Renschild rescued him from their
hands, supplied him with clothes, and presented him to his master.
Charles sent him to Stockholm, where the wretched prince died
shortly after. When he took leave, the King made aloud a natural
reflection on the strangeness of the fate of an Asiatic prince, born at
the foot of the Caucasus, and going to live a prisoner among the
snows of Sweden:
“It is just,” he said, “as if I were to be one day prisoner among the
Tartars of the Crimea.” At that time these words made no impression,
but afterwards, when the prediction had been justified in the event,
there was but too much reason to remember them.
The Czar was advancing by long marches with a force of 40,000
Russians, expecting to surround his enemy on all sides. When he
had got half-way he heard of the battle of Narva, and the dispersal of
his whole camp. He thought it best not to attack a victor who had
shortly before destroyed 100,000 entrenched troops, with a force of
40,000 raw and undisciplined men. He retraced his steps, hoping to
discipline his troops at the same time as civilize his subjects. “I
know,” he remarked, “that the Swedes will long beat us, but in time
they will teach us to beat them.” Moscow, his capital, was terror-
stricken to hear of this defeat. So great was the pride and ignorance
of the people that they were convinced they had been conquered by
superhuman agency, and that the Swedes had secured their victory
by magic. This opinion was so widespread that a public prayer to
Saint Nicholas, patron saint of Russia, was ordered. This prayer is
too singular to be omitted. It runs thus—
“O thou, our perpetual consolation in all our adversities, great
Saint Nicholas, of infinite power, how have we offended thee in our
sacrifices, our genuflections, our bowings, our thanksgivings, that
thou hast thus forsaken us? We have implored thine assistance
against these terrible, insolent, savage, dreadful, invincible
destroyers, when, like lions and bears who have lost their young,
they have fallen upon us, terrified us, wounded us, slain us by
thousands, who are thy people. As it is impossible that this should
have happened without sorcery and witchcraft, we beseech thee, O
great Nicholas, to be our champion and standard-bearer, to deliver
us from this band of sorcerers, and to drive them from our coasts
with the reward they deserve.”
 While the Russians were thus complaining of their defeat to St.
Nicholas, Charles XII returned thanks to God, and prepared himself
for fresh victories.
The King of Poland fully expected that his enemy, who had
conquered the Danes and Russians, would next turn his arms
against him. He made a firmer alliance with the Czar, and the two
princes arranged an interview at which they could agree on some
policy. They met at Brizen, a small town in Lithuania, without any of
the formalities which only delay business, and for which they were in
no humour under the circumstances. The princes of the North met
with a familiarity which is not yet the fashion in the south of Europe.
Peter and Augustus passed fifteen days together in pleasures which
passed all bounds; for the Czar, who had set himself to reform his
kingdom, could not restrain his own dangerous inclination to riotous
living.
The King of Poland promised to furnish the Czar with 50,000
German troops, which were to be hired from several princes, and
which the Czar was to pay. He, on the other hand, was to send
50,000 Russians to Poland to be trained in the art of war, and was
also to pay the King of Poland 3,000,000 rixdollars within two years.
Had this treaty been carried out it might have been fatal to the King
of Sweden. It was a ready and sure way of making good soldiers of
the Russians, and might perhaps have forged irons for half Europe.
Charles XII set himself to prevent the King of Poland from getting
the benefit of this treaty. After passing the winter in Narva, he
marched into Livonia, to the very town of Riga which King Augustus
had failed to take. The Saxon troops were posted along the river
Dwina, which is very broad at this spot, and their task was to dispute
the passage with Charles, who lay on the other bank. The Saxons
were not then commanded by their Prince, who was at that time ill;
but their leader was Marshal Stenau, who was general; under him
commanded Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Courland, and the same
Patkul, who, after having maintained his rights on paper, defended
his country against Charles sword in hand at the peril of his life.
 The King of Sweden had great boats made, after a new model,
so that the sides were far higher than ordinary, and could be let
down and drawn up like a drawbridge. When raised they protected
the troops they carried, and when let down they formed a bridge to
land by.
He also employed another artifice. Having noticed that the wind
blew straight from the north, where his troops lay, to the south,
where his enemies were encamped, he fired a large heap of wet
straw, which spread a thick smoke over the river and prevented the
Saxons from seeing his troops, or guessing at his actions. Under
cover of this cloud he sent out boats filled with smoking straw, so
that the cloud increased, and being right in the enemy’s face,
prevented them from knowing whether the King had started on the
passage or not. Meanwhile, he himself led the execution of his
scheme; and when he was in the middle of the river, “Well,” he said,
“the Dwina is going to be as kind to us as the sea of Copenhagen;
take my word for it, General, we shall beat them.” He got to the other
side in a quarter of an hour, and was vexed to see three people leap
to shore before him. He had his cannon landed at once, and drew up
his line without any opposition from the enemy, who were blinded by
the smoke. When the wind dispersed the smoke the Saxons saw the
King of Sweden already on his march against them. Marshal Stenau
lost not a moment, but at the first appearance of the Swedes fell
furiously upon them with the best part of his horse. The violent shock
coming upon the Swedes just as they were forming, threw them into
disorder. They gave way, were broken, and pursued up to the river.
The King of Sweden rallied them instantly in the midst of the stream,
with as much ease as if he were holding a review. Then his troops,
marching in closer formation than before, beat back Marshal Stenau,
and advanced into the plain. Stenau felt that his men were beginning
to waver, and, like a skilful commander, drew them off into a dry
place flanked by a marsh, and a wood where his artillery were
posted. The advantage of their position, and the time they had to
recover their spirits, restored the Swedes’ courage. Charles attacked
at once with 15,000 men, while the Duke had about 12,000. The
battle was hard fought and bloody; the Duke had two horses killed
under him; he three times penetrated into the centre of the King’s
guards, but at last, having been unhorsed by a musket blow, his
army fell into confusion, and he disputed the field no longer. His
cuirassiers carried him off from the thick of the battle with difficulty,
all bruised, and half dead, from the horses’ feet, as they were
trampling him.
After the victory the King of Sweden hastened to Mittau, the
capital of Courland, and took it. All the towns of the Duchy
surrendered at discretion; it was rather a triumphal passage than a
conquest. He passed rapidly on to Lithuania, and conquered
wherever he passed. And he acknowledged that it was a great
satisfaction to him to enter in triumph the town of Birzen, where the
King of Poland and the Czar had plotted his ruin. It was here that he
planned to dethrone the King of Poland by the agency of the Poles
themselves. When one day he was at table, quite absorbed in the
thought of his enterprise, and observing his usual rule of abstinence
in the midst of a profound silence, appearing engrossed in his great
plans, a German colonel, who was present, said loud enough for the
King to hear, that the meals which the Czar and the King of Poland
had made in the same place were very different from these.
“Yes,” said the King, rising, “and I shall the more easily disturb
their digestions.” In fact, using a little diplomacy to assist his arms,
he did not delay to prepare for the event about which he had been
busy thinking.
The Government of Poland is an almost exact image of the old
Celtic and Gothic Government, which has been altered almost
everywhere else. It is the only state which has retained the name
“republic,” with the royal dignity.
Every nobleman has the right to vote at the election of the king,
and to stand for election himself. These fine privileges have
corresponding abuses; the throne is almost always put up for sale,
and as a Pole is seldom rich enough to buy it, it is often sold to
foreigners. The nobility defend their liberty against the king, and
tyrannize over the rest of the nation. The body of the people are
slaves; such is the fate of mankind, that the great majority are, in
some way or another, kept under by the minority. There the peasant
does not sow his crops for himself but for his lord, to whom he and
his land and his very work belong, and who can sell him, or cut his
throat as if he were a beast of the field. A lord is answerable to none
but himself. Judgment can only be given against him for a criminal
action by an assembly of the whole nation.
Nor can he be arrested until after his condemnation, so that he is
hardly ever punished. Many among them are poor, in which case
they let themselves out to the richer, and do the basest duties for a
salary. They would rather serve their equals than engage in trade,
and while taking care of their masters’ horses they call themselves
electors of kings and destroyers of tyrants.
Whoever saw a King of Poland in the pomp of his majesty, would
think him the most absolute prince in Europe; yet he is certainly the
least so. The Poles really make with him the same contract which is
supposed to exist between a sovereign and his subjects. The King of
Poland at the moment of his consecration, and when he swears to
keep the “pacta conventa,” releases his subjects from their oath of
allegiance if he should break the laws of the republic. He nominates
to all public offices, and confers all honours. Nothing is hereditary in
Poland, except estates and noble rank. The sons of a count or of a
king have no claim to the dignities of their father. But there is this
great difference between the king and a republic, that he cannot
deprive of any office after having conferred it, and that the republic
may depose him if he breaks the constitution.
The nobility, jealous of their liberty, often sell their votes and
seldom their affections. They have scarcely elected a king before
they fear his ambition and make plots against him. The great men
whose fortunes he has made, and whom he cannot degrade, often
become his enemies instead of remaining his favourites; and those
who are attached to the Court, become objects of hatred to the rest
of the nobility. This makes the existence of two parties the rule
among them; a condition which is inevitable, and even a necessity, in
countries where they will have kings and at the same time preserve
their liberty. What concerns the nation is regulated by the States-
General, which they call Diets. These Diets are by the law of the
kingdom to be held alternately in Poland and Lithuania. The deputies
do business there with sword in hand, like the old Sarmatæ, from
whom they are descended; and sometimes too in a state of
intoxication, a vice to which the Sarmatæ were strangers. Every
nobleman deputed to these States-General has the right the Roman
tribunes had of vetoing the laws of the Senate. One nobleman, by
saying “I protest,” can put a stop to the unanimous resolutions of all
the rest; and if he leaves the place where the Diet is held they are
obliged to separate.
To the disorders arising from this law they apply a remedy still
more dangerous. There are almost always two factions in Poland; as
unanimity in the Diet is almost impossible, each party forms
confederacies, in which decisions are made by the majority’s votes,
without regard to the minority.
These assemblies, which are unconstitutional but authorized by
precedent, are held in the king’s name, though often without his
consent and against his interests, much in the same way as the
League in France made use of Henry III’s name to undermine his
power, or as the Parliament in England, which executed Charles I,
began by putting the King’s name at the head of all the Acts they
passed to destroy him. When the troubles are ended, then it is the
function of the General Diets to annul the acts of these cabals; any
Diet can also repeal the acts of its predecessors, because one king
can abolish the laws of his predecessors, or his own laws.
The nobility which makes the laws for the State is also its
defence. They muster on horseback on great occasions, and can
make a corps of more than 100,000 men. This great body, called
“Pospolite,” moves with difficulty, and is ill-governed. Difficulties of
provisions and forage make it impossible for them to keep together
long; they lack discipline, experience and obedience, but their strong
love of liberty makes them always formidable. They may be
conquered, dispersed, or even kept for a time in bonds, but they
soon shake off the yoke; they compare themselves to reeds, which a
storm will bend to the ground, and which will rise when the wind
drops. It is for this reason that they have no fortified towns—they
themselves are to be the only bulwarks of the State; they never let
their king build fortresses, lest he should use them rather for their
oppression than for their defence; their country is quite open, except
for two or three frontier towns, and if in any of their wars, civil or
foreign, they resolve to sustain a siege, they are obliged to hastily
raise earth fortifications, repair old half-ruined walls, and enlarge the
half-choked ditches; then the town is taken before the
entrenchments are finished.
The Pospolite is not always on horses to guard the country; they
only form by order of the Diet, or, in times of great danger, by that of
the king.
The ordinary protection of Poland is in the hands of a force which
the State is obliged to support. It is composed of two bodies
independent of each other under two different generals. The two
generals are independent of each other, and though they are
nominated by the king, are responsible to the State alone and have
supreme authority over their troops. The colonels are absolute
masters of their regiments, and it is their affair to get them what
sustenance they can, and to pay them; but as they are seldom paid
themselves, they ravage the country, and ruin the farmers to satisfy
their own rapacity, and that of their soldiers. The Polish lords appear
in these armies with more magnificence than in civil life, and their
tents are finer than their houses. The cavalry, which makes up two-
thirds of the army, is almost entirely composed of noblemen, and is
remarkable for the gracefulness of the horses and the richness of the
accoutrements.
Their men-at-arms especially, who are called either hussars or
pancernes, are always attended by several valets, who lead their
horses, which have ornamented bridles with plates of silver and
silver nails, embroidered saddles, saddle-bows and gilt stirrups,
sometimes made of massive silver, with saddle-cloth trailing in the
fashion of the Turks, whose magnificence the Poles imitate as nearly
as possible.
But though the cavalry is so gorgeous the foot are wretched, ill-
clad, ill-armed, without uniform clothes or anything regular; at least
that is how they were up to 1710. These foot-soldiers, who are like
wandering Tartars, bear hunger, cold, fatigue, and all the hardship of
war with incredible endurance. The characteristics of the ancient
Sarmatæ, their ancestors, can still be seen in the Poles; the same
lack of discipline, the same fury in assault, the same readiness to run
away and to return to the field, the same mad fury of slaughter when
they are victorious.
The King of Poland at first consoled himself with the idea that
these two armies would fight for him, that the Polish Pospolite would
arm at his orders, and that all these forces, united with his Saxon
subjects and his Russian allies, would make up a multitude before
whom the small Swedish force would not dare to appear. But he saw
himself suddenly deprived of this means of succour through the very
pains which he had taken to have them all at once.
Accustomed in his hereditary dominions to absolute power, he
was perhaps too confident that he could govern Poland like Saxony.
The beginning of his reign raised malcontents, his very first acts
irritated the party which was opposed to his election, and alienated
almost all the rest. The Poles resented the fact that their towns were
filled with Saxon garrisons and their frontiers with troops. The nation,
far more anxious to maintain their own liberties than to attack their
neighbours, did not consider the king’s attack on Sweden and his
invasion of Livonia as advantageous to the State. It is difficult to
deceive a free nation concerning its interests. The Poles saw that if
this war, undertaken against their wishes, was unsuccessful, their
country, unprotected on every side, would fall a prey to the King of
Sweden, and that if it succeeded they would be subdued by their
own king, who as soon as he was master of Livonia as well as
Saxony would be able to hem in Poland between these two
countries.
In the face of this alternative, of either being enslaved by the king
whom they had elected, or of having their land ravaged by Charles
who was justly enraged, they raised a great outcry against a war
which they believed was rather declared against themselves than
against Sweden. They regarded the Saxons and the Russians as the
instruments of their bondage. And when the King of Sweden had
overcome all that opposed him, and was advancing with a victorious
army into the heart of Lithuania, they opposed the King violently, and
with the more freedom because they were in misery.
Lithuania was then divided into two parties, that of the Princess
Sapieha, and that of Oginski. These two factions had begun by
private quarrels, and degenerated into civil war.
The King of Sweden was on the side of the Princess Sapieha;
and Oginski, ill supported by the Saxons, found his party almost
destroyed. The Lithuanian army, which these troubles and lack of
money was reducing to a small number, was partly dispersed by the
conqueror. The few who sided with the King of Poland were small
bodies of wandering troops, who lived by spoil. So that Augustus
found nothing in Lithuania but the weakness of his own party, the
hate of his subjects, and a foreign army led by an offended,
victorious and implacable king.
There was certainly an army in Poland, but instead of 38,000
men, the number prescribed by law, there were not 18,000. Then it
was not only ill-armed and ill-paid, but the generals were undecided
on any course of action. The King’s best course was to command
the nobility to follow him; but he dare not run the risk of a refusal,
which would increase his weakness by disclosing it.
In this state of trouble and uncertainty, all the counts and dukes
demanded a Parliament of the King, just as in England, in times of
crisis, the different bodies of the State present addresses to the King
beseeching him to call a Parliament. Augustus was more in need of
an army than of a Parliament where the actions of kings are
criticized. But he was forced to call one, that he might not provoke
the nation irretrievably. A Diet was therefore summoned to meet at
Warsaw, on the 2nd of December, 1701. He soon saw that Charles
XII had as much influence in the Assembly as he had himself. The
party of the Sapieha, the Lubomirski, and their friends, Count
Leczinski, treasurer of the crown, who owed his fortune to King
Augustus, and above all the partisans of the Sobieski, were all
secretly for the King of Sweden.
The most influential of them, and the most dangerous enemy that
the King of Poland had, was Cardinal Radjouski, archbishop of
Gnesna, primate of the kingdom and president of the Diet; his
conduct was full of duplicity and artifice, and he was entirely
dominated by an ambitious woman whom the Swedes called
Madame la Cardinale, and who never ceased to urge him to intrigue
and faction. King John Sobieski, Augustus’s predecessor, had first
made him archbishop of Varmia and vice-chancellor of the kingdom.
By favour of the same Prince, the Bishop got a Cardinal’s hat; this
dignity soon opened his way to the primacy, and thus uniting in his
person all that impresses people, he was able to undertake great
enterprises with impunity.
On the death of John he exerted his interest to place Jacques
Sobieski on the throne; but the great hate they bore the father, great
as he was, led to the rejection of the son. Then the Cardinal-Primate
united with the Abbé Polignac, ambassador from France, to give the
crown to the Prince of Conti, who actually was elected.
But the money and the troops of the Saxons got the better of him.
At last he allowed himself to be drawn into the party which crowned
the Elector of Saxony, and waited impatiently for a chance of sowing
dissension between the nation and the new king.
The victories of Charles XII, protector of Prince James Sobiesky,
the civil war in Lithuania, the general dissatisfaction of all his people
with King Augustus, made the Cardinal-Primate hope that the time
had come when he might send Augustus back into Saxony, and
open the way to the throne for Prince John. This Prince, who had
formerly been the innocent object of the Poles’ hatred, was
beginning to be their idol, in proportion as King Augustus lost their
favour; but he dare not even conceive such a revolution, of which the
Cardinal had insensibly laid the foundations.
At first he seemed to wish to reconcile the King with the republic.
He sent circular letters apparently dictated by the spirit of concord
and charity, a common and well-known snare, but one by which men
are always caught; he wrote a touching letter to the King of Sweden,
imploring him, in the name of Him whom all Christians adore, to give
peace to Poland and her King. Charles XII answered the Cardinal’s
intentions rather than his words, for he remained with his victorious
army in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, declaring that he had no
desire to disturb the Diet, that he was making war on Augustus and
the Saxons, and not on Poland, and that far from attacking the State
he had come to save it from oppression. These letters and answers
were for public perusal. The springs which made the Diet act were
the emissaries, who continually came and went between the
Cardinal and Count Piper, and the private meetings held at this
prelate’s house. They proposed to send an embassy to Charles XII,
and were unanimous in their demands that their King should not call
in the aid of any more Russians, and that he should send his Saxon
troops away.
Augustus’s bad luck had already brought about what the Diet
asked him. The treaty made secretly with the Russians at Birzen had
turned out to be as useless as it had seemed formidable. He was far
from being able to send the Czar the 15,000 men he had promised
to raise in the Empire.
The Czar himself, a dangerous enemy of Poland, was not at all
anxious at that time to help a divided kingdom, hoping to have some
share in the spoils. He contented himself with sending 20,000
Russians into Lithuania, and they did more mischief than the
Swedes, fleeing continually before the conqueror, and ravaging
Polish territory, till at last, being chased by the Swedish generals and
finding nothing else to ravage, they returned in bands to their own
country. As to the scattered remains of the Saxon army which had
been beaten at Riga, King Augustus sent them to winter and recruit
in Saxony, that this sacrifice might regain him the affections of the
Polish nation in his present difficult position.
Then the war was abandoned for a series of intrigues, and the
Diet divided into almost as many factions as there were dukedoms.
One day the interests of King Augustus were paramount, the next
they were rejected. Everybody clamoured for liberty and justice, yet
they had no conception of either; the time was spent in secret cabals
and public debate. The Diet knew nothing about what they might or
should do; great assemblies seldom agree on good measures in
time of civil uproar, because bold men in such assemblies are
generally factious, while more reliable men are usually timid.
 The Diet broke up in disorder on the 17th of February, 1702, after
three months’ plotting and irresolution. The senators, that is, the
dukes and the bishops, remained at Warsaw. The Polish Senate has
the right of making laws provisionally, which the Diets seldom
disannul; this body, much less cumbrous and more used to business,
was far less disturbed, and quickly came to a resolution.
They agreed to send the embassy proposed in the Diet to the
King of Sweden, and also that the Pospolite should mount and hold
themselves ready for any emergency. They also made several
regulations to appease the troubles in Lithuania, and still more to
diminish the King’s authority, though it was less to be feared than
Charles’s.
Augustus preferred to receive hard conditions from his conqueror
than from his subjects; he therefore determined to sue for peace with
the King of Sweden, and was on the point of negotiating with him. He
was obliged to keep this step secret from the Senate, whom he
regarded as a still more implacable foe. As the affair was difficult he
intrusted it to the Countess of Königsmarck, a Swedish lady of high
rank to whom he was then attached. This lady, who was celebrated
throughout the world for her wit and beauty, was more capable than
any minister of bringing a negotiation to a successful issue. Besides,
as she had some property in Charles’s dominions, and had been
long a member of his Court, she had a plausible reason for waiting
on the Prince. She came then to the Swedish camp in Lithuania, and
first applied to Count Piper, who too lightly promised her an audience
of his master.
The Countess, among the talents which made her one of the
most delightful persons in Europe, had a gift for speaking several
languages like a native, and would sometimes amuse herself by
making French verses which might have been written at Versailles.
She made some for Charles XII. She introduced the gods of
antiquity, praising his different virtues, and ended as follows—

“Enfin chacun des Dieux discourant à sa gloire,

Le plaçait par avance au temple de mémoire:
 Mais Venus ni Bacchus n’en dirent pas un mot.”

All her wit and charm were lost on such a man as the King of
Sweden; he obstinately refused to see her. She planned to intercept
him when he was taking his usual horse-exercise. Thus meeting him
one day in a very narrow lane she alighted as soon as she saw him.
The King bowed without a word, turned his horse and rode straight
back. So that the only satisfaction the Countess got from her journey
was the conviction that she was the only person of whom the King
was afraid.
The King of Poland was then obliged to throw himself into the
arms of the Senate. He made them two proposals by means of the
Count of Mariemburg; either that they should leave him the control of
the army, which he would pay two quarters in advance out of his own
pocket, or else that they should allow him to bring 12,000 Saxons
into Poland. The Cardinal replied as severely as the King of Sweden
had done. He told the Count of Mariemburg, in the name of the
Assembly, “That they had decided to send an embassy to Charles
XII, and that it was not his affair to introduce Saxons.”
In this extremity the King was anxious to preserve at least a
semblance of royal authority. He sent one of his chamberlains to
Charles to inquire when and how his Swedish Majesty would receive
the embassy of the King, his master, and of the State. Unfortunately
they had neglected to provide this messenger with a passport; so
Charles threw him into prison, with the remark that he was waiting
for an embassy from the State, and none from King Augustus.
Then Charles, leaving garrisons behind him in some of the
Lithuanian towns, advanced to Grodno, a town famous in Europe for
the Diets held there, but ill-built and worse fortified. Some miles
away from Grodno he met the embassy sent by the Polish State.
Charles XII received them in his tent with some display of military
pomp; their proposals were full of evasion and obscurity, they
seemed afraid of Charles, and disliked Augustus, but they were
ashamed of deposing a king whom they had elected at the order of a
foreigner. Nothing was settled, and Charles gave them to understand
that he would give them a decision at Warsaw.
His march was preceded by a manifesto which the Cardinal and
his party spread over Poland in eight days. By this document
Charles invited all the Poles to join him in vengeance, pretending
that their interests were the same. They were, as a matter of fact,
very different, but the manifesto, seconded by a great party, by
disorder in the Senate and by the approach of the conqueror, made
a great impression. They were obliged to own Charles for a
protector, since it was his will, and it was well for them that he was
content with this title. The Senators who were opposed to Augustus
advertised the manifesto in his very face, and those who were on his
side kept silence. At last when they heard that Charles was
advancing by forced marches, they all took panic, and prepared to
flee. The Cardinal was one of the first to leave Warsaw, the majority
hastened to flee, some to await the issue of affairs on their own
estates, some to arm their adherents. With the King there remained
only the Imperial and Russian ambassadors, the Pope’s Legate, and
some few bishops and counts, who were attached to him. He was
forced to flee, and nothing had yet been decided in his favour. Before
his departure, he hastened to take counsel with the small number of
Senators who remained. But though they were anxious to serve him
they were still Poles, and had all got so great an aversion for Saxon
troops, that they dare not allow him to bring 6,000 men for his
defence, and they further voted that these 6,000 men should be
commanded by the Grand Duke of Poland, and immediately sent
back after peace had been made. As to the armies of the republic,
they put them at his disposal.
After this settlement the King left Warsaw, being too weak to
oppose the enemy, and little satisfied with his own party. He at once
published his orders for assembling the Pospolite and the armies,
which were little more than a name.
There was nothing to be hoped from Lithuania, where the
Swedes were posted; while the Polish army, reduced in number,
lacked arms, provisions and the will to fight. The majority of the
nobles, intimidated, undecided, or disaffected, stayed on their own
lands. It was in vain that the King, authorized by law, ordered every
noble to appear on horseback under pain of death, and to follow him;
they began to argue that they need not obey him. His chief trust was
in the troops of the Electorate, where, as the form of government
was absolute, he did not fear disobedience. He had already given
orders to 2,000 Saxons, who were marching rapidly. He also recalled
8,000, which he had promised to the Emperor for the French war, but
which in his difficult position he was forced to withdraw. The
introduction of so many Saxons into Poland meant the provocation of
general disaffection, and the violation of the law made by his own
party, allowing him a force of only 6,000. But he realized that if he
were victor they would not dare to complain, while if he were beaten
they would never forgive the introduction of 6,000 men. While his
soldiers were arriving in groups, and he was passing from county to
county collecting the nobles who adhered to him, the King of
Sweden at last arrived before Warsaw on the 5th of May, 1702. The
gates were opened to him at the first summons; he sent away the
Polish garrison, disbanded the militia, set up military posts of his own
everywhere, and ordered the inhabitants to disarm; then content with
that, and not wishing to exasperate them, he only demanded a
tribute of 100,000 livres. King Augustus was at that time assembling
his forces at Cracow, and was very surprised to see the Cardinal-
Primate among them. This man wished, perhaps, to maintain an
external reputation to the last, and to dethrone his King with every
mark of outward respect. He gave him to understand that the King of
Sweden would grant reasonable terms, and humbly asked
permission to go to see the King. King Augustus granted what he
was powerless to refuse, and so left him free to do him an injury. The
Cardinal hastened immediately to see the King of Sweden, to whom
he had not yet ventured to present himself. He met the Prince at
Prague, not far from Warsaw, but without the ceremony which had
been shown towards the ambassadors of the State.
He found the conqueror clad in a dress of coarse blue cloth with
brass buttons, jack-boots, and buffalo-skin gloves reaching to the
elbow, in a room without hangings, together with the Duke of
Holstein, his brother-in-law, Count Piper, his prime minister, and
several officers. The King came forward to meet the Cardinal, and