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Contents

PART I THE SCOPE OF CRIME

Chapter 1 Thinking Critically about Crime

WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
The Making of Laws
The Breaking of Laws
Society’s Reaction to the Breaking of Laws
THE INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Political Science
Economics
Psychology
Law
Biology
Sociology
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE
CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
How to Study Theory
Social Learning Theory
Merton’s Strain Theory
Conflict Theory
SUMMARY

FEATURES
DOUBLETAKE: Serial Murder and the Media
 THEORY TO PRACTICE: Recidivism and Criminological Theory

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Constructing a Response to Crime

FOCUS ON ETHICS: The Making of Laws

Chapter 2 Measuring Crime

THE IMPORTANCE OF MEASURING CRIME
THE DARK FIGURE OF CRIME
GOVERNMENT STATISTICAL EFFORTS
The Uniform Crime Reports
Problems with the UCR
The National Incident-Based Reporting System
The National Crime Victimization Survey
Problems with the NCVS
The UCR and the NCVS: Divergence, Convergence, and the Future
SELF-REPORT STUDIES
Problems with Self-Report Studies
The National Youth Survey Family Study
Monitoring the Future
The National Survey on Drug Use and Health
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
SUMMARY

FEATURES
DOUBLETAKE: Bad Numbers

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Why Measuring Crime Matters

FOCUS ON ETHICS: The Measure and Mismeasure of Crime

Chapter 3 Victims of Crime

THE STUDY OF VICTIMOLOGY
THE EXTENT OF VICTIMIZATION
Micro-Victimization
Murder Victims
 Rape Victims
HISTORY AND PREJUDICE IN RAPE VICTIMIZATION
CHILD RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE
Robbery and Assault Victims
ASSAULT VICTIMS
VICTIMS OF INTIMATE-PARTNER VIOLENCE
Property Offense Victims
Victim Precipitation
Macro-Victimization
Terrorism Victimization
VICTIMIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES
VICTIMIZATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES
Corporate and Environmental Victimization
THE BP-DEEPWATER HORIZON DISASTER
THE VOLKSWAGEN CONSPIRACY
Victims of Crimes Against Humanity
NAZI WAR ATROCITIES
ISIL
Transnational Victimization
THE PROBLEMS OF VICTIMIZATION
Physical Trauma
Psychological Trauma and Fear of Crime
Family Trauma
Economic Trauma
Legal Trauma
Special Victims: Children, the Elderly, and the Disabled
CHILDREN
THE ELDERLY
THE DISABLED
GETTING HELP FOR VICTIMS
Victims’ Rights
Offender Punishment, Restorative Justice, and Victim-Impact Statements
Offender Punishment
Restorative Justice
Victim-Impact Statements
SUMMARY
 FEATURES
DOUBLETAKE: A Victim with a Twist

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Putting Victims First

THEORY TO PRACTICE: Who Owns a Crime?

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Protecting the Victim

PART II THEORIES OF CRIME

Chapter 4 The Classical and Positivist Schools of

Criminology
LOOKING FOR EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME
Supernatural Explanations of Crime
Demonology
Evil and Immorality
THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
The Enlightenment
The Social Contract
Cesare Beccaria
Jeremy Bentham
THE POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
NEOCLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
Deterrence Theory Reconsidered
Rational Choice Theory
Routine Activities Theory
SUMMARY

FEATURES
POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Let the Penalty Fit the Crime

THEORY TO PRACTICE: Criminological Perspectives in Film

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Guns in School

Chapter 5 Biological and Psychological Theories
EARLY BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Physiognomy and Phrenology
Body Types
Earnest Hooton and the Criminals Study
William Sheldon and Somatotypes
The Gluecks and Juvenile Delinquency
Early Biocriminology
Perspectives on Heredity, Human Evolution, and Crime
Eugenics
MODERN BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Genetic and Evolutionary Perspectives
XYY Syndrome
Genes and Behavior
Twin and Adoption Studies
Evolution, Aggression, and Survival
Neurological Perspectives
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
The Brain
Environmental Perspectives: Alcohol and Drugs
Alcohol
Drugs
Critiques
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC PERSPECTIVES
Traditional Psychoanalytic Theory
Modern Psychological and Psychiatric Perspectives
Behaviorism
Cognitive Theory
Language Impairment and IQ
Antisocial Personality Disorder, Psychopathy, and Insanity
SUMMARY

FEATURES
DOUBLETAKE: The Undesirables
 POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Establishing Links Between the Brain and Crime

THEORY TO PRACTICE: Low Blood Sugar, Bad Judgment, or Both?

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Jury Duty

Chapter 6 Sociological Theories of Crime and

Delinquency
ABOUT SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORIES OF CRIME
Social Disorganization Theory
Concentric Zones
Collective Efficacy and Crime
LEARNING THEORIES OF CRIME
Differential Association Theory
Techniques of Neutralization
Miller’s Focal Concerns of the Lower Class
Subculture of Violence
Code of the Street
STRAIN THEORIES OF CRIME
Anomie
Classical Strain Theory
Strain and Subculture
Delinquency and Opportunity
Institutional Anomie
General Strain Theory
CONTROL THEORIES OF CRIME
Containment Theory
Social Bond Theory
General Theory of Crime
Power-Control Theory
SUMMARY

FEATURES
POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Sociological Theories
 Theory to Practice: Strengthening Social Bonds as Prevention and Treatment for
Deviant Behavior

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Pressure from Your Sisters

Chapter 7 Life-Course and Integrated Theories

LIFE-COURSE THEORIES
Developmental Perspective on Antisocial Behavior
Pathways to Crime
Life-Course-Persistent Offenders
Adolescence-Limited Delinquents
Persistent Offending and Desistance from Crime
INTEGRATED THEORIES
Interactional Theory of Delinquency
Control Balance Theory
Social Support Theory
General Theory of Crime and Delinquency
Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential Theory
SUMMARY

FEATURES
THEORY TO PRACTICE The Oregon Social Learning Center

DOUBLETAKE: The Politics of Theory

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Crime Is Complicated

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Preventing a life of Crime

Chapter 8 Conflict and Critical Theories of Crime

UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT THEORY AND CRITICAL THEORY
Labeling Theory
Social Location
CONFLICT THEORY
Marx and Communism
Other Conflict Thinkers
 Max Weber
Ralf Dahrendorf
Austin Turk
Critiques
CRITICAL THEORY
Feminist Criminology
Peacemaking Criminology
Cultural Criminology
Postmodern Criminology
Critical Race Theory
SUMMARY

FEATURES
POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Shifting the Focus

THEORY TO PRACTICE: Peacemaking and Uncommon Sense

DOUBLETAKE: Missing: White Woman

FOCUS ON ETHICS: An Officer in Field Training

PART III TYPOLOGIES OF CRIME

Chapter 9 Property Offenses

THE VALUE OF PROPERTY
BURGLARY
LARCENY AND FRAUD
Pocket-Picking
Employee Theft
Shoplifting
Fraud
Credit Card Theft
Check Fraud
MOTOR VEHICLE THEFT
ARSON
 SUMMARY

FEATURES
DOUBLETAKE: When Is Shoplifting Not Shoplifting?

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Bicycles: The New Crime Currency

FOCUS ON ETHICS: The Trouble with Amy

Chapter 10 Criminal Offenses Against People

SOURCES OF VIOLENT CRIME
Physical Sources of Violent Crime
Mental Disorder
Substance Abuse
Evolutionary Factors
Social and Cultural Sources of Violent Crime
Family Dysfunction
Social Disorganization
Subcultural Values
TYPES OF VIOLENT CRIME
Murder
Murder and the Law
Offender Characteristics
Mass and Serial Murder
Rape
Rape and the Law
Offender Characteristics
Causes of Rape
Rape Myths
Rape within Organizations
Robbery
Robbery and the Law
Types of Robbery
Assault
Assault and the Law
Types of Assault
 SUMMARY

FEATURES
DOUBLETAKE: The “Bloody Benders”

THEORY TO PRACTICE: Skeletons in the Closet

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Changing the Law on Rape

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Creepy or Dangerous?

Chapter 11 Organized and White-Collar Crime

ORGANIZED CRIME
The Beginning of Organized Crime in the United States
The Rise of the Underworld
The American Mafia
Ethnically Based Organized Crime in the United States
Gangs
Theories of Organized Crime
Organized Crime Offenses
Illegal Drug Trafficking
Prostitution and Human Trafficking
Gambling
Stolen Property
WHITE-COLLAR CRIME
Theories of White-Collar Crime
White-Collar Offenses by Employees
CORPORATE CRIME
Offenses Against Consumers
Offenses Against the Environment
SUMMARY

FEATURES
DOUBLETAKE: Creating the Mafia
 THEORY TO PRACTICE: Racketeering Influenced and Corrupt Organizations
(RICO)

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Unorganized Crime: The Case of MS-13

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Insider Trading

Chapter 12 Public-Order Offenses and Values

CRIME AND VALUES
General and Indirect Victims
Morality and Crime
Morality and Social Harm
SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND THE LAW
A Brief Legal History of Alcohol and Drugs in the United States
Opium and Morphine
Patent Medicines
1906 Pure Food and Drugs Act
Harrison Act of 1914
Marijuana and the Law
Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970
Omnibus Drug Act
Substance Abuse Today
Legalization and Decriminalization
SEX OFFENSES
Prostitution
Male Prostitution
Female Prostitution
Legalized Prostitution
Child Prostitution
Pornography
Sodomy
GAMBLING
A Brief History of Gambling
Legal Gambling
Illegal Gambling
SUMMARY
 FEATURES
THEORY TO PRACTICE: Harm Reduction as a Drug Strategy

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Dog Fighting and Crime

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Your Little Brother Discovers Sex

PART IV RESPONDING TO CRIME

Chapter 13 Terrorism and Hate Crime

CRIMES OF FEAR AND HATE
HATE CRIME
Hate Crime and the Law
Hate Crime and Criminological Theory
TERRORISM
A Short History of Terrorism
Terrorism and Criminological Theory
Domestic Terrorism
International Terrorism
Controlling Terrorism
SUMMARY

FEATURES
THEORY TO PRACTICE: The Southern Poverty Law Center

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: N-DEx

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Political Correctness or Political Suicide: You Choose

Chapter 14 Criminology, Technology, and Privacy

CRIMINOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
A Short History of Technology and Crime
The Beginnings of the Internet
The Internet and Crime
 The Whistler, Cap’n Crunch, and the Evolution of Computer Network
Crime
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK CRIME
The Computer Crime Toolbox
The Dark Web
Social Engineering
Spam
Denial-of-Service Attacks
Viruses, Worms, and other Malware
The Most Serious Offenses
Copyright Infringement
Child Pornography
Identity Theft
E-mail Scams
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
Technology for Surveillance and Short-Term Tracking
Cameras
Electronic Monitoring
RFID Tags
Technology for Identification and Long-Term Tracking
Databases
Biometrics
PRIVACY, SECURITY, AND THE FUTURE
SUMMARY

FEATURES
THEORY TO PRACTICE: Because That’s Where the Money Is

DOUBLETAKE: Phun with Fonics

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: What Information Should You Share?

FOCUS ON ETHICS: Peeping Drones

Glossary
Credits
Index
Preface
Criminology is a rapidly changing discipline, and it is changing in many
directions. This text, Introduction to Criminology: A Brief Edition puts the
changes into context so that the student will be able to appreciate the
history of criminology, the forces that are compelling it to change, and
how those transformations affect criminology and the criminal justice
system’s response to crime. The text should inspire the reader to think
critically about the study of crime as it presents the field in an organized
and innovative way.
Criminal offenses are varied in the motivations of offenders and the
harm they do to individuals and society. Thus, criminology has evolved in
many ways. Introduction to Criminology: A Brief Edition illustrates the
emerging changes in the relationship between society and its attempts to
control deviant and unlawful behavior.
The changes in criminology are envisioned in the following concerns:

Maturation and innovation in criminological theory. Theories

devoted to the explanation of why people break the law have been
evolving over the past 40 years. Theories have been developed by the
application of new empirical studies and the introduction of new
technologies to ascertain the reasons why people break the law. This
text includes consideration of these changes in criminological theory
in part by focusing on advances in biological explanations of crime,
emphasizing life-course and integrated theories, and covering critical
theories that emphasize the influence of variables such as sex, gender,
social class, and race.
Tension between security and privacy. Although individual rights and
the protection of society have long been a concern in criminology,
this tension has been heightened by the problems of terrorism. The
 protections afforded by the U.S. Constitution, international law, and
the Geneva Convention are all now subject to reinterpretation in light
of the threat of terrorism. Of particular concern to some scholars is
the way in which concern for terrorism has fueled significant changes
in how traditional crime is addressed.
A blending of domestic and international crime control. Terrorism
has caused sweeping and often confusing changes in the missions of
its criminal justice agencies. These changes are most evident in the
creation of the Department of Homeland Security which reorganized
the federal portion of the criminal justice system and demanded a
new relationship between local, state, and federal agencies. It is not
yet clear exactly how crime will be addressed in the future, but it is
clear that an expanded vision of criminal activity has introduced new
political and structural changes in how the United States responds to
crime.
The introduction of new types of crime. Technology has enabled
many types of criminal offenses that did not exist only a few years
ago. Additionally, technology has made it possible for lawbreakers to
become more sophisticated in committing old offenses in new ways.
Variations on offenses such as stalking, identity theft, larceny, child
pornography, and the threat of biological, chemical, and nuclear
terrorism all have emerged or become more serious in recent years.
The discipline of criminology is struggling to develop theories and
responses to these nascent forms of crime.
Introduction to Criminology: A Brief Edition does not neglect
consideration of how the discipline has fared to this point. The text is
grounded in the history of crime and criminology, traditional theories, and
traditional crime control efforts, but it aims to extend the consideration of
these issues to incorporate recent changes in the political, social, and
economic concerns of the new century. Criminology is an exciting
discipline that is affected by technology, nationalism, global concerns, and
identity politics. Only by considering these developments can criminology
explain antisocial behavior to students, suggest policy implications to
decision-makers, and keep current with new and different criminal threats
to society. Introduction to Criminology: A Brief Edition provides a
balanced context while remaining faithful to the important and substantial
work of previous scholars.

Organization of the Text

This book is 14 chapters long and divided into four parts.

1. Part I helps the student develop an understanding of the definition

of crime and the scope of the discipline. Chapter 1 presents a brief
history of criminology as an academic discipline and an overview of
social control. It differentiates criminology from criminal justice
and demonstrates how criminology is an interdisciplinary endeavor.
Chapter 1 discusses what criminologists do and how they inform the
criminal justice system. Chapter 2 presents the challenges and
difficulties inherent in measuring crime. It covers the major
techniques of measuring crime and points out their strengths and
shortcomings. Chapter 3 considers the discipline from the victim’s
viewpoint. Often the forgotten party in crime, the victim is being
welcomed back into the criminal justice decision-making process.
This book gives them a prominent role in the first part of the text.
2. Part II covers the important criminological theories and features a
separate chapter on the classical and positivist schools of
criminology. These perspectives are at the heart of the discipline,
and some texts cover them in a superficial manner. This text covers
the major figures in each school and also provides sections that
explain how these schools still influence crime-control policy. Four
additional chapters cover the theories that professors expect from a
 criminology text. Of special note here is the expanded coverage
given to critical and political theories of crime and how they are
related to the new challenges posed by terrorism. By relating
traditional theories of crime to new issues, students can appreciate
how central the study of criminology is to becoming an informed
citizen.
3. Part III deals with crime typologies. Its four chapters cover the
range of criminal offenses and are organized by offenses against
people; offenses against property; organized, corporate, and political
crime; and, finally, public-order offenses. Each chapter attends to
the traditional problems associated with these offenses and the
challenges posed by globalism, terrorism, and technology. The
themes underlying these chapters are that the nature and threat of
many criminal offenses are changing, and public policy is lagging
behind.
4. In Part IV, Chapter 13 covers terrorism’s effect on the criminal
justice system. This is important to the study of criminology
because everyone has to reorient the roles, mandates, and boundaries
of each type and level of criminal justice agency. Additionally, this
chapter discusses hate crime. Much like terrorism, hate crime is not
a unique offense, but rather is an enhancer of crime. For instance, a
murder committed during a terrorist or hate crime incident is still a
murder, but the political nature of the offense makes it different,
thus demanding a bolstered response from society. Chapter 14
focuses on the issue of balancing the rights of individuals with
concerns for safety and security. This promises to be a continuing
concern in criminology and deserves a full chapter to explore its
many dimensions. It is hoped that the students who are alerted to
these issues in this text will be the ones who develop the vision to
construct the future of criminology in a way that is fair, just, and
humane.
Pedagogical Features
These features should excite the interest of students while showing them
how criminology affects individuals and society, how theories have
implications for the way society responds to crime, and how ethical
decision-making in the criminal justice system is often difficult.

Opening vignettes. Each chapter begins with an opening vignette

that presents real-life incidents drawn from media coverage. These
cases relate to the chapter material and illustrate how human behavior
may harm others. The intent of the vignettes is not to sensationalize
crime, but rather to show the range of violations of the law and how
the study of criminology can help make sense of deviant behavior.
Students will recognize many of these vignettes, whereas other
scenarios will be new to them. All of the vignettes will help students
comprehend the materials in the chapter.
Policy Implications. Policy Implications emphasize real-world
implications of criminological theory. This feature is especially
important in Part II which deals with criminological theory. The
intent is to alert students to how theory relates to criminology and
criminal justice.
Focus on Ethics. Focus on Ethics presents students with scenarios in
which they must make decisions in situations in which the right
answer is not always clear. These scenarios often challenge students
to choose between preserving their self-interest, remaining loyal to
friends, enforcing the law, or preventing harm to someone else. The
scenarios demonstrate that dealing ethically with challenges in the
criminal justice system is not easy. Focus on Ethics stimulates class
discussions and allows students to compare how their reasoning
compares with the reasoning of others.
 Critical thinking. In addition to the Critical Reflections questions at
the end of each chapter, questions are included in every figure,
feature, photograph, and at the end of each section. These questions
consistently encourage the students to reflect on the material they
have read. In addition, many of the questions require the students to
apply the knowledge they have gained from the book to broader
issues.

Supplements
Oxford University Press offers a complete and authoritative supplements
package for both instructors and students. When you adopt Introduction to
Criminology: A Brief Edition, you will have access to an exemplary set of
learning resources to enhance teaching and support student learning.

Ancillary Resource Center (ARC)

A convenient, instructor-focused destination for resources accompanies
Introduction to Criminology: A Brief Edition. Accessed online through
individual user accounts (https://arc2.oup-arc.com/), the ARC provides
instructors with access to up-to-date ancillaries at any time, while
guaranteeing the security of grade-significant resources. In addition, it
allows Oxford University Press to keep instructors informed when new
content becomes available. The ARC for Introduction to Criminology: A
Brief Edition includes:

Instructor’s Manual: For each chapter of the textbook, the

instructor’s manual includes the following:
• Learning Objectives: The learning objectives are based on the
content of the book and expressed in a manner that makes
assessment possible.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Colour vision
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Colour vision

Being the Tyndall Lectures delivered in 1894 at the
Royal Institution

Author: Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney

Release date: April 17, 2024 [eBook #73410]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: William Wood and Company,

1894

Credits: Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLOUR

VISION ***
 Transcriber’s Note
Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-
clicking them and selecting an option to view them separately,
or by double-tapping and/or stretching them.
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted
to the public domain. It includes part of the title page and an
illustration taken from the original book.
Additional notes will be found near the end of this ebook.
COLOUR VISION
 TYPES OF COLOUR VISION.

W. DE W. A., DEL. W. GRIGGS, LITH.

 COLOUR VISION
BEING

THE TYNDALL LECTURES

DELIVERED IN 1894

AT
THE ROYAL INSTITUTION

BY

CAPT. W. de W. ABNEY, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

LATE ROYAL ENGINEERS

WITH COLOURED PLATE AND NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS

NEW YORK
WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY
 CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface vii

CHAPTER I.
The Eye 1

CHAPTER II.
Simple Colours and their Mixture 15

CHAPTER III.
Three Colour Sensations Possible 32

CHAPTER IV.
The Young and Hering Theories of Colour Vision 41

CHAPTER V.
General Aspect of Colour Blindness 58

CHAPTER VI.
Colour Blindness exhibited by Colour Discs and exhibited
by Luminosity Curves of the Spectrum 74
 CHAPTER VII.
Luminosity of Colours to Different Parts of the Retina 88

CHAPTER VIII.
Luminosity of a Feeble Spectrum and the Limit of the
Perception of Colour 98

CHAPTER IX.
The Extinction of Light from the Spectrum 108

CHAPTER X.
The Extinction of the Perception of Light by the Colour
Blind 122

CHAPTER XI.
Tobacco Blindness 137

CHAPTER XII.
Examples of Colour Blindness due to Disease 148

CHAPTER XIII.
The Holmgren Test for Colour Blindness 167

CHAPTER XIV.
The Spectrum Test for Colour Blindness 180

CHAPTER XV.
The Young and Hering Theories of Colour Vision
Compared 187

Appendix 201

Index 229
 PREFACE.
THE writer had for some years past, in conjunction with General
Festing, and recently as Secretary and Member of the Colour Vision
Committee of the Royal Society, carried out a series of investigations
on colour vision, and selected that subject when he was invited, in
1894, to deliver the Tyndall Lectures at the Royal Institution.
The brief time allotted for these lectures—an hour on three
successive Saturday afternoons—restricted the discussion of some
aspects of the question, and confined its treatment in the main to
those features most readily explicable by the physicist, and to
bringing into notice the latest results which had been obtained from
physical experiments. How far the writer has succeeded in the task
which he then outlined it is for the reader to determine.
There was no intention in the first instance to publish these
lectures. After their delivery, many persons expressed a desire that
the information they contained should be rendered accessible to
such as were interested in the theory of colour vision, and in
deference to that desire the lecture-notes have been re-cast in book
form. For the reader’s convenience the matter is now divided into
chapters instead of into lectures, and a few additions have been
made in the text to explain some of the experimental work to those
who have not facilities for its repetition.
The writer has to acknowledge several debts of gratitude. First,
to Mr. E. Nettleship, for his kindness in looking over the proofs, and
making valuable suggestions whilst the work was passing through
the press; and also, as will be seen throughout its pages, for many of
the interesting cases of defective colour perception which have been
examined by the somewhat novel methods described. Next, the
writer’s gratitude is due to Professor M. Foster for the permission he
has given to use his admirable description of the Hering theory; and,
lastly, to the Royal Society for the permission it accorded to use
various diagrams which have served as illustrations to papers which
have appeared in its “Philosophical Transactions” and “Proceedings.”
COLOUR VISION.
 CHAPTER I.
I MUST commence this course by saying that I feel the honour that
has been done me in asking me to undertake it, connected as it is
with the name of Tyndall, whose recent removal from our midst has
been deplored by all lovers of science, and by none more than by
those who have had the privilege of listening to him at this Institution.
It is my duty to speak on some subject of physics, and the subject I
have chosen is Colour Vision. I hope it will not be considered
inappropriate, since it was Thomas Young, the physicist, whose
connection with this Institution is well known, who first propounded a
really philosophical theory of the subject. Interesting as it may be to
trace how old theories have failed and new ones have started, I feel
that for those who, like myself, have but little time at command in
which to address you, the historical side of this question must of
necessity be treated incompletely.
Colour vision is a subject which enters into the domains both of
physics and physiology, and it is thus difficult for any one individual
to treat of it exhaustively unless he be a Helmholtz, who was as
distinguished in the one branch of science as he was in the other. I
am not a physiologist, and at the most, can only pretend to an
elementary knowledge of the physiology of the eye, but I trust it is
sufficient to prevent myself from falling into any grievous error. I shall
try and show you, however, that the subject is capable of being
made subordinate to physical methods of examination. I must
necessarily commence by a very brief description of those parts of
the eye in which it is supposed the seat of vision lies, but in terms
which are not too technical. As to the mere optical properties of the
eye I shall say but little, for they are not necessary for my purpose,
although more particularly adapted to mathematical treatment than
the other properties I have to describe.
 The eye may be diagrammatically represented as in the figure
which is supposed to be a horizontal section of it, the figure being
reproduced from Professor Michael Foster’s Physiology.

Fig. 1.

Scl is the sclerotic coat. Ch the choroid

coat, with CP the ciliary process. I is
the body of the Iris. R is the retina or
inner wall. PE the pigment epithelium
or outer wall. L the lens held by the
suspensory ligament sp.l. VH is the
vitreous humour. ON the optic nerve,
ox is the optic axis, in this case made
to pass through the fovea centralis,
f.c.

As far as the perception of colour is concerned, the principal part

of the eye which is not distinctly optical—i.e. for the production of
images—is the retina, and this it will be seen is in reality an outcrop
of the brain, the connection between the two being the optic nerve.
Owing to this connection, it is not easy to determine where the seat
of colour perception is located; but for the purpose of physical
investigation this is not of first-rate importance, nor does it affect the
discussion of rival theories except in a minor degree. There are other
subsidiary adjuncts in the eye to which, however, I must call
attention, as they have a distinct bearing on the apparent intensity of
some colours and of the hue that mixtures of others are perceived.
The first is what is called the “macula lutea,” or yellow spot, a spot
which it may be assumed exists in every eye. It is horizontally oval in
form, and is situated in the very centre of the retina, embracing some
6° to 8° in angular measure. It has a brownish or yellowish tint, and
the retina at this part is slightly depressed, being bounded by a
slightly raised rim. In the centre of this area the retina becomes very
thin, having a depression about 1/100 of an inch or ·3 millimetres in
diameter, which is named the “fovea centralis,” where it is said that
vision is the most acute. This statement can be well credited when
we come to consider where the seat of the stimulation of sensation
lies. The colour which tints the yellow spot is strongest at the crater-
like rim, and fades away centrally and peripherally, and is said to be
wholly absent in the fovea centralis.
As the colour of this spot is yellow or brown in the living eye (and
that it is probably brown the absorption indicates), it follows that
white light passing through it must be deprived of some of its
components, though in differing degrees. If the seat of sensation is
at the outer layer of the retina, as we shall shortly see must be the
case, it will further be seen that when light of any colour which the
brown pigment will absorb more or less completely falls on different
parts of the oval area, the absorption must vary at each part, and the
intensity of the perceived light will be least at the rim and increase
centrally and peripherally. As the centre of the yellow spot or fovea is
coincident approximately with the point where the axis of the eye
cuts the retina, the image of an evenly illuminated object, when
looked at directly, must fall on the yellow spot. If, therefore, a patch
of such light, the image of which more than covers the spot, be
observed, it ought to exhibit a varying brightness of colour
corresponding to the strength of the colouring matter which exists at
the different parts. This it but rarely does, for habit and constant
interpretation of what should be seen prevents the mind from
distinguishing these variations; but if the colour brightness, as
perceived by the different parts, be submitted to measurement by
proper means, the variations in brightness of the image can be
readily recognised. A very common method of exhibiting the
presence of the pigment is to look at a bright white cloud through a
layer of chrome alum. Chrome alum transmits red and blue-green
rays. Now as the spectrum-blue rays are those which the pigment
will absorb, it follows that the colour of the solution should appear
ruddy to the central part of the eye, but on the rest of the retina it
should appear of its ordinary purplish colour. At a first glance, and
before the eye has become fatigued, this is the case, but the
phenomenon soon disappears. Another way of forming an idea as to
what the yellow spot absorbs is to throw a feeble spectrum on a
white surface and cause the eye to travel along it. If the spectrum be
viewed so that it does not occupy more than about 40° of the retina,
the movement of the eye will show a dark band travelling along the
green, blue, and violet regions as the image of these parts of the
spectrum fall on the yellow spot, and their apparent brightness will
increase as they fall outside the absorbing area. This proves that an
absorption takes place in this area.

Fig. 2.

The retina consists essentially of an inner and outer wall,

enclosing matter which is similar to the grey matter of the brain. On
the inner wall are the vessels which are connected with the optic
nerve. The outer wall is epithelium coloured with a pigment, and it is
here that the visual impulses begin, although the rays of light giving
rise to them have to pass through the thickness of the retina before
so doing. It has already been stated that the light has to pass
through the thickness of the yellow spot before a visual sensation is
felt in the centre of the field, and the experiments just given offer a
fair proof of the truth of the assertion, but there is still another which
is perhaps more conclusive. Suppose we have a hollow reflecting
ball, as shown in Fig. 2, and through an orifice A we project a beam
of light to B, which meets an obstruction, S, in its path, then A B
would be reflected from B to C on a screen C F, and the obstruction
S would be marked at C. If another beam from D was directed so as
to meet the same obstruction, its presence would be marked at F.
Knowing the distance of the centre O of the hollow sphere from F C
and its diameter, and measuring the distance between F and C and
their respective distances from the axis of the sphere, the distances
S B and S E can be calculated. This method is applied in the
formation of what are known as Purkinje’s figures. The simplest case
is where a beam of light is directed through the sclerotic and
transmitted through the lens. Images of the retinal vessels are
distinguished as at S, and it is found that they cast shadows, which
are seen as dark lines in the glare of the field of vision. The
sensation of light must therefore come from behind these vessels,
and calculation shows that the seat of the sensation is close to the
pigmented inner wall of the retina.
Lying here is a layer of what are known as rods and cones,
which have a connection, either actual or functional, with the optic
fibres which largely compose the inner wall of the retina, and are
connected with the optic nerve. In the yellow spot the cones are
much more numerous than the rods, but in the peripheral part the
reverse is the case. In the fovea the rods appear to be altogether
absent. The total number of cones in the eye has been calculated to
be about 3,000,000, of which about 7,000 are in the small fovea. The
number of cones will give an idea of their dimensions. This detail has
been entered into as it has been supposed that these rods and
cones are all-important in translating light-waves into visual
impulses. The inner wall of the retina of most human eyes, as has
been mentioned, is stained with a black pigment, fuscin, though in
albinos it is absent. What its particular use may be is still unknown,
for its change by light is so slow that it can scarcely be the cause of
vision. In the outer parts of the rods is, however, diffused a
substance highly sensitive to light, called the “visual purple,” from its
colour, and a theory founded on chemical action, produced by a
change in this substance, has been promulgated. Fascinating,
however, as such a theory must be, it lacks confirmation. The fact
that the cones do not contain it, and that in the fovea are cones
alone, renders it difficult to reconcile the theory with the fact that this
part of the retina possesses, we are told, the greatest acuteness of
sensation as regards light and colour.
The eyes of most vertebrate animals, it may be remarked, have
this visual purple, but in those of the bat, owl, hen, and some others
the colouring matter seems to be absent. Visual purple is an
interesting substance, however, and as it is found in the eye it
probably exercises some useful function, though what that function
may be is at present unknown. That images of objects can be
formed on the retina, owing to the bleaching of this substance, has
been proved by experiment. The purple is first changed to a yellow
colour, and then passes into white. These “optograms,” as they are
called, can be fixed in an excised eye if the retina be detached, and
then be treated with a weak solution of alum.

Fig. 3.

Many persons are not aware of the extent of the field of view
which the eye embraces. Vertically it takes in about 100°, whilst