3.

1 Study Area

JAMMU AND KASHMIR (J&K)

J&K is India's northernmost Union Territory (UT) and lies between latitudes 32º.17‟ to 36º.58‟
north and longitudes 73º.26‟ to 80º.26‟ east. With total geographical area of 42,241 sq. km, it
accounts for 1.285% of the total area of the Indian territory. The UT covers the majority of the
Indian Himalayan Region, and the westernmost area of it comprises around half of the
biodiversity found in the Indian part of this great mountain chain (Dar and Khuroo, 2020). The
UT is home to a mountainous ecosystem with vast coniferous forests that serve as reservoirs for
high-quality timber. Wular Lake, Shallabugh, Hygam, Surinsar-Mansar, and Hokersar are five
wetlands in Jammu and Kashmir included as internationally significant Ramsar sites in India.
Gharana, Kukarian, Sangral Asa Chak and Pargwal on River Chenab and its tributaries and
Nanga on Basanatar river in Samba are important riverine wetland conservation reserves in
Jammu.

JAMMU

Jammu, the capital city of Jammu and Kashmir, is located on the banks of the Tawi River,
surrounded by the Trikuta Hills to the northwest and the Shivalik Hills to the north, east, and
southeast. The city is surrounded by the Northern Plains to the south and the Himalayas to the
north. Jammu is rich in biodiversity, including valuable flora and wildlife, endangered plants,
and animals. The city has moderate climate, beautiful landscapes, and healthy destination that
attracts many tourists, while the wetland ecosystems of Jammu attract innumerable migratory
bird species.

Wetlands selected for the study

The four wetlands selected from Jammu District for water quality assessment were Gharana,
Pargwal, Kukarian, and Sangral. These are the important Wetland Conservation Reserves of
Jammu region.

Gharana Wetland
Gharana Wetland Reserve is located in the village of Gharana in RS Pura Tehsil, around 450
meters from India's international border with Pakistan in the Jammu area. The wetland is
surrounded by agricultural areas on the west, east, and south sides of the Indo-Pakistan border.
The Gharana Wetland gets its water from an Indian security force-built defence ditch filled with
water from River Chenab. The wetland is currently designated as an Important Bird and
Biodiversity Area, which gives it global recognition. It is a crucial habitat for many migratory
birds who visit it during the winter, and many resident birds that rely on it for healthy habitat.

MAJOR FLORA

Terrestrial vegetation

The native terrestrial vegetation is primarily subtropical, with Babul (Acacia nilotica), Phulai
(Acacia modesta), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Amaltas (Cassia fistula), Jamun (Syzygium
cumini), Dhamman (Grewia optiva), Palas (Butea monosperma), Siris (Albizzia lebbeck), Mango
(Mangifera indica), Malabar nut (Adhatoda vasica), Shisham (Dalbergia sisso), Mulberry
(Morus alba), Chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula), and Baheda (Terminalia bellerica),
among others. Safeda (Eucalyptus globulus), Bottlebrush (Callistemon sp.), and other cultivated
tree species have been planted near wetlands. Some shrub species found in the area are Ziziphus
(Ziziphus mauritiana), Bush morning glory (Ipomoea carnea), and Chinese haste tree (Vitex
negundo), among others. The terrestrial vegetation in and around the wetlands supplies food and
shelter to numerous land birds who dwell near and depend on the wetlands.

Aquatic vegetation

The wetland is covered with various aquatic plants such as Common duckweed (Lemna minor),
Mosquito fern (Azolla pinnata), Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Alligator weed
(Alternanthera philoxeroides), Water thyme (Hydrilla verticillata), Greater duckweed
(Spirodella polyrrhiza), Water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), Cattails (Typha latifolia) etc.

AVIAN FAUNA

A wide variety of resident bird spoecies are recorded from Gharana wetland. Also, several
migratory bird species visit this wetland during winters. Some of the important bird species
recorded from the area are listed below:
Migratory Birds

Numerous migratory birds such as Bay-backed Shrike (Lanius vittatus), Eurasian Wigeon (Anas
Penelope), Northern Shoveler (Spatula clypeata), Rudy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea), River
Tern (Sterna aurantia), Rook (Corvus frugilegus), Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo),
Long-tailed Shrike (Lanius schach), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), Bar-headed Goose (Anser
indicus), Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula), Gadwall (Mareca strepera), Little Grebe (Tachybaptus
ruficollis), Northern Pintail (Anas acuta), Eurasian Collared-Dove (Streptopelia decaocto),
Greater Coucal (Centropus sinensis), Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus), Asian Koel
(Eudynamys solopacea) etc. visit this wetland in winters.

Resident Birds

Some of the resident birds include found in and around Gharana wetland include White-throated
Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis), Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus), Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis),
Eurasian Coot (Fulia atra), Black Winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Hoopoes (Upupa
epops), Red-wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus), Large-Billed Crow (Corvus macrhynchos),
Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis), Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus), Black Kite (Milvus
migrans) etc.

Pargwal Wetland

Pargwal wetland is one of Jammu district's most prominent wetlands, named after the village of
Pargwal. After Gharana wetland, it is the largest wetland of Jammu District, located on the island
of Chenab River (between the main river and a creek of it). It is a riparian wetland formed by a
little stream that flows along the Chenab River in Tehsil Akhnoor of J&K. This wetland reserve
encompasses several villages, including Sarkapur, Bhatairi, Takho Chak, Battan Bala, and Chak
Malpur. The wetland is home to a variety of bird species from across the world.

MAJOR FLORA

Terrestrial vegetation

Tree species observed in the wetland include Mango (Mangifera indica), Shisham (Dalbergia
sissoo), Ziziphus (Ziziphus jujuba), Cotton tree (Bombax sp.) etc.

Aquatic vegetation
The primary flora found in the Pargwal wetland is Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum),
Cattails (Typha latifolia), Water primrose (Ludwigia adscendens), Blue pimpernel (Lysimachia
foemina), Moonj grass (Saccharum munja) etc.

AVIAN FAUNA

The wetland area is home to a number of resident and migratory bird species, such as White-
breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), Eurasian Collared-Dove (Streptopelia decaocto),
Indian Roller (Cora cias benghalensis), Garganey (Spatula querquedula), Purple Heron (Ardea
purpurea), Bay-backed Shrike (Lanius vittatus), Gadwall (Anas strepera), Long-tailed Shrike
(Lanius schach), Great Egret (Casmerodius albus), Greater Coucal (Centropus sinensis), Little
Grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis), Cattle Egret (Bubulus ibis), Pheasants (Phasianus colchicus),
Purple Sunbird (Cinnyris asiaticus), Red vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer), Intermediate Egret
(Ardea intermedia), Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Red wattled Lapwing (Vanellus
indicus), Cuckoo (Cuculus miropterus), Common Myna (Aridotheres tristis), Warblers
(Phylloscopus trochiloides) etc.

Kukarian wetland

The wetland is located downstream of the Tawi river. It is named after the village of Makwal in
Jammu Tehsil, Jammu District, Jammu and Kashmir. It is a rural area with a small population
that lies along the international Indo-Pak border. The wetland is largely surrounded by
agricultural land. Agriculture is the main source of income for the people that reside here. It is
accessible via Phallian Mandal and Gho-Manhasa. The water in this wetland is mostly used by
animals for drinking and bathing.

MAJOR FLORA

Terrestrial vegetation

The area is mostly covered with agricultural land where wheat (Triticum aestivum) and rice
(Oryzae sativa) are sown as main crops in their respective seasons. Other crops like Mustard
(Brassica nigra), Maize (Zea mays), pulses, fruits and vegetables are also grown. Trees such as
Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Safeda (Eucalyptus globulus), Mango (Mangifera indica) and
Chinese haste tree (Vitex negundo) are also present in this area.
Aquatic vegetation

The macrophytes such as Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Water spinach (Ipomea
aquatica), Cattails (Typha latifolia), and Mosquito fern (Azolla pinnata) etc. are some of the most
prevalent vegetation types found in wetlands.

AVIAN FAUNA

Some of the resident birds found in Makwal wetland include Indian Fantails (Columba livia),
Alpine Thrush (Zoothera mollissina), Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus), Common Babbler (Argya
caudata), Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus), Grey Tits (Parus afer), Red vented Bulbul
(Pycnonotus cafer), Flower Peckers (Dicaeum sp.) etc.

Sangral wetland

This wetland is located in RS Pura Tehsil of Jammu District, along the international border of
India and Pakistan in Jammu region. The wetland had less water throughout the winter months,
but no water during the summer. Water became polluted due to the anthropogenic activities
present there. Sangral wetland has practically been extinct as a result of local farmer
encroachment over the years.

MAJOR FLORA

Terrestrial vegetation

The other common shrub and tree species present in the wetland are Ziziphus (Ziziphus jujuba),
scattered Moonj grass (Saccharum munja), Castor plant (Ricinus communis), Shisham
(Dalbergia sisso), Mango (Mangifera indica) and Drenk (Melia azedarach) etc.

Aquatic vegetation

The most dominant macrophytes found in the wetland include Cattails (Typha latifolia), Celery-
leaved buttercup (Ranunculus sceleratus), Water hyacinth (Eicchornia sp.), Greater duckweed
(Spirodela polyrhiza), Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), Chick weed (Ageratum conyzoides).

AVIAN FAUNA
 Great Egret (Casmerodius albus), Fantails (Columba livia), Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Indian
Cuckoo (Cuculus microptera), Common Teal (Anas crescca), Great Comorant (Phalacrocorax
carbo), Great Tits (Parus afer), Common Myna (Aridotheres tristis), Purple Sunbird (Cinnyris
asiaticus), Golden Oriole (Orilous orilous) etc. comprise some of the avian fauna observed in
this wetland.

The study area has been divided into following sites:

Wetland Sites Latitude Longitude Physical Attributes

Gharana G1 32.541762 °N 74.693018 °E Site near the road and defence ditch
feeding the wetland

Located towards the middle of the

G2 32.541332 °N 74.690747 °E
wetland near the Wildlife Office
G3 32.541536 °N 74.689264 °E
Situated towards the agricultural fields

Pargwal P1 32.800972 °N 74.592779 °E Site near the bridge construction site.

P2 32.799333 °N 74.594028 °E Situated towards the unpaved road and

prone to anthropogenic pressures

Located near the wire mesh stone walls

P3 32.798722 °N 74.591222 °E
(gabion basket)

Kukarian K1 32.689836 °N 74.709633 °E Site towards the agricultural fields

K2 32.690000 °N 74.710000 °E Situated along the roadside

Sangral S1 32.6307416 °N 74.66751 °E Both sites occur along the roadside

surrounded by agricultural fields
S2 32.630583 °N 74.667278 °E

3.2 Materials and Methodology

3.2.1. Selection of the sites

For the present study, samples for physico-chemical analysis were collected from four different
wetlands. A total of ten sites from the four wetlands were selected on the basis of conditions of
wetland, irrigation as well as other domestic purposes.

3.2.2 Sampling and analysis

Sampling and analysis methods were employed by following the standard methods (APHA,
2017) protocols. Sampling was done in poly-propylene plastic bottles of 2L capacity from the
selected sampling sites on seasonal basis during summer and winter. Sample collection was done
in the early morning period of the day.

Based on the available facilities in the laboratory and comfort of operation, following water
quality parameters were analyzed on the seasonal basis.

3.2.2.1 Temperature (air and water; °C)

For recording the air and water temperature, mercury bulb thermometer (°C) was used. Air
temperature was recorded by keeping the thermometer in shade to avoid direct exposure of the
thermometer to the sunlight whereas water temperature was measured by placing the bulb of the
thermometer two inches below the surface of water.

3.2.2.2 Electrical conductivity (µS/cm)

It is a measure of the water’s ability to conduct an electrical current. Electrical Conductivity was
measured using conductivity meter (WTW Multi 350i).

3.2.2.3 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)

TDS is the measure of the total amount of the dissolved solids present in the water sample and
was determined by using TDS meter (WTW Multi 350i).

3.2.2.4 Transparency (cm)

Transparency was determined by using Secchi disc and its value was expressed in centimeter
(cm) unit and it is calculated by using

A+ B
Transparency (cm)=
2
Where, A= depth of disappearance of Secchi disc; B = Depth of reappearance of disc

3.2.2.5 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)

Oxygen that is dissolved in the water column is one of the most important components of aquatic
systems. DO was measured by Alsterberg’s Alkaline Sodium-azide method (APHA, 2017) using
N/40 Sodium thio-sulphate as titrant and starch as indicator.

3.2.2.6 Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/L)

BOD is measured by 5 days BOD method. Initial DO readings were taken. After five days of

incubation period at 20 °C readings were taken again. BOD is then calculated by taking
difference

of initial and final DO readings.

BOD5(mg/L) = Initial DO – Final DO

3.2.2.7 pH

The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity:

pH=− log ¿

pH was determined by using standardized pH meter (WTW Multi 350i).

3.2.2.8 Free carbon dioxide (mg/L)

Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to produce carbonic acid (H 2CO3), which dissociates into
various fractions (CO2, HCO3¯ and CO32¯) depending on the hydrogen-ion concentration. Free
CO2 was analyzed by titration method (APHA, 2017) using N/44 sodium hydroxide as titrant and
0.1% phenolphthalein as indicator.

3.2.2.9 Carbonate, Bicarbonate and Total Alkalinity (mg/L)

Carbonate and bicarbonate were estimated by titration method (APHA, 2017) using N/20
Sulphuric acid as titrant and 0.1% phenolphthalein and 0.1% methyl orange as indicators for
carbonate and bicarbonate, respectively.

3.2.2.10 Chloride (mg/L)

Chloride will be measured by Argentometric titration method (APHA, 2017) using N/35.5 Silver
nitrate as titrant and 5% Potassium chromate as indicator.

3.2.2.11 Calcium (mg/L)

It was measured by Disodium versinate method using N/50 EDTA (sodium salt of Ethylene
Diamine Tetra-Acetic Acid) as titrant and Murexide indicator (APHA, 2017).

3.2.2.12 Magnesium (mg/L)

It was measured by EDTA titrimetric method using N/50 EDTA as titrant and Erichrome black-T
indicator (APHA, 2017).

3.2.2.13 Total Hardness (mg/L)

As CaCO3 is the sum of individual hardness due to Ca and Mg and was calculated by the
following formula (Todd and Mays, 2005):

Total Hardness = 2.5 [Ca2+] + 4.1 [Mg2+]

where [Ca2+] is the concentration of Calcium in mg/L as CaCO 3 and [Mg2+] is the concentration of
Magnesium in mg/L as CaCO3.

3.2.2.14 Sodium and Potassium (mg/L)

Both Sodium and Potassium concentrations were determined by Flame photometry (APHA,
2017) using Systronics Flame Photometer.

3.2.2.15 Nitrate (mg/L)

Nitrate was determined by using double beam UV/Vis Spectrophotometer (Analytik Jena UV-
VIS Spectrophotometer) with a wavelength of 410 nm was used to estimate nitrate in the water
sample using the Phenol-disulphonic acid method (APHA, 2017).

3.2.2.16 Phosphate (mg/L)

Phosphate was determined by Stannous chloride-ammonium molybdate method (APHA, 2017)

using a UV/Vis Spectrophotometer at 690 nm wavelength (Analytik Jena UV-VIS
Spectrophotometer).
3.2.2.17 Chlorophyll -a Analysis

Chlorophyll-a was determined by collecting water samples from selected study sites and brought
into the lab. To extract the chlorophyll-a pigment, about 1L of the sample was filtered by using
Whatman GF/C filter papers with porosity about 0.45um size. The filter paper along with their
residue were crushed with the help of mortar and pestle. The filtrate left after crushing were put
into the glass vials containing 10ml of 95% ethanol. The glass vials were filled with acetone
solution and kept for few minutes. The extract was poured into centrifuge tubes and the solution
was centrifuged with speed of 300 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant solution was measured
spectrophotometrically to determine pigment concentration at different wavelengths of visible
range at 630 nm, 640 nm and 647 nm.

3.2.3 Trophic state index analysis

To determine the trophic state index of wetlands, Carlson’s Trophic state of index (CTSI) was
computed by using three empirical equations. Each empirical equation was based on the three
parameters such as chlorophyll-a, secchi disc transparency and total phosphorus. The total TSI
was calculated by taking their average as listed below:

TSISD =60-14.41 LN (SD)

TSIchla = 9.8 LN (chl a) + 30.6

TSITP = 14.42 LN (TP) + 4.15

TSItot= TSI(SD) + TSI (chla) + TSI(TP) ÷ 3

Where, chl a = chlorophyll-a concentration (µg /L)

SD= Secchi disc depth (meters)

TP= Total Phosphorus concentration (µg /L)

TSI= Trophic state index