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Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper No.15: Clinical Psychology

Module No and Title Module No. 1: Nature and scope of clinical psychology

Module Tag PSY_P15_M1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Defining clinical psychology
4. History of clinical psychology
5. Abnormality – Chief construct of clinical psychology
5.1 Ways to define abnormality
5.1.1 Cultural relativism
5.1.2 Statistical point
5.1.3 Personal satisfaction
5.1.4 Behavior that is maladaptive
5.2 Approaches to abnormality
5.2.1 Biological Approach- Brain and genes are the leader
5.2.2 Psychodynamic perspective – abnormality lies within the
unconscious

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MODULE No.1: Nature and scope of clinical psychology
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5.2.3 Behaviouristic approach –

abnormality is nothing but a fault in learning
5.2.4 Humanistic approach – the power of unconditional positive regard
5.2.5 Cognitive approach – cognitions are the key

5.2.6 Socio-cultural perspective – one’s society is to be blamed for

abnormality

6. Scope of clinical psychology

6.1 Mental health team
6.1.1 Clinical Psychologist
6.1.2 Counseling Psychologist
6.1.3 Psychiatrist
6.1.4 Psychiatric nurse
6.1.5 Psychiatric Social worker
6.2 Activities of a clinical psychologist
6.2.1 Assessment
6.2.2 Treatment
6.2.3 Teaching
6.2.4 Consultation
6.2.5 Administration
6.2.6 Research
7. Summary

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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know the definition of clinical psychology

 Learn the historical context of clinical psychology
 Identify various ways to define abnormality
 Evaluate various perspectives of abnormality
 Analyze scope of clinical psychology

2. Introduction
Clinical psychology is the field of psychology which seeks to understand the complexities of
human behaviour & emotions; & the role of psychological, biological & social factors in the
same. From the modern perspective it also encompasses the issues like the effect of culture,
gender & ethnicity on modern society along with focus on the present issues of popular culture,
technology & economics. With the emergence of various schools of thought & their collaboration
has led to contemporary clinical psychology which seeks the best from these models for
treatment, assessment as well as research on the various clinical patients around the world.

This chapter explores the definition of clinical (abnormal) psychology, definition & causes of
abnormal behaviour & their historical context. Along with it seeks to study abnormality from the
point of views of various schools of thought. In the end it will bring in light the abnormality &
mental disorders as defined & classified by various professionals in the field of clinical
psychology.

3. Defining clinical psychology

Although the psychology as a separate discipline is about only one hundred years old, it is being
taught as one of the most popular undergraduate course in many universities around the world.
Among the other branches clinical psychology is the field with highest popularity. So exactly
what is clinical psychology? As defined by American Psychological Association, clinical
psychology seeks to use the principals of psychology so to predict & understand emotional,
psychological, behavioural, intellectual, biological & social aspects of functioning of humans.
Clinical psychology is also aimed at the analysis, treatment & prevention from psychological
disabilities or disorders & enhancement of adjustment & effectiveness as defined by Rodnick
(1985, p.1929). Hence, clinical psychology uses the already known principles of human
behaviour to help them to adjust to their daily hassles or modify any abnormal behaviour. For
example a clinical psychologist may assess a school child on various educational tests to predict
that whether he is gifted, so to provide him with special treatments & educational programs to
make sure the highest use of his potentials. Hallucinations, substance abuse, suicidal attempts,
depressive symptoms, eating problems, head injuries etc are the areas where clinical psychology
can be applied effectively.

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4. History of clinical psychology

Stone Age cave dwellers were the first to treat mental disorders at half a million years of age. The
medicine man or the early shaman treated the disorder by an operation called as ‘trephination’ in
which a rod was inserted inside the head (as shown in figure.1)

During the supernatural tradition, demons or spirits were held responsible for the abnormal
behaviour along with the other influences like that of sun, moon or stars. Many Egyptian,
Hebrews, Chinese & Greek writings often had attributed abnormal behaviour to a god or demon
who had taken possession of a human. Exorcism (see figure 1.) was the main type of treatment
used in which the evil spirits were forced to leave the body.

Trephination Exorcism

Figure 1. Earlier methods to treat abnormality/psychological disorders

Source: http://nypost.com/2014/01/04/can-exorcisms-help-soldiers-with-ptsd/
http://moblog.whmsoft.net/related_search.php?keyword=Psychology%20Schools%20Of%20Tho
ught&language=english

In 460-377 B.C, Hippocrates proposed that mental disorders are same as the other diseases being
having natural causes. They claimed that the reason for mental diseases is the pathology in the
brain which can have appropriate treatments. Hippocrates, also referred to as the father of the
modern medicine, proposed that there are four vital fluids or humors in a person’s body viz. black
bile, phlegm, yellow bile & blood. It is the imbalance among these which leads to the mental
disorders.

In 130- 200 A.D, Galen, an influential Greek physician, elaborated on the traditions of
Hippocrates. He took a scientific method by differentiating the causes of mental disorders to
physical & mental categories.

In the Middle Age, Baghdad was the first place where a mental hospital was established, followed
by Aleppo & Damascus. Humane treatment was being provided in these hospitals, but still based
on superstitions or rituals. However in the later part of Middle Age, with the “Humanism”
movement the scientific questioning reemerged. But from the sixteenth century, special
institutions called Asylums – place of refuge meant for ills, emerged. These were the storage
places for the insane where mentally ill were more or less handled like beasts rather than like
humans.

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In 1773, the first public mental hospital which was devoted

exclusively to the treatment of patients with psychological
disorder was established in Williamsburg, Virginia; but the treatment techniques used were no
different than that of the Asylums.

In the late eighteenth century, Benjamin Rush, the “father of American Psychiatry” wrote the first
American treatise on mental illness which encouraged humane treatment to the mentally ill.
Being one of the main physicians for mental problems at Pennsylvania Hospital, he organized a
medical course in psychiatry.

In the nineteenth century, custodial care was increased but many mentally ill patients were given
brain surgery called ‘prefrontal lobotomy’ ending them to a permanent negative state or death.
Than in 1950s a pill was discovered named phenothiazines which were given to patients who
were then discharged.

Emil Kraeplin, one of the students of Whilhelm Wundt established a psychology laboratory,
which scientifically explored the psychopathology. Later on he gave a classification system for
mental disorders. At that time, Siphilis of the brain was one of the most successful discovery
indicating organic factors behind general paresis.

Later Berheim & Liebeault developed a theory that hysteria is a kind of self-hypnosis & thus
other mental disorders are also due to some psychological reasons. It led to the evolution of
‘Nancy School’.

Towards the end of nineteenth century, mental disorders were considered to have both
psychological & biological causes. The first American Psychological Clinic was established in
1896 at the University of Pennsylvania by Pitmer, now known as the father of clinical
psychology. Till the twentieth century a large number of psychological laboratories & clinics
increased along with many scientific journals.

5. Abnormality – Chief construct of clinical psychology

Abnormality can be defined as a behaviour consisting of emotional, cognitive & behavioural
symptoms which may lead to harm. It is a behaviour that tends to deviate from societal norms.

DSM-IV-TR defines abnormality as cognitive, behavioral or emotional dysfunctions which are

not expected in the context of their culture & that may lead to a personal distress or significant
impairment of functioning.

DSM-IV (1994) describes mental disorder as a clinically substantial psychological syndrome

which occurs in a person & which may lead to distress and/or deviation from cultural & societal
norms. The response must be currently perceived as a manifestation of emotional, behavioural or
psychological dysfunction in the person.

A popular criterion to describe abnormality is the criterion of the “Four Ds” – Deviance (unusual,
different, extreme), Dangerous (to the person or to others), Distress (upsetting oneself),
Dysfunctional (interferes with daily activities).

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The acronym H.I.D.E.S. is another criterion used to describe abnormality –

H – Help Seeking
I – Irrationality/Dangerousness
D – Deviance
E – Emotional Distress
S – Significant impairment

5.1 Ways to define abnormality

There are various ways to define abnormality, (see figure 2). Some of them are covered below:

Statistical
view

Cultural Defining Maladaptive

relativism abnormality behaviour

Personal
satisfaction

Figure 2: Ways of defining abnormality

5.1.1 Cultural Relativism

According to Gorenstein & Sarbin abnormal behaviour is one which deviates from the predefined
societal norms. Thus in order to define abnormal behaviour of an individual one has to first look
onto the culture or the society the individual is placed in. since different cultures may describe
abnormality in different ways, thus there can be not a universally accepted one. But some actions
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which are dangerous, wild or seemingly out of control can be

regarded as abnormal universally. Wearing minimal or no
clothes in one society may be normal as opposed to being defined as abnormal or even bizarre in
the another one.

5.1.2 Statistical point

One definition of abnormality is that it is statistically rare. One example of this is Normal Curve
in which majority of people falls at the middle, with many few at extremes. But a major drawback
is that geniuses also fall at the extreme along with the mentally retarded. So can we consider
genius persons as abnormal?

5.1.3 Personal satisfaction

Individuals satisfied with their life are normal while those dissatisfied or distressed are abnormal.
But a major limitation of this approach is even some drug addicts or people with anti social
personality or anti social activities may rate themselves as satisfied. Will you consider them as
normal?

5.1.4 Behaviour that is maladaptive

Abnormality is maladaptive by nature. If behaviour interferes with daily functioning & has self
defeating consequences tan the behaviour can be termed as maladaptive. Hence an individual will
be manifested to be mentally disordered if his behaviour is consistent & an obstacle to the well
being of the person or to the society he is placed in.

5.2 Approaches to Abnormality

Great technological & scientific discoveries marked the late nineteenth century. Such
advancements led to the contemporary clinical psychology which views abnormal behaviour from
a scientist’s point of view. Various perspectives which emerged in nineteenth & twentieth century
defined abnormal behaviour & psychological disorders from their own point of views.

5.2.1 Biological Approach – brain & genes are the leader

According to the biological view of abnormality, abnormal behaviours are due to the physical
illness in a person’s body. The reason behind abnormal behaviours, thinking & emotions are
biological dysfunctions. Understanding the abnormal behaviour thus requires one to explore the
possible causes in the patient’s brain, neurotransmitters, neurons & hormones. Hence their
treatments include drugs to cure abnormal biological functioning & the surgery that fix or remove
the problem producing components of the brain.

Therefore possible causes of abnormal behaviour are:

 Neurotransmitters (chemical messengers of the synapses) – low levels of serotonin has

been found to be responsible for anxiety, depression & obsessive compulsive disorder.
The death of the cells that produce dopamine is responsible for the Parkinson’s disease.

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 Hormones (chemical messengers of the blood) – high

production of cortisol is responsible for chronic stress. While low level of insulin
production is responsible for diabetes mellitus.
 Structural damage in certain areas of the brain may lead to abnormality. Damage to
hippocampus, as seen in patients with HM or Clive Wearing, leads to severe loss of
memory. The inability to understand speech may be caused by the impairment in the
Broca’s area of the left temporal lobe. Schizophrenics have been found to have large
ventricles in their brains.
 The inheritance of problematic genes from parents may also attribute to mental disorders.
Disorders which may get passed in genes are autism, depression, schizophrenia &
addiction.

5.2.2 Psychodynamic perspective – abnormality lies within the unconscious

Started by the Sigmund Freud & further enhanced by the Neo-Freudians, psychodynamic
perspective focuses on the unconscious psychic forces & sexual impulses that led to an
individual’s personality. According to this theory psychological problem, like hysteria, involves
unconscious motives & conflicts that can be traced back to childhood.

 The structure of personality is based on Id (basic drives & instinctual impulses), Ego
(release impulses in acceptable ways), & Superego (completely curbs the impulses). The
imbalance between the three may lead to abnormal & socially unacceptable behaviours.
In Freud’s view psychological disorders like hysteria & phobia are the result of the
anxiety produced by some “leaking” unconscious forces. Overly powerful superego may
lead to feelings of guilt & depression, while weak superego may lead to no feeling of
guilt even after hurting another intentionally. When ego fails to keep a check on the id it
may result in the state of psychosis, characterized by unusual & bizarre behaviours &
thoughts, & even hallucinations.
 There are constant unconscious conflicts between the id to release its impulses & ego to
prevent impulses from coming into consciousness. Ego may resort to self defense
mechanisms in the process. Unresolved conflicts may end the individual to symptoms of
psychological disorders like phobias, hysterical symptoms & behavioural problems.
 Freud proposed psychosexual stages of development viz. oral, anal, phallic, latency &
genital. He claimed that too much or too little gratification of desires at any stage may
lead to a fixation to that stage resulting in problematic personality characteristics. For
example, excessive breastfeeding at oral stage may lead to a dependent personality while
early weaning may lead to a dependent personality of the individual. Unresolved Oedipus
complex in phallic stage may end the person to avoid men in future.

5.2.3 Behaviouristic approach – abnormality is nothing but a fault in learning

In nineteenth century, behaviourism was a scientific movement leaded principally by John B.

Watson, an American psychologist & Ivan Pavlov, the Russian physiologist who focused on the
role of learning in explaining normal & abnormal behaviour. According to them abnormal
behaviour is just a result of the acquisition or learning of a maladaptive or inappropriate
behaviour. Other behaviourist like B.F. Skinner described behaviour as the product of the genes
& environmental stimuli. For example a child with avoidant parents may learn to thrive on inner
fantasies & cut off from the realities of the outside world.

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 Ivan Pavlov discovered that when an unconditioned

stimulus (food) elicits an unconditioned response (salivation), & when this unconditioned
stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus (bell), then the neutral stimulus (bell) will get
converted into a conditioned stimulus which will in turn elicit a conditioned response
(salivation). Just like this classical conditioning may also contribute to the cause of
several phobias or anxiety. For example, a person may develop phobia from riding a
bicycle after being into a traumatic experience of accident with the bicycle. Here, bicycle
being a neutral stimulus earlier, got paired with an unconditioned stimulus of trauma to
become conditioned stimulus & elicit a conditioned response in the form of phobia &
anxiety.
 Skinner proposed operant conditioning according to which the rate of a particular
response is increased by its consequences. We tend to learn behaviours which provide us
with positive reinforcers (money, praise, food) & avoid behaviours which may result in
disapproval or pains. But when people lack efforts or skills required to obtain positive
reinforcements they may develop abnormality. For example, bad social skills may lead to
disapproval from others, which in turn may result in isolation & depression.

5.2.4 Humanistic approach – the power of unconditional positive regard

Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers were the leader of the humanism who proposed that every
human has an inborn striving for self actualization i.e. the highest realization of one’s potentials.
They believed that when this tendency to self actualize is hindered by environment it may result
in a distorted self image & thereby abnormality. Parents should provide their children with
unconditional positive regard i.e. providing them with love irrespective of irrespective of their
behaviour, in order to help them develop a positive self image. But if parents fail to provide
unconditional positive regard & instead give conditional positive regard to their children i.e.
loving their children only if they behave in certain ways, it will direct the child to disown his own
emotions, thoughts & actions. Researches have found that people who had received conditional
positive regard in their childhood tends to develop more upheavals in their moods in their married
relationships. Such children tend to develop conditions of worth i.e. they will perceive themselves
worthwhile only if they behave in certain ways; but in the process they actually deny their true
feelings or disown a part of themselves which will ultimately end in a distorted self concept. Such
distortions prevent people to channel their psychological energy to self actualization & personal
growth but rather towards continued self denial & defense mechanisms. Hence the ultimate result
is frustration & anxiety which are prerequisites to abnormality.

5.2.5 Cognitive approach – cognitions are the key

Cognitive processes like thoughts, beliefs, expectations, & attitudes underlie a person’s way of
behaving, according to cognitive theorists. Their focus is on the people’s expectations, attitudes
etc. which shape their perception of reality; & how inappropriate, biased & faulty processing of
information can give rise to abnormal behaviour.

 Information-processing model suggests that human cognition takes place in several steps
– input (perception based), manipulation (information interpretation & transformation),
storage (in memory), retrieval (access to information stored in the memory), & output
(action based on acquired information). Disturbances in these processes may lead to what
is called as psychological disorders. For example, schizophrenics frequently jump from
topic to topic reflecting problems in retrieval & manipulation of information. Moreover
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they also have difficulties in attention focusing &

filtration indicating problems in the process of input.
 Albert Ellis (1977, 1993) proposed that troubling events in a person’s life themselves are
not anxiety provoking, but it is the irrational beliefs that accompany them. Such
inaccurate beliefs often lead to maladjustment & abnormal ways of behaving.
 Aaron Beck, another significant theorist proposed that it is the “cognitive distortions” or
errors in thinking that lead to depression, like a person overlooking the positive aspects &
judging himself entirely on the basis of his failures will finally end up at the door of
depression.

5.2.6 Socio-cultural perspective – one’s society is to be blamed for abnormality

Psychologists promoting the socio-cultural perspective claim that it is not the person but the
failures in his society that leads to abnormality. Thomas Schasz (1961,2000), a psychosocial
theorist has gone to the extent of saying that “abnormal” is just a tag that society gives to people
deviating from its norms, but in actual there is no such thing like psychological disorder.

A recent study conducted to explore the relation between rates of mental disorders & ethnic group
differences revealed much to be known. Researchers used data from a national representative
sample of adult Americans. They found that disadvantaged groups of Hispanic Americans & non-
Hispanic Black Americans had lower rates of mental disorders as compared to non-Hispanic
White people. However further focusing on the chronic level of psychological disorders they
found that Hispanic Americans & Black Americans tend to have more persistent mental disorders
than the European Americans. The depression was very common among the disadvantaged group,
due to loss of their connectivity with the world.

Hence according to the socio-cultural perspective it is not the individual but the social ills of
society like discrimination, poverty, prejudice, social decay, lack of economic opportunity etc.
which leads to abnormal ways of thinking & behaving.

6. Scope of clinical psychology

6.1 Mental Health Team

Comprehensive & good evaluation, assessment, diagnosis & treatment of patient’s problems
involve a number of professionals who may gather information from several sources & help
patient via varying perspectives. A patient may require having contact with various mental health
professionals & social agencies, which then interact with each other in order to integrate all the
available information to finally arrive at a treatment plan. These professionals may include
clinical psychologist, counseling psychologist, psychiatrists, psychiatric nurse, psychiatric social
worker etc.

6.1.1 Clinical Psychologist

A professionally trained person who on a daily basis deals with the issues of diagnosis &
treatments of mental disorders is a clinical psychologist. They may also have the abilities to
conduct researches on the diagnosis, assessment & treatment of these disorders along with
exploring their causes or origins. Such practitioners are been trained to use the verbal methods of

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speech to persuade people to change their ways of feeling,

thinking & behaving in order to reduce the levels of their
distress & anxiety; a method popularly known as psychotherapy. They may achieve a graduation
degree & pursue PhD in clinical psychology. They can be found practicing in hospital, university,
mental health care center, clinics, juvenile court etc.

6.1.2 Counseling Psychologist

The work of a counseling psychologist may look similar to a clinical psychologist but actually
they focus less on mental disorders & more on the daily life problems. They may deal with a
person’s adjustment problems, education, prevention etc. They can be found practicing in various
industries, schools, community health centers etc.

6.1.3 Psychiatrist

A psychiatrist needs to have a M.B.B.S & M.D degrees from a medical school with specialization
in the field of psychiatry. They generally adopt a biological point of view to assess the causes of
psychological disorders, diagnosis & treatment of the patient. They are ultimately responsible for
interview & examination of hospitalized patients, & to decide & supervise the type of
treatment/treatments to be used.

6.1.4 Psychiatric Nurse

Generally functioning as an immediate assistant to the psychiatrist, a psychiatric nurse may also
help other members of the staff in developing & executing a plan for the treatment of the patient.
Before practicing they should have a bachelor or master level of training in nursing but an
additional specialization may help them to allow prescribing psychoactive medicines to patients.
Observing the changes in the patient status, caring for patient, advising psychiatrists are some of
the works of a psychiatric nurse.

6.1.5 Psychiatric Social Worker

A psychiatric social worker needs to earn a master’s degree in social work. He is responsible to
explore the social, cultural, familial & other environmental conditions of the patient with the
psychological disorder. They may also treat disorders but with a primary focus on the family &
social problems of the individual.

6.2 Activities of a Clinical Psychologist

There is certainly a long path to be covered to become a clinical psychologist, involving large
number of stages viz. gradation in psychology, master’s degree, internship in clinical setting,
postdoctoral fellowship, licensure, employment, quest for a higher degree & research work. After
being professionally trained a clinical psychologist need to be involved in a variety of activities
ranging from teaching to consultation to research work. Here we will discuss some of the
activities of the clinical psychologist.

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6.2.1 Assessment

Various psychological tests & measures are employed by the clinical psychologists to assess or
diagnose a patient (see figure 3). The assessment is done generally in the light of both psychiatric
issues (personality disorders, psychosis, hysteria etc.) & non-psychiatric issues (relationship
issues, family history, social environment etc.). A psychological assessment thus may involve all
behavioural, observational, cognitive, neuropsychological & personality measures of an
individual. Thus while a physician will focus only on the problematic part in brain leading to a
severe memory loss, a clinical psychologist will focus on the contribution of traumatic
experiences, family relations, cultural & personality factors in addition to the problem in brain
parts. Moreover a clinical psychologist may not only assess an individual but also a group of
people. Hence a good assessment requires the psychologist to use appropriate amount of tools in
the light of socio-cultural, psychological & biological perspectives.

Figure 3. A cartoon on the assessment of patient developed by Mark Anderson

Source: http://skylaproject.com/1/clinical-psychologist-cartoons/

6.2.2 Treatment

Alcohol/Drug abuse, hallucinations, depression, phobia, traumatic experience, loss, conflicting

relationships, eating problems, mental retardation, anxiety, sexuality etc. may require an
individual to seek psychological treatment. There are various schools of thoughts & treatment
approaches that a clinical psychologist may resort to. But they generally use an eclectic method
i.e. integrating various clinical approaches & perspectives in their method of treatment. Some
may resort to hypnotism, family analysis or psychoanalytic methods only. Evidence based
treatments or the empirically supported one are nowadays used in order to provide a structured
treatment plan to the practitioners. Treatment manuals are also common these days. Treatment
approaches supported empirically are the one manualized & constructed for many problems like
pain control, depression, conduct disorder, anxiety etc. & are widely supported by APA. For
example, for depression & bulimia interpersonal & cognitive psychotherapy are empirically
supported treatments while for OCD exposure & response prevention are the empirically
supported ones.

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6.2.3 Teaching

Full time professors of universities teach students at the undergraduate, graduate or postgraduate
level. Other teachers may include ad-hoc lecturers or part time teachers. Others may teach or
supervise interns, trainees at clinical or organizational settings. Thus psychologist’s teachings can
be seen in clinical, hospital or business environments. For example a clinical psychologist may
teach employees of an organization to how to manage stress. Others may work in hospital settings
to instruct trainees to how to use various tools associated with the psychological treatment.

6.2.4 Consultation

Some clinical psychologists may provide consultation services to businessmen, law holders,
school organizers, church’s staff, or mental health professionals. Consultation may involve
interview, discussion, brief report or a more formal arrangement. Consultation may involve
assessment, teaching work, research work or even psychotherapy practices. For example, it may
involve assisting a physician to deal with a problematic patient; it may involve assisting manager
to solve interpersonal problems of employees.

6.2.5 Administration

Administrative works of psychologists may end them at being a head of a psychology

department, dean or president of a college or university. A psychiatric ward of a hospital may
offer a position of the unit’s chief, or a director of mental health service clinic. These
psychologists may also work in clinical settings as directors of training. They may also make
firing or hiring decisions in clinical settings.

6.2.6 Research

Research work (see figure 3.) is the core of all the professional activities of clinical psychology. It
is the research results which help to determine the most effective treatment technique for
psychological disorders. Other may help to determine the ‘at risk’ people, & methods to prevent
psychological disorders. Some researches may aim to find & introduce a more effective approach
to diagnosis of patients. Most of the researchers have a part time job of teaching or at other
settings. Findings of the research can be informed via publishing them to journals, or presenting
them in seminars. However not all clinical psychologists are involved in the research work but all
of them use the various research results in one way or the other.

7. Summary
 Clinical psychology seeks to use the principals of psychology so to predict & understand
emotional, psychological, behavioural, intellectual, biological & social aspects of
functioning of humans.
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 DSM-IV-TR defines abnormality as cognitive,

behavioral or emotional dysfunctions which are not expected in the context of their
culture & that may lead to a personal distress or significant impairment of functioning.
 There are various ways to define abnormality - cultural relativism, statistical point,
personal satisfaction, behaviour that is maladaptive.
 According to the biological view of abnormality, abnormal behaviours are due to the
physical illness in a person’s body. The reason behind abnormal behaviours, thinking &
emotions are biological dysfunctions.
 Psychodynamic perspective focuses on the unconscious psychic forces & sexual impulses
that led to an individual’s personality. According to this theory psychological problem,
like hysteria, involves unconscious motives & conflicts that can be traced back to
childhood.
 According to behaviouristic approach abnormal behaviour is just a result of the
acquisition or learning of a maladaptive or inappropriate behaviour.
 Humanistic approach proposed that every human has an inborn striving for self
actualization i.e. the highest realization of one’s potentials. When this tendency to self
actualize is hindered by environment it may result in a distorted self image & thereby
abnormality.
 Cognitive processes like thoughts, beliefs, expectations, & attitudes underlie a person’s
way of behaving, according to cognitive approach. Focus is on the people’s expectations,
attitudes etc. which shape their perception of reality; & how inappropriate, biased &
faulty processing of information can give rise to abnormal behaviour.
 Psychologists promoting the socio-cultural perspective claim that it is not the person but
the failures in his society that leads to abnormality.
 Comprehensive & good evaluation, assessment, diagnosis & treatment of patient’s
problems involve a number of professionals who may gather information from several
sources & help patient via varying perspectives. These professionals may include clinical
psychologist, counseling psychologist, psychiatrists, psychiatric nurse, psychiatric social
worker etc.
 Some of the activities of the clinical psychologist are - assessment, treatment, teaching,
consultation, administration, & research.

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