SPE 77631
Real-Time Petrophysical Analysis in Siliciclastics From the Integration of Spectroscopy
and Triple-Combo Logging
Michael M. Herron, SPE, Susan L. Herron, James A. Grau, Nikita V. Seleznev, John Phillips, SPE, Ahmed El Sherif, SPE,
Sherif Farag, SPE, John P. Horkowtiz, SPE, Thomas J. Neville, SPE, Kai Hsu, Schlumberger
Copyright 2002, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition held in San Antonio, Texas, 29 September –2 October 2002.
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Abstract
There is a long history of wanting to provide a petrophysical
answer, comprising at least porosity and saturation, either in
real time or within, at most, a couple of hours after logging.
Past attempts to provide such a product have been plagued by
the need to define numerous parameters and well zonations
that would ordinarily be selected by a skilled interpreter. With
the introduction of elemental concentration logs obtained from
nuclear capture spectroscopy tools, the number of
interpretation parameters can be dramatically reduced. This is
because the accuracy of the lithology and matrix properties is
a significant advance over values determined from
conventional techniques. Consequently, it is much easier to
directly apply scientific conductivity and permeability models
for petrophysical evaluation.
Introduction
The potential exists to deliver a rapid, robust petrophysical
evaluation in many geologic environments by adding
elemental concentration logs from nuclear capture
spectroscopy tools to the traditional triple combo of neutron,
density, and resistivity logs. The information available from
spectroscopy vastly reduces the number of log-analyst picks
necessary for a petrophysical evaluation. First, elemental
concentrations derived from capture spectroscopy logs are
used to compute accurate weight fractions of clay, carbonate,
evaporite or pyrite, and Quartz-Feldspar-Mica (QFM) using a
computer lithology processing interpretation model. The
elemental concentrations are also used to compute both matrix
density and neutron responses from the rock matrix. These are
used to compute matrix-adjusted density and neutron
porosities that either converge on true total porosity or, in the
case of gas, show enhanced crossover compared to
conventional logs. The lithology and the total porosity are
used to compute k-lambda permeability. A cation-exchange-
capacity log is created from the computed clay, assuming a
constant charge deficiency, and this is further converted to a
Qv log using the total porosity and matrix density. At this
point, formation salinity is input. R0 is computed from the
Waxman-Smits-Thomas conductivity using formation salinity,
a measured temperature profile, porosity, and Qv . When R0 is
compared with deep resistivity, the two overlay in water-filled
zones such as shales and water-filled sands and shaly sands;
hydrocarbon zones are generally easily recognizable when Rt
exceeds R0 . The total porosity and k-lambda are combined in
the Coates-Timur-Lambda equation to produce an irreducible-
water-saturation curve, which is overlaid with apparent
saturation from the R0 /Rt comparison. Such a petrophysical
evaluation could easily be computed at the wellsite in real
time or shortly after logging.
Examples of this rapid formation evaluation are provided
from several geological environments.
Computation of Formation Properties
The interpretation consists of the integration of elemental
concentration data into otherwise standard formation
evaluation practices. The following section provides a brief
overview of multiple applications: estimation of quantitative
lithology, application of elemental concentrations to deriving
porosity and identifying gas, k-lambda permeability, measured
and modeled resistivity, formation water saturation, and
irreducible water saturation.
Quantitative lithology. Quantitative lithology is derived from
elemental concentrations of silicon, calcium, iron, and sulfur
measured by open- or cased-hole nuclear capture spectroscopy
logging devices.1-4 The interpretation was developed on a
siliciclastic core database of mineralogy and chemistry
measured on approximately 400 samples. The elements
silicon, calcium, and iron were used to estimate clay according
to Eq 1:
WClay = 1.91 (1-2.139 WSi -2.497 WCa -1.99 WFe), ……... (1)
2 HERRON, HERRON, GRAU, SEL EZNEV, PHILLIPS, EL SHERIF, FARAG, HORKOWITZ, NEVILLE, HSU
where WClay is the dry weight fraction of clay, and WSi , , WCa,
and WFe are the spectroscopy-derived weight fractions of the
elements silicon, calcium, and iron. Carbonate (sum of calcite
and dolomite) concentrations are determined from calcium.
The lithology processing provided an option to compute
anhydrite or pyrite using the sulfur log, and the remainder of
the formation was composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica
minerals, referred to as QFM.
Porosity and gas. Gamma-gamma bulk density
measurements are converted to “density porosity” during
logging. The equation relating bulk density and porosity is
ρ ma − ρb
φt = ,………………………………….…… (2)
ρ ma − ρ f
where φt is the total porosity, ρb is the bulk density, ρ ma is the
matrix density, and ρ f is the fluid density. Since ρ b is measured
and ρ f is generally well known, the largest contributor to the
uncertainty in porosity is ρma . Typically, this variable is not
well known at the time of data acquisition and a default
constant such as 2.65 g/cm3 , the density of quartz, is used for
field display. Later, when a mineral model is used, mineral
and fluid volumes are calculated from log inputs and matrix
density is derived secondarily. Alternatively, core samples are
analyzed and an average grain density is derived for a given
zone.
An alternative approach is to approximate matrix density
using a linear combination of the elements silicon, calcium,
iron, and sulfur according to the relationship 5
? ma = 2.620 + 0.0490 WSi + 0.2274 WCa
, ……………... (3)
+ 1.993 WFe + 1.193 WS
where WSi , WCa, WFe, and WS are weight fractions of the
elements silicon, calcium, iron, and sulfur. In a pure quartz,
substituting a value of 0.47 for WSi produces a matrix density
of 2.65 g/cm3 ; in a pure limestone, substituting a value of 0.4
for WCa gives a value of 2.71 g/cm3 . This application permits
one to correct for lithology-based changes in matrix density on
a level-by-level basis, thus removing the need for mineral
modeling or zonation of a core -derived matrix density.
A similar approach is taken to compute the matrix neutron
response. This approach of “clay-correcting” a neutron log
was previously demonstrated on a gas well in Texas where
traditional neutron and density logs showed no crossover.
Using a local calibration based on core data and nuclear
modeling, a matrix correction was applied to the raw neutron
and density logs to reveal crossover resulting from gas in each
of the high-resistivity intervals.2 The following general
algorithm to correct thermal neutron porosity (φn ) logs for the
neutron response to the rock matrix (Nma ) has subsequently
been developed:
N ma = 0.408 − 0.889 WSi −1.014 WCa − 0.257 WFe + 0.675 WS . .(4)
SPE 77631
A matrix-adjusted neutron porosity, φman , is then computed
in a fashion analogous to the computation of density porosity,
according to Eq. 5:
φman =( Nma - φn ) / (Nma -Nf ),…………………………... (5)
where Nf is the neutron response to the fluid, nominally unity.
When applied to environmentally corrected logs, in the
absence of gas, Eq. 5 effectively reduces the computed
neutron porosity in a clay-rich rock to total porosity, such that
the neutron and density porosities overlay. The algorithm
presented in Eq. 4 was derived to slightly underestimate the
neutron response in shales to avoid overcorrection that would
lead to a false crossover that mistakenly signifies gas.
Finally, the total porosity is estimated as a weighted
average of the matrix-adjusted neutron, φman, and density, φmad,
porosities according to Eq. 6:
φt= min (φmad , 0.6667 φmad + 0.3333 φman )…………... (6)
k-lambda permeability. Herron et al.6 presented a means of
computing permeability in siliciclastic formations based on the
lambda parameter.7 The lambda parameter is a measure of the
effective diameter of dynamically connected pores and, in the
simplest pore geometries, it can be approximated from the
surface-to-pore-volume ratio. The surface-to-pore-volume
ratio could be computed from NMR relaxation curves, from
mineralogy data, or from concentrations computed by the
lithology processing program. The other required input data
are the total porosity, the matrix density, and Archie’s
cementation exponent, m. In more complex pore systems at
lower permeability, some of the pores begin to be ineffective
in flow and the initially predicted permeabilities are too high
but can be accurately lowered. The k-lambda initial estimate
applied to the computer processed lithology data is
200000φ m *+2 ,……… (7)
kΛ =
(1 − φ ) (ρ ma )
2 2
(6WCla + 0.22WQFM + 2WCar + 0.1WP y r)2
where φ is total porosity, and WCla, WQFM, WCar, and WPyr are
the computer-processed lithology weight fractions. If the
initial estimate is less than 100 md, the final estimate is
computed from Eq. 8:
kΛ = 0.037325k Λ1.714 …………………………….……. (8)
Measured and Modeled Resistivity. The key to the
determination of water saturation lies in the difference
between true formation resistivity, Rt , and the resistivity that
would be observed if the formation were filled with a brine
having the same resistivity as the downhole formation water,
R0 . There are several resistivity models that could be used
here, but only a few are considered “scientifically based.”8
These models 9-15 generally begin with the observation by
Archie 9 that water-filled conductivity, C0 (C0 = 1/R0 ) can be
SPE 77631REAL-TIME PETROPHYSICAL ANALYSIS IN SILICICLASTICS FROM THE INTEGRATION OF SPECTROSCOPY AND TRIPLE-COMBO
LOGGING 3
considered to be proportional to the total porosity raised to a
power, m, times the conductivity of the water, Cw.
C0 = aφ m Cw . ………………………………………... (9)
It was recognized in the 1950s that clays provide an
additional conductivity contribution. The first successful
general model that included the contribution of clay counter-
ions was that of Waxman and Smits.10 The Waxman-Smits
equation (Eq. 10) models the additional conductivity as equal
to the cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume, Qv,
times a parameter B, which is dependent on temperature and
slightly on salinity.
C 0 = φ m* (Cw + BQ v ) . ………………………………... (10)
Waxman and Thomas 11 expanded this model to more
completely include the effects of temperature and saturation.
For this application, a cation-exchange-capacity log is created
from the computed clay assuming a constant charge
deficiency. Additionally, the exponent m* is modeled as a
square root function of cation exchange capacity times matrix
density as demonstrated by Sen et al.12
Water saturation and irreducible water saturation. If Rt is
the observed deep resistivity and R0 is the expected resistivity
of the formation filled with brine, then the water saturation S w
can be approximated as
n apparent gas zone, seen in both raw and matrix-adjusted
S w =  R 0  , …………………………………… (11)
 Rt 
where n is referred to as the saturation exponent and is
typically assigned a value of 2. Waxman and Thomas provide
a more robust expression for S w.
The Coates-Timur equation16-18 estimates permeability
from porosity and the irreducible or bound water volume,
BFV. The BFV is typically identified from decay of NMR
magnetization with a characteristic T2 decay time faster than
about 33 ms:
c see what the salinity from SP or from the resistivity overlays
 φ-BFV 
k = ( aφ ) b   . ………………………………… (12)
 BFV 
In this model, a, b, and c are empirical constants with
default values of 10, 4, and 2, respectively.
In our case, we have an independent estimate of
permeability from k-lambda. This estimate of permeability can
be combined with Eq. 12 to estimate the irreducible water
saturation in the Coates-Timur-Lambda relation (Eq. 13):
BFV 100φ 2
Swi = = . ………………………... (13)
φ 100φ 2 + k ?
Examples of the Petrophysical Evaluation
In the following pages, we show several examples of this
petrophysical evaluation. The computations for all examples
are identical with the exception that each well has a different
value of the formation water salinity. No other parameters
have been altered. The display consists of seven tracks. The
first track is the computed quantitative lithology, with clay in
orange, quartz-feldspr-mica in yellow, carbonate in blue, and
pyrite in purple. In Track 2 we show the computed matrix
density. Track 3 presents conventional neutron (red dashed)
and density (black solid) porosity with neutron on a sandstone
matrix and density computed with a matrix density of 2.65
g/cm3 . Track 4 shows the matrix-adjusted density porosity
(black solid) and matrix-adjusted neutron porosity (red
dashed). Crossover indicating gas, light hydrocarbon, or steam
is shown as purple shading. Track 5 presents the k-lambda
permeability estimate. Track 6 shows the water-filled
resistivity curve, R0 (blue solid), with the measured deep
resistivity, Rt (red dashed). In each of the examples, a value of
formation water salinity was chosen such that R0 overlays Rt in
shale. Hydrocarbons are identified when Rt exceeds R0 . Track
7 shows the estimate of water saturation, S w, (blue solid) and
the Coates -Timur-lambda estimate of irreducible water
saturation (red dashed). When S w is less than 1 and it overlays
the red curve, one can expect water-free production.
Example 1: Example 1 is a heavy oil play in which the
formation waters are very fresh with a salinity of only 3,000
ppm NaCl. The sands are easily seen in Track 1 (Fig. 1). An
density and neutron porosity at X395 ft, is actually steam
breakthrough. A second, smaller steam breakthrough at X510
is seen only with the matrix-adjusted neutron and density
porosities. Otherwise, the matrix-adjusted neutron and density
overlay in the sands and show some slight residual separation
in the shales. The k-lambda permeability shows values at
about 1 darcy and occasionally higher. The water-filled
resistivity and measured resistivity overlay in shalier sections
and show clear departures in a number of sandstones that are
apparently hydrocarbon-bearing intervals. In the deep, tight
section, there are no shales or clear water-bearing intervals to
might be. In the final track, we see that water saturation in the
hydrocarbon zones often overlays irreducible water saturation,
indicating low water cut. On the other hand, the pay at a depth
of X500 to X600 ft appears to be ready to produce water along
with hydrocarbon.
Example 2. Fig. 2 presents a well with stacked, shaly sands in
the lower section, a shale at the top, and a calcareous shale
interval in the middle. The matrix-adjusted neutron is slightly
higher than density, and the porosity increases significantly up
the logged interval from 20 to 40 porosity units (p.u.). The
permeability in the best lower sand is again 1 darcy and in
most sands is about 100 md. The sands below X290 contain
oil at what appears to be irreducible water saturation. Sands
4 HERRON, HERRON, GRAU, SEL EZNEV, PHILLIPS, EL SHERIF, FARAG, HORKOWITZ, NEVILLE, HSU
above this depth contain oil at water saturations that are
generally higher than irreducible.
Example 3. Fig. 3 shows an examp le from a large oil field. A
zone in the upper section with large washouts has been
blanked out. Track 1, the computed lithology, reveals a series
of sands with varying clay concentrations and a carbonate at
X280. Track 2 shows the matrix density values that are quite
high in some of the iron-rich intervals. In Track 4, the matrix-
adjusted density and neutron porosities nicely converge on
total porosity in the sands and carbonate, and there is residual
separation in some of the shales. There is no indication of gas.
The k-lambda permeability shows that permeabilities are as
high as 10 darcy. The fifth track, with R0 and deep resistivity,
shows overlays in the upper shales and departures indicating
hydrocarbon in many of the sandstones below (e.g., at depths
X110, X340, X400). The final track shows that most of the
sands are at irreducible water saturation.
Example 4. Fig. 4 shows an example from an oil and gas
bearing formation. In this example, there are shales at the top
and bottom of the displayed interval, and between them are
shaly sands interspersed with zones of carbonate cementation.
The matrix density is shown in Track 2 along with core data.
The matrix density is quite high for sandstones, averaging 2.70
g/cm3 in the core data. A striking feature in Track 3 is that
porosity goes to near zero at the depths showing small
amounts of carbonate. The porosity reduction is most obvious
in the density porosity, but is also indicated by neutron
porosity. The neutron and density curves here are plotted
using a sandstone matrix, appropriate for this clastic
environment. It can be seen that there is only a single
indication of gas crossover near X455. This illustrates the
historical difficulty of using the density-neutron for
unambiguous fluid identification in shaly sands. The corrected
logs in Track 4 significantly enhance crossover detection and
reveal gas in the five porous intervals above X580. The core
porosity data closely match the computed total porosity. In
this example, there is significant separation remaining in the
corrected neutron and density porosities in the shaly zones at
the top and bottom of the interval; again this separation is due
to incomplete correction of the neutron log for hydrogen and
other thermal absorbers in the clays. In Track 5, the core
permeability closely matches the k-lambda log. The R0 and Rt
curves in Track 6 overlay in the upper and lower shales and
show separation through most of the sandstones. The
computed saturations indicate that the interval is at irreducible
water saturation apart from the lower shaly sands at X670 and
X680 where producible water is suggested by Swi <Sw .
Summary
With the addition of spectroscopy logs to the traditional triple-
combo measurements of neutron, density, and resistivity logs,
it is possible to produce a simple, robust petrophysical
evaluation. In addition to the log data, the interpretation
requires a formation salinity input. For output, it computes
SPE 77631
lithology, matrix neutron, matrix density, matrix-adjusted
density and matrix-adjusted neutron for porosity and enhanced
gas crossover, k-lambda permeability, Waxman-Smits-
Thomas water-filled resistivity, water saturation, and Coates-
Timur-lambda irreducible water saturation. The water
saturation naturally requires an estimate of Rt .
The simplic ity of these calculations, and the small number
of analyst picks, make it easy to imagine that this
interpretation could be performed in a timely fashion at a
wellsite or immediately after logging in the decision maker’s
office. The key to the accuracy of this interpretation is the use
of elements derived from the spectroscopy sonde for the direct
computation of matrix properties and the use of computer
lithology processing for resistivity modeling and k-lambda
permeability.
Nomenclature
B = Equivalent conductance of clay exchange cations, mho
cm2 /meq
BFV = Bound fluid volume, v/v
C0 = Conductivity of water-filled formation, mho/cm
C0 = Conductivity of water-filled formation, mho/cm
Cw = Conductivity of formation water, mho/cm
k = Permeability, l2 , md
m = Archie’s cementation exponent
n = Archie’s saturation exponent
Nf = Neutron response of formation fluid, v/v
Nma = Neutron response to rock matrix, v/v
Qv = Cation-exchange-capacity per unit pore volume,
meq/ml
R0 = Resistivity of water-filled formation, ohm m
Rt = Resistivity of formation, ohm m
S w = Water saturation, v/v
S wi = Irreducible water saturation, v/v
WCa = Weight fraction calcium on porosity-free basis, m/m
WCar = Weight fraction carbonate on porosity-free basis, m/m
WCla = Weight fraction clay on porosity-free basis, m/m
WFe = Weight fraction iron on porosity-free basis, m/m
WPyr = Weight fraction pyrite on porosity-free basis, m/m
WQFM= Weight fraction QFM on porosity-free basis, m/m
WS = Weight fraction sulfur on porosity-free basis, m/m
WSi = Weight fraction silicon on porosity-free basis, m/m
φmad = Density porosity adjusted for matrix density, v/v
φman = Neutron porosity adjusted for matrix neutron response,
v/v
φn = Neutron porosity, v/v
φt = Total porosity, v/v
ρ b = Density of bulk formation, g/cm3
ρ f = Density of formation fluid, g/cm3
ρ ma = Density of rock matrix, g/cm3
References
1. Herron, S.L. and Herron, M.M.: “Quantitative Lithology: An
Application for Open and Cased Hole Spectroscopy,” Trans.,
SPWLA 37th Ann. Log. Symp., New Orleans (1996) Paper E.
2. Herron, M.M. and Herron, S.L.: “Log Interpretation Parameters
Determined from Chemistry, Mineralogy and Nuclear Forward
SPE 77631REAL-TIME PETROPHYSICAL ANALYSIS IN SILICICLASTICS FROM THE INTEGRATION OF SPECTROSCOPY AND TRIPLE-COMBO
LOGGING 5

Modeling,” Proc. 1997 Int. Symp. Soc. Core Anal., Calgary

(1997) SCA-9727.
3. Herron, M.M. and Herron, S.L.: "Quantitative Lithology: Open
and Cased Hole Applications Derived from Integrated Core
Chemistry and Mineralogy Data Base," Core-Log Integration,
P.K. Harvey and M.A. Lovell (eds), Geological Society Special
Publication (1998) No. 136, 81.
4. Horkowitz, J.P. and Cannon, D.E.: “Complex Reservoir
Evaluation in Open and Cased Wells,” Trans., SPWLA 38th Ann.
Log. Symp., Dallas (1997) Paper W.
5. Herron, S.L. and Herron, M.M.: “Application of Nuclear
Spectroscopy Logs to the Derivation of Formation Matrix
Density,” Trans., SPWLA 41st Ann. Log. Symp., Dallas (2000)
Paper JJ.
6. Herron, M.M., Johnson, D.L., and Schwartz, L.M.: “A Robust
Permeability Estimator for Siliciclastics,” paper SPE 49301
presented at the 1998 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, 27-30 September.
7. Johnson, D.L., Koplik, J., and Schwartz, L.M.: “New Pore-Size
Parameter Characterizing Transport in Porous Media,” Phys. Rev.
Lett. (1986 ) 57, 2564.
8. Worthington, P.F.: “Evolution of Shaly Sand Concepts in
Reservoir Evaluation, Log Analyst (1985) 26, No. 1, 23.
9. Archie, G.E.: “The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in
Determining Some Reservoir Characteristics,” Trans. AIME
(1985) 146, 54.
10. Waxman, M.H. and Smits, L.J.M.: “Electrical Conduction in Oil
Bearing Shaly Sands,” SPEJ (August 1968) 107.
11. Waxman, M.H. and Thomas, E.C.: “Electrical Conductivities in
Shaly Sands – I. The Relation Between Hydrocarbon Saturation
and Resistivity Index; II – The Temperature Coefficient of
Electrical Resistivity,” JPT (1974) 213; Trans., AIME (1974)
257.
12. Sen, P.N., Goode, P.A. and Sibbit, A.: “Electrical Conduction in
Clay Bearing Sandstones at High and Low Salinities,” J. Appl.
Phys. (1988) 63, 4832.
13. Clavier, C., Coates, G. and Dumanoir, J.: “The Theoretical and
Experimental Bases for the ‘Dual Water’ Model for the
Interpretation of Shaly Sands,” paper SPE 6859 presented at the
1977 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Colorado, 9-12 October.
14. Clavier, C., Coates, G. and Dumanoir, J.: “Theoretical and
Experimental Bases for the Dual-Water Model for Interpretation
of Shaly Sands,” SPEJ (1984) 24, 153.
15. Gravestock, D.I.: “Behavior of Waxman-Smits Parameter ‘B’ in
High Rw, High Temperature Reservoirs,” Log Analyst (1991) 32,
No. 5, 596.
16. Timur, A.: “Producible Porosity and Permeability of Sandstones
Investigated Through NMR Principles,” Log Analyst (1969) 10,
No. 1, 3.
17. Ahmed, U., Crary, S.F. and Coates, G.R.: “Permeability
Estimation: The Various Sources and Their Interrelationship,”
JPT (1991) 578.
18. Coates, G.R. et al.: “The MRIL in Conoco 33-1 - An
Investigation of a New Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log,”
Trans. SPWLA 32th Ann. Log. Symp., New Orleans (1991)
Paper DD.
 x100

x200

x300
Depth, ft
x400

x500

x600

x700

x800
0 100 2.6 2.8 3 0.5 0 0.5 0 10- 1 4
10 10
-1 3
10 0 0.5 1
Lith GDen Por Por k-L Res Sw

Fig. 1. Petrophysical evaluation in very freshwater environment. Note the close match of R0 and Rt in both the
porous shales and tight sandstone.

x100

x200
Depth, ft

x300

x400

0 100 2.6 2.8 3 0.5 0 0.5 0 10-1 10 10

4 -1 3
10 0 0.5 1
Lith GDen Por Por k-L Res Sw

Fig. 2. Petrophysical evaluation for Example 2. Note how the corrected neutron and density curves in Track 4
nearly overlay at total porosity. Below X290, the hydrocarbons appear to be at irreducible saturation.
SPE 77631REAL-TIME PETROPHYSICAL ANALYSIS IN SILICICLASTICS FROM THE INTEGRATION OF SPECTROSCOPY AND TRIPLE-COMBO
LOGGING 7

X000

X100
Depth, ft

X200

X300

X400

0 100 2.6 2.8 3 0.5 0 0.5 0 10-1 4

10 10
-1 3
10 0 0.5 1
Lith GDen Por Por k-L Res Sw

Fig. 3. Petrophysical evaluation for Example 3. This example includes sands, shales, and carbonates, and the close
agreement of corrected neutron and density porosities in Track 4 demonstrates the quality of the matrix corrections.

X300

X400
Depth, ft

X500

X600

X700

0 100 2.6 2.8 3 0.5 0 0.5 0 10-1 4

10 10
-1 3
10 0 0.5 1
Lith GDen Por Por k-L Res Sw

Fig. 4. Petrophysical evaluation for Example 4. Here, core data are provided for comparison with computed
matrix density (Track 2), total porosity (Track 4), and permeability (Track 5). Note the high matrix densities in the
sands; core values average 2.70 g/cm 3. In this example, the application of matrix corrections reveals the
presence of gas in each of the porous sands above X580.