Binder (Sectional Test – 1)

Sociology Q&A 2023
Sectional Test - 01
SOCIOLOGY
Time Allowed: 3 Hrs. Max. Marks: 250
1. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Examine the impact of twin revolutions on the changing structure of the society.
(10 Marks)
E
(b) Ethnomethodology exemplifies the anti-positivist assertion. Comment.
OR (10 Marks)
(c) Gig economy has exposed the inherent hierarchy and inequality in the class system.
Examine using illustrations. (10 Marks)
(d) Briefly evaluate the functionalist prerequisites of social system as given by Talcott
Parsons. Include with suitable illustrations. (10 Marks)
SC
(e) Explain Karl Marx’s theory of class struggle. Evaluate its significance in the
contemporary society. (10 Marks)
2. Attempt all the questions:
(a) If August Comte told us that Sociology could be science, it was Emile Durkheim and
Max Weber who showed how it could be science. Evaluate. (20 Marks)
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(b) Outline Durkheim’s theoretical approach to understand the complexity of societies

and their transition. Contrast it with Marxian theory of historical materialism.
(20 Marks)
(c) Self and society are twin born. Comment. (10 Marks)
(a) Do you agree with the contention that ‘Division of labour’ provides a structure to the
society while ‘Division of Labourers’ leads to systematic inequalities. (20 Marks)
(b) Functionalist perspective outlines that every institution in the society has a purpose.
Using Merton’s concepts of manifest and latent functions, explain the role of media
in a democracy. (20 Marks)
(c) Care economy propagates gender based stratification. Comment in the light of the
pandemic. (10 Marks)
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Elaborate Srinivas’ view on religion and society using illustrations. (10 Marks)
Sociology [1]
(b) History is a microscope of the past, horoscope of the present, and telescope of the
future. However, Sociology is a synthesis across time and space. Examine the
relationship between history and sociology. (10 Marks)
(c) Examine Weber’s contribution towards tracing the origin of Capitalism in the western
society. (10 Marks)
(d) Anonymity offers a resolution to caste conflict. Analyze in the context of social media
platforms in urban areas. (10 Marks)
(e) Critically examine why the National poverty line is different for Parsis, Scheduled
castes, and the general population. Elaborate your stand using the theories of
stratification. (10 Marks)
(a) How is the field view different from book view in the study of Indian society?
(20 Marks)
(b) Evaluate the structural functionalist perspective on social stratification in the society.
Briefly examine the criticism by Melvin Tumin. (20 Marks)
(c) E
Using AR Desai’s theory, examine the extent and impact of colonial rule on Indian
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society. (10 Marks)

SC
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[ 2 ] Sociology
Sociology Q&A 2023
Sectional Test - 01
SOCIOLOGY
Ans
Answwer Hints
1. (a) Examine the impact of twin revolutions on the changing structure of the society.
Approach:
• Write a brief introduction about twin revolution
• List their impacts on society
• Conclude as how these changes led to emergence of sociology
Hints:
Twin Revolutions refers to the time period between 1789 and 1848 in which the political and ideological
changes of the French Revolution fused with and reinforced the technological and economic changes
of the Industrial Revolution. The political and economic modernity brought by the revolutions caused
tremendous changes in various structures of the society.
Impact of twin revolutions on social structures:
French Revolution
• French Revolution brought the ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity which gave rise to
individualism and self- orientation. August Comte considered this to be the reason of chaos and
disorder in the society
• It established the reign of terror where old norms were uprooted and new norms hasn’t arrived.
For instance, it marked an end for monarchy and democracy was yet to take a concrete form.
Durkheim called this anomie where regulation in society has weakened
• Theory of divine rights was replaced by rule of law and equal subjection of laws on everyone,
leading to improvement in conditions of commoners and women
• The spirit of universalism and equality nudged society to explore its dimensions in the form of
gender equality, economic and social equality
Industrial Revolution
• It created a wave of rationalism and popularity of science. Science awakened the faith in human
progress and the spirit of empiricism, making religion taking a back seat
• Due to inventions like spinning jenny, mass production became possible. It ultimately established
the foundation of colonialism and imperialism as these products need new markets and raw
material
• According to Marx, it lead to creation of wage labour as a class of have-nots and capitalist who
owns the means of production
• The family-oriented work transformed into factory system of production. It caused alienation,
poverty and health crisis among workers
• It limited the role of women to domestic sphere, making them dependent on their male
counterparts.
• The kinship bonds were diluted as factory system lead to urbanization and migration
The twin revolution caused political, economic and social changes in the society, paving way for a
dedicated discipline with systematic approach to study these changes
1. (b) Ethnomethodology exemplifies the anti-positivist assertion. Comment.
Approach:
• Define Ethnomethodology and anti-positivism
• Write correlations between ethnomethodology and anti-positivism with the help of thinkers
• Conclude with some drawbacks and its role in sociology
Hints:
Ethnomethodology is concerned with examining the methods and procedures employed by members
of society to construct, account for and give meaning to their social world. Ethnomethodologists
draw heavily on the European tradition of phenomenological philosophy, which emerged as anti-
positivist school
Anti- positivists argue that the subject matter of the social and natural sciences is fundamentally
different. As a result, the methods and assumptions of the natural sciences are inappropriate to the
study of man.
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Anti-positivist assertions in Ethnomethodology:
• Ethnomethodologists begin with the assumption that society exists only in so far as its members
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perceive its existence. It relies on the constructs, interpretations and accounts of its members
Peter Berger, an anti-positivist, in his Sociology of Everyday Life points out the same thing. Society
is not a puppet theatre as viewed by positivists where humans react passively to external stimulus.
Positivism claims to make a science of society through empiricism, objectivity and value-freedom
• Ethnomethodologists deny the existence of social order and argue that the social world doesn’t
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have any objective reality. This resonates with anti-positivists who deny the claim of positivism
to discover invariable laws of society.
• Harold Garfinkel, the father of ethnomethodology, came up with ‘documentary method’ which
involves treating an actual appearance as document of a presupposed underlying pattern.
Alfred Schutz’s, a renowned phenomenologist, concept of ‘Typifications’ tries the same.
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Typification refers to the way in which the phenomenon which is being experienced is classified
according to the previous experience
• Unlike positivists, ethnomethodologists takes individual’s values and emotions into consideration.
They also drew heavily from common-sensical notions.
Atkinson’s theory of suicide illustrates that categorizing death as suicide is itself a common sense
However, ethnomethodologists like anti-positvism rely on the ability of researcher to read the context
right, which raises the question of reliability and validity in sociological research. They make every
situation as unique situation which may not always be the case.
In spite of its criticism, ethnomethodology brings diversity in sociological research and help in
discovering knowledge about society.
1. (c) Gig economy has exposed the inherent hierarchy and inequality in the class
system. Examine using illustrations.
Approach:
• The Question is about the Gig economy and how it has impacted the class system in India.
• First, describe what is gig economy and its features.
• Then discuss how it has exposed the inherent hierarchy and inequality in the class system - the
gig economy mostly employs people from middle class.
[2] Hints: Sociology

• The unregulated work environment without any social security cover exposes the already stressed
lower classes to hardships and perpetuates inequality.
• Conclude by explaining the need to regulate gig economy in order to address social inequality. –
Check the latest update in India NITI Ayog report – it is being subject to regulation now.
Hints:
Gig Economy is the evolving economic model wherein the firms hire workers on a part-time flexible
basis rather than as full time employees. The Code on Social Security, 2020 defines gig workers as
those engaged in livelihoods outside traditional employer-employee relationship. The workers work
as freelancers or independent contractors.
Gig Workers can be broadly classified into two categories — platform and non-platform-based workers:
(a) Platform workers are those whose work is based on online software apps or digital platforms.
(b) Non-platform gig workers are generally casual wage workers and own-account workers in the
conventional sectors, working part-time or full time.
The Gig workers can also be classified on the basis of skills. These are high-skilled, medium-skilled
and low-skilled workers. According to the NITI Aayog Report, at present, about 47% of the gig work
is in medium-skilled jobs, about 22% in high-skilled jobs, and about 31% in low-skilled jobs. Thus, the
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gig economy mostly employs people from lower middle class (as only 22% are employed in high-
skilled jobs)
NITI Aayog Report has also raised various issues associated with Gig economy and the inherent
hierarchy and inequality in the class system.
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Gig economy is marked by certain distinct characteristics features such as:
• Accessibility: Nature of employment : Unpredictability
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Even though the gig economy, with the wide variety of employment options it offers, is accessible
to all those who are willing to engage in such employment, access to internet services and digital
technology can be a restrictive factor. This has made the gig economy largely an urban
phenomenon.
• Job and Income Insecurity: Rise of portfolio workers. Gig Workers do not get benefit from labor
regulations pertaining to wages, hours, working conditions, and the right to collective bargaining.
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Temporary nature of work, project duration depends on ‘gigs’.

• Occupational Safety and Health Risks: Workers engaged in employment with the digital
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platforms, particularly, women workers in the app-based taxi and delivery sectors, face various
occupational safety and health risks.
• Skills Mismatch: Varying degrees of vertical and horizontal skills mismatch can be observed on
online web-based platforms. According to International Labour Organization (ILO) surveys,
workers with higher educational achievements are not necessarily finding work commensurate
with their skills.
• Challenges faced due to Terms of Contract: Working conditions on digital platforms are largely
regulated by the terms of service agreements. They tend to characterize the contractual relationship
between the platform owner and worker as other than one of employment. Gig workers lack
unionization – problems of workers of companies such as Uber, Ola, Zomato, Swiggy remain
unaddressed.
• Sociological Perspective: It’s a postmodern phenomenon, driven by atomization of work.
• As Ulrich Beck would term, ‘Risk Society’ where modern society increases risks to its populace
rather than reducing it.
Going forward, the gig economy can contribute in a significant way in addressing the issues of
hierarchy and inequality and help in achieving inclusive growth. But measures like extending social
Hints: Sociology [3]

security measures for gig workers and their families in partnership mode as envisaged in the Code on
Social Security should be taken up.
1. (d) Briefly evaluate the functionalist prerequisites of social system as given by Talcott
Parsons. Include with suitable illustrations.
Approach:
• Define the functionalist prerequisites of a social system as given by Talcott Parsons.
• Give some examples related to the topic.
Hints:
• Parson created action theory, a broad theory for the study of society, and established the
groundwork for what would eventually become the current functionalist viewpoint.
• Social system: Parson defined a social system as a division of action theory. Each activity in a
social system is broken into separate units by the author. A social system, according to him, is a
web of interactions between actors.
• Social action: Parsons views as the primary component of social existence, evolves through a
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network of interconnected processes. An actor’s purposeful response to environmental cues is
social action. Acting is being in a situation; an actor in society is an actor playing a part.
•
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He contends that a civilization cannot be a social system without a cultural and language structure.
• He thought that in order for communities to function, certain “functional conditions” had to be
satisfied. Just like humans require certain things to survive, some things are necessary for every
society to have in order for it to run well. for example, a society must create and distribute
resources like food and shelter; there must be some sort of institution to settle disputes; and there
must be organizations to socialize the young.
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• According to Parsons a social system has four needs which must be met for continued survival
– These are adaptation, goal attainment, integration and pattern maintenance.
1. Adaptation: He sees adaptation as a dynamic interaction between the social system and its
surroundings. Food and shelter are basic needs that should be harnessed for survival, therefore
the social system must have some control over its surroundings. Therefore, adaptability is
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the responsibility of economic institutions.

2. Goal Achievement: A set of goals toward which social behavior is focused is referred to as
goal attainment. Setting priorities for goals is the responsibility of political institutions.
Governments also distribute funds to accomplish objectives depending on priority.
For example, there must be a process for ensuring that enough people, but not too many,
fill each of the roles at any given time, as well as a process for determining which people
will fill which roles. These processes, when combined, solve the problem of member allocation
in the social system. We’ve already discussed the “need” for property standards. This problem
is partially solved by the rules governing inheritance, such as primogeniture.
3. Integration: The “adjustment of conflict” is the main focus of integration. It is concerned
with how the parts of the social system interact and are coordinated. For example, legal
standards define and standardize the interactions between people and institutions, lowering
the likelihood of conflict. Conflicts are settled through the legal system, which prevents the
social system from collapsing when they arise.
4. The term “pattern maintenance” refers to safeguarding the fundamental principles that
have been ingrained in society. Institutions like the family, the school system, and religion
perform this purpose. According to Talcott Parsons, any social system can be analyzed in
terms of its prerequisites. It is therefore simple to understand how every component of society
influences religion.

Individuals and groups start to recognise patterns as they internalize rules and values. The positive
attitudes of the actors toward institutions and norms are what drives the socialization process. Teaching
the pattern is not enough; the performer must be persuaded to follow it as well. This is an ongoing
social control process.
1. (e) Explain Karl Marx’s theory of class struggle. Evaluate its significance in the
contemporary society.
Approach:
• Basic introduction of Marxian ideas
• Capitalistic mode of production
• Class struggle in capitalist societies
• Criticism of Marxian ideas
• Significance of class struggle theory in modern times
Hints:
According to Marx, economic production, or the creation of material existence, is the foundation
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upon which society as an interconnected whole is built. He believes that the forces of production,
together with the relations of production, form the foundation of any society’s economic and social
history.
The forces of production are the methods by which material commodities are created; for example,
tools, machinery, labour, and technological levels are all considered forces of production. ‘Production
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relations are the social ties of production. The mode of production is defined by the force of production
and the relations of production, for example, capitalistic mode of production, feudal mode of
production, and so on.
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Capitalistic mode of Production

• Capital is vital to production under this mode of production, according to Marx, and society is
generally divided into the have-nots known as the proletariat and the haves known as the
bourgeoisie. Marx claimed that money generates nothing and that wealth is created by labour.
Capitalists take this wealth, while labourers are paid pitiful wages.
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• The employer has a dominant connection with the employee, but the worker has a collaborative
relationship with co-workers.
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• It will lead to confrontation, with workers banding together to develop a new manner of
production - a socialist mode of production, and eventually communism.
Class struggle in capitalist societies
• Karl Marx developed the concept of class struggle through his research and critique of capitalist
society. The juxtaposition of social production in large corporations with individual ownership
indicates proletarian exploitation. Social production also facilitates labour mobilisation against
capitalists. It raises knowledge of common conditions and interests. It raises knowledge of common
conditions and interests.
• By increasing class consciousness and solidarity, these two factors transform a class-in-itself into
a class-for-itself.
• Aside from these factors, other elements in the natural expansion of a capitalist economy would
result in the polarisation of the two basic groups, namely, the affluent and the poor.
• The last stage of class awareness and unity is achieved when members recognise that they can
only overthrow the ruling class by collective action and take effective action to do so. A violent
revolution emerges, overthrowing the capitalistic basis of civilization. The violent revolution ushers
in communist social rule and the collapse of capitalist society.

Criticism of Marxian ideas
• Functionalist scholars believe that capitalism has the potential and space to resolve its
contradictions. It has, for example, provided the public the opportunity to express their concerns
and issues through labour unions and elections. As a result, a revolution is not necessary to
effect change.
• Economic factors are the only drivers in Marx’s theory of the mode of production; nevertheless,
Weber argued that individual meanings, intents, and worldviews influence human behaviour;
hence, they are critical in comprehending economic activity.
• Divides inside and between classes are crucial to understanding modern-day class conflict,
according to Antonio Gramsci. Agricultural and industrial workers, for example, may have distinct
interests, and the state may use these disparities to preserve ‘ruling-class hegemony.’
• Marx ignored other types of stratification that are not dependent on economic factors. In India,
for example, the caste system is based on the principles of purity and defilement.
Significance of class struggle theory in modern times
Although the Marxian prophecy of the downfall of capitalism has not come true, Marx’s concept of
revolution may be still relevant.
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• First and foremost, national liberation struggles in underdeveloped nations are viewed as
representations of the global capitalist system’s fundamental contradictions” colonialism and
economic exploitation inflicted by corporate capitalism.
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• Andre Gunder Frank strongly supports this stance, arguing that the underdevelopment of Third
World nations is launched and exacerbated by the capitalist system of industrialised countries,
which has exploited developing countries.
• Occupy Wall Street and other movements promote the concept of rising disparities in capitalist
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systems. According to a recent World Inequality Report, the wealthiest 10% of India’s population
would hold 57% of the country’s national revenue in 2021.
All of the above instances clearly demonstrate socioeconomic inequities. Marx accurately predicted
capitalism’s faults and their many consequences. There may be debate and disagreement over Marx’s
solutions to capitalism, but there is no disputing that modern society is suffering the challenges that
Marx predicted in the late nineteenth century.
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2. (a) If August Comte told us that Sociology could be science, it was Emile Durkheim
and Max Weber who showed how it could be science. Evaluate.
Approach:
• The Question focuses on the contributions of August Comte, Durkheim and Max Weber in the
development of Sociology as a Science. Introduce by mentioning the ideas of August Comte - his
emphasis that sociology is the most sophisticated of all sciences as it deals with all aspects of
humanity
• Then discuss how Durkheim and Weber developed a scientific methodology for the study of
sociology. Focus on Durkheim’s works on Social fact, his rules of sociological method, his use
of statistical tools and comparative method, etc.
• Discuss Weber’s contributions with respect to development of Interpretivist approach in
Sociology. Also his work on formulating conceptual tools like Ideal types to achieve objectivity
in research
• Conclude by highlighting the significance of their work in laying foundations of Sociology to
develop as Science.
Hints:
August Comte who is considered as father of Sociology by many, wanted to develop sociology along
the lines of natural sciences. He argued that Sociology is the last science to be discovered and is the

most sophisticated of all sciences. However, Comte did not provide any concrete way in which
Sociology could be developed as a Science and it was taken up by later Sociologists.
Durkheim’s Scientific Methodology
• Durkheim’s contribution to the development of Sociology was immense. He defined the subject
matter of Sociology as study of ‘Social facts’ and suggested scientific method to study it.
• In his ‘Rules of Sociological Method’ Durkheim outlined his methodology of Sociology. According
to Durkheim, Social facts should be studied as things as we study things in natural world.
• He defined Social facts as ways of acting, thinking and feeling which are external to the individual
and are endowed with the power of coercion by reason of which they control him. They are
general and universal. Thus he did not consider social facts as abstract phenomena but as objective
reality which can be observed and measured.
• He suggested four rules of studying the social facts viz - Rules of observation, Rules of classification,
rules of distinction and rules of explanation.
• Durkheim also developed methods which were specific to sociology and demonstrated its use in
his theories. eg. In his theory of suicide he used method of multivariate analysis.
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• He was the first to give distinctively sociological explanations using his causal functional theories.
For example in his study of religion and suicide he gave explanations which were distinctively
sociological.
Weber’s Scientific methodology
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• Max Weber in his book ‘Methodologies of Social sciences’ defined sociology as - “Sociology is a
science which attempts Interpretivist understanding of social action, in order thereby to arrive at
an explanation of its cause and effects.
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• According to Weber, the subject matter of sociology is to study social action and not social facts.
He defined social action as any action which has a meaning attached to it by the actor and it
takes into account the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course.
• He argued that Sociology studies human beings who have consciousness and are not merely
constrained by external stimuli like matter. Therefore sociologists should try to understand the
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meanings and motives that people attach with their action.

• Weber’s approach put the individual and the way individuals think in the center of analysis of
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society and it later came to be known as ‘Interpretivist approach’ in sociology.

• Weber suggested certain methods to establish the meanings of social action:
1. Verstehen: It literally means comprehending or understanding. It involves simple and
systematic steps of investigation to comprehend the meanings behind social action.
Investigator should not have any sympathy with the actor or the situation so as to ensure
objectivity.
2. Causal Pluralist Methods: Weber rejected the mono-causal explanations and stressed that
causes of social action can be multiple or plural. He favoured identification of probable
factors, rather than emphasizing upon the singularity of causes.
3. Ideal types: These are conceptual tools which act as measuring rod for the investigator to
understand social phenomenon. Ideal types help in understanding a specific aspect of social
world by comparing it with empirical reality. Weber for example gave 3 ideal types of authority
viz, Traditional authority, Charismatic authority and Legal rational authority.
Thus, even though Comte said that sociology is a science, it was the works of Durkheim and Weber
that developed Sociology as a Science. They developed subject matter of sociology and gave scientific
methodologies for its study.
2. (b) Outline Durkheim’s theoretical approach to understand the complexity of
societies and their transition. Contrast it with Marxian theory of historical
materialism.
Approach:
• Introduction – Durkheim’s concept of Division of Labour
• Types of solidarity
1. Mechanical solidarity and its characteristics
2. Organic solidarity and its features
• Historical materialism of Marx
Hints:
Durkheim was a member of the Functionalist school of thought, which held that society developed
from traditional to modern through the formation and spread of the division of labour. A division of
labour arrangement is one in which complex tasks are divided into smaller jobs and distributed among
workers.
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Durkheim saw society as a social fact and was particularly interested in the question of social solidarity,
or how modern society hangs together given that society is made up of many individuals, each operating
independently and autonomously, with different, unique, and varied aims.
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Types of Solidarity
In The Social Division of Labor Durkheim distinguishes two forms of social solidarity:
1. Mechanical solidarity: a feature of older or traditional cultures with a limited division of labour.
– Focus on collective consciousness- These communities are characterised by resemblance,
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in which members share similar values based on shared work and life events and experiences.
– Repressive law or penal law - If there is a crime in our society, that crime is an offence
to everybody, since it is an offence to the shared morality, the shared system of values that
exists.
– Everyone is more or less self-sufficient, generalist, and so bound by comparable experiences,
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duties, values, and morals.

Durkheim believed that when population density and contact (moral density) increased, society
transitioned from mechanical to organic solidarity.
2. Organic solidarity:
– The rise of the division of labour erodes communal awareness while fostering a new sort
of solidarity. This new kind of solidarity is known as organic solidarity, and it is characterised
by people’s reliance on one another within the division of labour as well as a certain
amount of collaboration.
– Heterogeneity - Unlike mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity presupposes that humans
are not comparable to one another. Organic solidarity refers to social integration that occurs
as a result of people’s need for one another’s services.
– Interdependence and specialisation - there is a far larger division of labour, with individuals
acting in a manner comparable to the interdependent but different organs of a living
creature. Each of our actions becomes more specialised, making it more personal.
– Restitutive or restorative law - While elements of penal or repressive law, such as the
death penalty for murder, persist in modern societies, modern legal systems are primarily
distinguished by judgments that require the offending party to restore the situation to its
original state – for example, paying restitution for theft or to victims.

Historical materialism of Marx
• Economic production, or the formation of material existence, is the basis upon which society as
an interrelated whole is created, according to Marx. He argues that the forces of production,
along with the production relations, form the foundation of any society’s economic and social
history.
• The techniques by which material commodities are formed are referred to as the forces of
production; for example, tools, machinery, labour, and technical levels are all considered forces
of production.
• Manufacturing relations are the social links that exist in the production process. The force of
production and the relations of production, for example, capitalistic mode of production, feudal
mode of production, and so on, define the mode of production.
• Marx developed a materialistic view of society in terms of economic infrastructure and social
superstructure in order to comprehend society’s processes of production.
• He views historical development as a dialectic process in which two opposing forces interact
and new structures are generated, and the dialectic process continues.
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2. (c) Self and society are twin born. Comment.
Approach:
• Define what is self and how it arises in short.
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• Using the concept of ‘Looking glass self’ by Charles H Cooley describes how we tend to view
ourselves through others.
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• Describe through Mead’s concept of self and symbolic internationalism that self and society are
interrelated and two sides of the same coin.
• Also highlight limitations in Mead’s framework.
Hints:
Self as defined by Mead is the ‘peculiar ability to be subject and the object’. Self, arises through social
connections, social interactions and social relationships. Self, therefore, is a process and not a thing
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as such.
• Charles H. Cooley in his concept of ‘Looking Glass self’ argues that we tend to view ourselves
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as we think others view us. Society and the people in it that we encounter, especially our parents
and peers provide us with a way to see ourselves and develop a sense of our own identity.
• Similarly, for Mead who introduced the concept of Symbolic interaction in Sociology; He says -
human activity is essentially an individual activity which is based upon two basic premises.
1. Adaptation
2. Adjustment to the world.
Without interaction the mind would not exist. Hence the mind is a product of social process.
Social process that Mead is talking about is gesture. He has taken this concept from Wilhelm
Wundt.
• Mead says the process of gestures happens across the society called conversation of gestures,
later he termed it as interaction. Thus, mead says human thought, experience and conduct is
essentially social. He says human beings interact with each other in terms of symbols. Hence the
terminology symbolic internationalism.
• He distinguishes certain significant objects or events which have particular meaning and generate
the same response across many organisms, such symbols are called significant symbols. It is

from significant symbols that language is formed. He says man has no instincts at all, he socially
generates them. He instructs and lives within his own world of meanings. He writes an example
of a baby. Its first Instinct is to cry. It can be for happiness, hunger, safety, and meeting a
stranger. Later as the baby grows, adapts and adjusts. Baby starts using significant symbols. It is
at this point the mind develops. Here it starts taking meanings and constructing its social world.
This process is called identity formation.
• Mead says social life develops if significant symbols are shared by members of society which
results in development of communication. The other person interprets by the process called role
taking, he takes the place of others or he puts himself in place of others and then interprets. It is
from this role that he developed the concept of self.
• Mead says the process of self-formation takes place in two stages :
1. Play stage: In the play stage the child takes up roles which are not his (discrete others), he
learns by imitation, and in the process becomes aware that there is a difference between
him and the role is playing. Here he consolidates his identity.
2. Game stage: In playing games the child sees himself from the perspective of others in the
game. He develops a sense of collective viewpoint(significant others). He starts thinking from
their perspective. He starts taking up the role of the generalized other.
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• By taking the role of ‘generalized other’ cooperative action in society is developed. A child or
person comes to know what is expected of him and thus modifies his behavior. Thus, Mead says
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self creates a social environment and is also continuously shaped by it, both are inseparable.
• However, According to Mead, Humans do not react automatically. They introspect, show caution,
make choices, respond differently & then act. Here the stimulus & response is not objective but a
subjective experience which later evolves into behavior.
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• Therefore, though self and society replicate through a mutually inclusive process to create solidified
identities for themselves, human interpretation also plays a major role in the formation of the
self.
3. (a) Do you agree with the contention that ‘Division of labour’ provides a structure
to the society while ‘Division of Labourers’ leads to systematic inequalities.
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Approach:
• Define division of labour and division of labourers and also write in brief the difference between
them.
• Through Durkheim’s analysis of Division of labour, explain how it provides a stable structure
for a society.
• By Ambedkar’s perspective highlight how the division of laborers in the caste system has led to
systemic inequality.
Hints:
The ‘Division of labor’ describes the splitting up of a complex productive task into a number of
specialized, simpler tasks. Occupational differentiation is symbolic of division of labour. ‘Division of
labourers’ is a term which highlights the segmented separation of the people who undergo labour. It
is different from division of labour in the sense that the people who perform the labour are divided
and not just their activities.
‘Division of labour’ provides structure to the society:
• Division of labour as an economic concept which states that dividing the production process
into different stages enables workers to focus on specific tasks. On the other hand, Durkheim
argued that division of labor exists not only in economic terms but there is a social division of
labour as well.

• Through an evolutionary perspective, Durkheim explained how division of labour is functional
for the society and provides structural stability to it. According to him, as society progressed
from primitive to complex, from strong collective conscience to weak collective conscience,
mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity, division of labour played a major role.
• Durkheim claimed that increasing population in a society and an increase in the number of
interactions in society (dynamic density) necessitates effective division of labour. Division of
labour provides an efficient method to resolve competition for resources due to increasing
population pressure.
• A society with Organic solidarity is characterized by more division of labour and more
interdependence. Hence in such societies interdependence creates social solidarity and a sense of
gratitude towards the society.
‘Division of labourers’ produces systemic inequalities:
• The caste system presents a chronic form of ‘Division of labourers’. As highlighted by B.R.
Ambedkar, “Caste System is not merely division of labour. It is also a division of labourers.
Civilized society undoubtedly needs division of labour. But in no civilized society is division of
labour accompanied by this unnatural division of labourers into water-tight compartments”.
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• Ambedkar asserts that the caste system is a graded hierarchy of labourers assigned before birth.
The caste system operated through culture and religion in a largely agrarian and backward
society, working to disenfranchise the lower castes and classes.
• In this way, the caste system prevented a free intermingling of social groups and classes. This
graded hierarchy involved complete separateness of the concerns of different caste groups and,
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in a larger sense, the separation of the poor and the oppressed from the ruling classes and
dominant castes.
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• As an economic organization Caste is therefore a harmful institution, in as much as it involves

the subordination of man’s natural powers and inclinations to the exigencies of social rules.
• In the pernicious caste system, an individual once ascribed an occupation did not have a
favourable chance to shift his occupation. This perpetuates his condition even if he may have
ability to perform in some other job.
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• Durkheim also highlights the pathological forms of ‘Division of Labour’ which includes ‘Forced
division of labour’, such forced division corresponds to the inability of the individuals to break
out of the division of labour as it becomes structurally attached, therefore creating ‘division of
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labourers’.
• Therefore, ‘Division of labourers’ as illustrated by the caste system produces systemic inequalities.
The ‘division of labour’ promotes social solidarity by increasing mutual dependence and thus stabilises
society, whereas the ‘division of labourers’ inherently restricts freedom of work and choice, resulting
in systemic inequalities.
3. (b) Functionalist perspective outlines that every institution in the society has a
purpose. Using Merton’s concepts of manifest and latent functions, explain the
role of media in a democracy.
Approach:
• Brief introduction of latent and manifest function
• Manifest function of media
• Latent function of media
• Criticism of the concept of manifest and latent function

Hints:
In Merton’s opinion, function does not indicate purpose or goal, but rather the degree to which a
certain activity supports or interferes (function or dysfunction) with the system’s maintenance. Merton
also introduces the concepts of manifest and latent functions, as well as the distinction between two
categories of function.
• Manifest function - The intended objective of social policies, processes, or behaviours that are
purposely and deliberately intended to be beneficial to society. Schools, for example, are required
to educate students with the appropriate information and skills. The obvious functions are
recognised and regularly lauded.
• Latent functions are inadvertent functionalities that are not consciously developed. Schools, for
example, not only educate but also entertain youngsters.
Manifest and Latent function of Media
According to Functionalism, media aids in the correlation or coordination of various parts of the
social system by gathering and disseminating valuable information. Media also acts as powerful agents
of socialisation by transmitting society’s cultural heritage as well as its basic system of norms and
values.
• Manifest media functions
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– Share information - The media collects and spreads information about current events, trends,
and concerns.
–
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Television, movies, music, and other kinds of art are all types of entertainment provided by
the media.
– Public forum - The media serves as a forum for discussion and debate on a variety of issues.
It also allows people to communicate their thoughts and opinions with a larger audience
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– The media may be used to check government authority. The media has the power to examine
and report on government acts, which aids in ensuring accountability.
– The media may foster cultural cohesiveness by offering a shared set of experiences and
beliefs that individuals can share when they refer to TV shows, movies, and news items in
their daily interactions.
• Latent function of media
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– Agenda setting - the themes that come to the forefront of public attention: media executives
pick what to cover, for how long, and in what context. Noam Chomsky proposed the concept
of ‘manufactured consent,’ which discusses the role of the media in supporting state ideology.
– One function is to provide a diversion from everyday issues. This can help people forget
about their problems and concentrate on something else.
– By simply presenting one side of an issue, the media can create confirmation bias. This can
lead to people making rash judgments and, as a result, political divisiveness among the
public. E.g. violence in American election due to fake news etc.
– Ideology, beliefs, and behaviours connected with materialism and consumerism are reinforced.
– In the contemporary society to gain high TRPs media had resorted to promote sensationalism
through catchy headlines, heated debates and arguments.
Criticism of Latent and Manifest Functions
• Because latent functions are not visible and cannot be verified, this theory contradicts sociological
objectivity standards. The researcher must decide which latent function is being recognised from
the apparent function.
• Colin Campbell argues that latent function may be used to justify a wide range of societal
wrongdoings, including orthodoxy and unethical behaviour.

3. (c) Care economy propagates gender based stratification. Comment in the light of
the pandemic.
Approach:
• Introduction by defining the care economy.
• Present a sociological analysis of the care economy through relevant thinkers.
• In the care-based economy, emphasize stratification.
• Highlight the plight of the workers in the care economy during the pandemic through studies
and reports.
Hints:
Care work and care economy — a system that consists of activities and relationships involved in
meeting the physical, emotional, and psychological aspects of care — remains an integral but
undervalued component of economies all over the world.
Care work encompasses direct activities such as feeding a baby or nursing an ill partner, and indirect
care activities such as cooking and cleaning.
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Sociological analysis of care economy:
Thinkers like Parsons, Murdock highlight the biological basis of division of labour in society. In the
context of the care economy, the disproportionate number of women in the care economy portrays
that women are efficient in the ‘expressive’ roles as propounded by these thinkers.
In her novel ‘Housewife,’ Ann Oakley emphasised the cultural significance of sexual division of
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labour. Women, according to her, are assigned roles based on their beliefs. According to her, the
large number of women in the care economy has a cultural basis.
Firestone argues that women are disadvantaged because of their biology, this leads to their dependence
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and therefore unequal relationships. For the sake of liberating from this ‘sexual class system’ she
asserts for more independence of women on her reproductive rights.
Care economy and gender based stratification:
• Most of the care work done around the world is unpaid and done by women and girls, often
from marginalized groups, according to World Development Indicators from the World Bank.
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• The amount of time women spend doing unpaid care giving in comparison to men has profound
impacts on economic inequality across gender.
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• Like all care work, the demographics of domestic workers are highly gendered, analysis from the
Economic Policy Institute shows.
• Women’s unpaid work is valued at 3.1% of GDP in India. Recognizing AWWs, ANMs, ASHAs
and domestic help (amongst others), as formal sector workers would allow their economic
contribution to be counted in the GDP.
• As per a special report of ILO on care economy, it will take at least 46 years to achieve minimum
maternity leave rights in the 185 countries analyzed for the study.
• 2.5 million Anganwadi workers, Auxiliary nurse midwives and ASHA activists are not recognized
as workers or paid fixed monthly salaries in many states.
• Hence, the care economy shows a gendered stratification, women are not able to receive the
reward for their work.
The pandemic revealed deep seated impact of unpaid domestic labour as:
• According to the UN labour agency, domestic workers are the hardest hit.
• As per a research from the Central University of Tamil Nadu, the domestic workers were at
increased risk of job loss and financial insecurity during the pandemic.

• The loss in earnings due to pandemic was most severe for women in vulnerable informal work,
suggesting a high risk of extreme poverty, hunger and food insecurity in their households (Rogan
and Skinner 2020).
• Data from various countries as per UN Women indicate that more women left the workforce
than men during the pandemic.
• No or least social security measures, tough working conditions, discrimination, less bargaining
power further increased the misery of workers in the care economy.
• Protests by ASHA workers and dissatisfaction among the domestic working class was clearly
visible.
Care economy, characterised by gendered division of labour and supported by patriarchal norms
perpetuates gender inequality and neglects the contribution of women. The pandemic was a stark
reminder that this section of the workforce deserves more attention.
4. (a) Elaborate Srinivas’ view on religion and society using illustrations.
Approach:
• Briefly introduce contribution of Srinivas for society in brief
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• Then explain his perspective on society and religion—with his study of Coorgs in South India.
• His concept of dominant caste , sanskritization must be highlighted
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• His skepticism for religion, and critical analysis of it could be discussed
• Conclude by demonstrating the relevance of his views in today’s era and where he lacks.
Hints:
M. N. Srinivas is acclaimed as a doyen of modern sociology and social anthropology in India. He is
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considered to be one of the pioneering personalities in the field of Sociology in India as his work
in Rampura (later published as The Remembered Village) remains one of the early examples
of ethnography in India. This was in contrast to most of his contemporaries of the Bombay School,
who were primarily focusing on a historical methodology for conducting research (mainly, in Indology).
• M.N.Srinivas established sociology as a ‘structural functionalist’ discipline in India.
• He advocated for the field view approach rather than book view to study Indian society. He
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himself conducted an extensive field work on coorgs of southern India, which acted as a base for
his views on society and religion.
Coorgs study conducted by Srinivas:
M. N. Srinivas in his book ‘Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India’ wrote about this
study and its findings. According to that—
• Coorgs are known as the descendants of Arabs or Greeks and famous for coffee production.
They worship nature and do not have any deity like Brahmins. They live in mountainous regions
with specific language and customs.
• He observed a unique practice there which he coined as sanskritization— process by which a
‘low’ caste or tribe or other group takes over the custom, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life
of a high and, in particular, a ‘twice-born’ (dwija) caste.
• He illustrates that educated Coorgs want to identify the village gods with Shiva and they also
explain why gods start liking liquor and meat due to losing their caste when they were crossing
Malabar. He states that it must be how they want to preserve social structure using local customs
Perspective of Srinivas as an outcome of the Coorg study:
1. For society:
For Srinivas, the most significant aspect of the history of the Coorgs, was the history of this
incorporation into the Hindu social order. He thinks that the only meaningful social change is
that which takes place among the weaker sections for attaining higher status by imitating values
of twice-born. And, those of the lower castes and tribal groups, who fail in this race of imitation,
are doomed to remain backward.
2. For religion:
His sociological perspective of religion is based on religion skepticism rather than faith. His
sociology of religion is based on examining the norms, practices and faith structure according to
societal needs.
According to him, we cannot isolate religious beliefs completely from our life. Religious factors
always correlate with social norms and values. No religion is autonomous or eternal.
The critical analysis of religion through his lens is based on kinship, economics and politics factors.
He considered it to be the ‘structural bases of Hinduism’. He was not fascinated by Hinduism in
its holistic form. He looked for it in the caste system. Thus, his thesis of Indian tradi-tions runs
something like this: “Indian traditions are Hindu traditions, and Hindu traditions are found in
the caste system. Holistic Hinduism is beyond his scope of discourse.
Due to his outright views he has also come under the following criticisms.
Criticism—
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i. Many have criticized him by saying he has at times eliminated religious minorities from his
research while promoting the concept of Sanskritization.
ii. His traditions are Hinduized traditions and in no sense secular ones. The construction of
sanskritization and dominant caste put him closer to Hindutva ideology of cultural nationalism.
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Srinivas occupies an eminent place among the first-generation sociologists of India. His focus on
‘field view’ over the ‘book view’ is a remarkable step in understanding the reality of Indian society.
This reflects the sociology of nativity. His field work among the Coorgs relates his approach as
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structural-functional and represents an exposition of the complex interrelationship between ritual

and social order in Coorg society.
4. (b) History is a microscope of the past, horoscope of the present, and telescope of
the future. However, Sociology is a synthesis across time and space. Examine
the relationship between history and sociology.
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Approach:
• By quoting any thinker states the relationship between history and sociology.
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• Briefly explain history and sociology with their suitable definitions.

• Analyze the similarities or interrelations between the two disciplines.
• Delineate the differences between the two disciplines.
• Conclude with a remark which correlates the symbiotic relationship between the two but still
have different approaches.
Hints:
‘’Sociology without History is rootless and History without Sociology is fruitless.’’
Understanding history:
• History is the fact that society is located in a broad stream of events and historians try to
understand the past from within”- C.W. Mills.
• Historians stress that they are interested in reconstructing past reality by relating it to the cultural
needs of the present, in an interpretative way.
• Historians study the past but also focus on the types of societies, their structure, culture, civilization
and politics human societies had, and developed over the period of time.

Understanding Sociology:
• “Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in
order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects”- Weber
• Sociology’s subject matter is diverse; Crime, family, inequality, social change etc. Unifying the
study of these diverse subjects is sociology’s purpose of understanding how human action and
consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures.
History and sociology- Interrelations:
• Historians frequently provide the material which sociologists use. Eg- Historical sociology which
requires data that only historians can supply.
• Both the disciplines emerged from philosophy and ‘Philosophy of History’ is one of the sources
for the emergence of sociology.
• Time and space are two important factors which inherit and explain the contextual aspects of
social reality.Since, history takes care of factors such as time, it essentially helps sociologists to
study society in a much more systematic fashion. It helps sociologists in providing rationale to
articulate present status and developmental trajectory of a society.
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• It can be explained through the use of historical dimensions by Marx, Weber, Comte etc.. that
history and sociology have a closely interlinked relationship.For e.g. Weber’s study of Protestant
ethics and spirit of capitalism also uses historical analysis, Comte’s analysis of three states also
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has historical connotation.
History and sociology- Differences:
• Historians emphasize their findings as time–space localized whereas sociologists believe their
understanding transcends space-time dimension.
• Goldthorpe argues that history and sociology are not at all one. It is said that history interprets
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whereas natural science explains.

• Historians collect the concrete data and interpret it as a unique phenomenon whereas sociologists
work on hypotheses, classify and arrange data in relevant and different categories to explore
and formulate the typical propositions.
• It is said that sociologists have a craving for numbers, historians for dates and words; sociologists
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recognize ‘rules’ and ignore variations whereas historians stress on the individuals and specific.
• The most commonly recognize historical methodologies include: Paleography, diplomatic, the
study of documents, records and archives, chronology, the study of publications, epigraphy,
genealogy etc. Methodologies in sociology include survey, fieldwork, data analysis, experiment
etc. This shows divergence in methodology.
• Sociology is nomothetic, while history is idiographic’. The historian describes unique events,
while the sociologist derives generalizations.
• Many scholars called history as the concrete and descriptive science of society. History attempts
to construct a picture of the social past. On the other hand, sociology is said to be an abstract
and theoretical science of society.
History and sociology although have their own methodologies, own niche, own subject matter, their
relationship remains closely interrelated and dynamic.
4. (c) Examine Weber’s contribution towards tracing the origin of Capitalism in the
western society.
Approach:
• Introduction of capitalism
• Weber’s ideas on capitalism and religion
• Criticism of weber’s ideas
Hints:
Max Weber is a prominent social scientist who made substantial contributions to sociological theory.
He looked at the role of religion in a society characterised by the capitalistic system of production.
Capitalism is an economic system in which private firms own and control the means of production.
Typically, capitalists produce for the exchange market. Capitalism is supported through the interaction
of labour, capital, and means of production. According to Marx, society consists of the economic
foundation and the superstructure. Superstructures include religion, education, and the political system.
The economic underpinning determines the operation of many social organisations. As a result, capitalist
control is maintained through the superstructure.
Weber’s on Capitalism and Religion
• Weber considered the Protestant ethic to be one of the most essential factors in the development
of capitalism. In “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,” Weber does not deny the
importance of economic concerns in the development of rational capitalism, but he believes that
understanding the value system that allows rational capitalism to emerge is critical to
understanding why and how it emerged.
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• Weber emphasised the significance of Protestant institutions in their society’s economic change
and progress. According to Weber, in protestant countries, hard labour for the purpose of worldly
achievement is regarded God’s desire rather than a sin.
• In contrast, in eastern nations, financial wealth is viewed as a byproduct of capitalism, while
spiritual living is recognised as the most valuable. Religion in eastern nations was labelled as
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“irrational religious systems” by Weber because it served as an impediment to rationality.
• According to Weber, the primary purpose of capitalists was to amass wealth or profits. Weber
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believed that religion or the church aided the capitalist system by disseminating ruling-class
values across society. Prophets, according to Weber, utilised religion to persuade society to accept
their charismatic views.
• According to Weber, Protestantism encouraged worldly asceticism because “the ultimate kind of
moral obligation of the individual is to fulfil his duty in worldly matters.” This projecting religious
behaviour into everyday life contrasts with the Catholic ideal of the monastic life, whose goal is
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to transcend the necessities of everyday living.

• According to Weber, the Protestant ethic is a combination of devotion to disciplined work and
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gain, as well as a life of denial of pleasure and spontaneity in enjoying life. The concept of
“rational pursuit of wealth” began to permeate the thoughts of businesspeople and entrepreneurs.
• According to Weber, religion aided individuals in achieving their goals. He suggested, for example,
that magicians aided people in meeting material needs. Weber saw religion as a mechanism for
effecting social transformation and alleviating societal evils.
Criticism of Weber’s ideas
• Gouldner, Mauller, and Wallerstein disagreed with Weber’s findings. They hold colonialism
responsible for the establishment of capitalism in the West. The West, through colonies, acquired
access to large markets in Asia, Africa, and America, as well as inexpensive labour and raw
commodities. This resulted in the accumulation of riches.
• According to Peter Sombart, entrepreneurs were not exclusively Protestant Christians. Capitalists
come from a variety of backgrounds, including peasants, artisans, landlords, and so on.
• T.C.Hall contends that while the people of the Scottish highlands and hilly portions of South
America are devout Calvinists, they are destitute. It indicates that a person’s religious views do
not make him wealthy; rather, it is the result of his circumstances.

Conclusion:
Weber believes that capitalism emerged as a result of the drive to amass vast amounts of riches, as
well as technical advancements and changes in governing structures. He contended that capitalism
sprang from the Protestant ethic and saw religion as a tool of solving societal concerns.
4. (d) Anonymity offers a resolution to caste conflict. Analyze in the context of social
media platforms in urban areas.
Approach:
• Explain class conflict
• List reasons as to how anonymity in social media and urbanization reduces class conflict
• Mention the accusation of Social media platforms being casteist and discriminatory
• Conclude with status of caste system in present society
Hints:
Caste conflicts have their origin in casteism, which refers to the hatred of one caste by the other, or
the attempts made by the members of one caste to gain personal advantages to the detriment of
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interests of the other caste members.
Anonymity offers a resolution to caste conflict. With urbanisation and modern means of
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communication, secular elements have gained precedence over ritual elements. People intermix freely
on formal and informal places without caste restrictions.
Social media anonymity and caste conflict:
• Social media platforms allow masking of identifiable information of individuals which provides
freedom of expression. Sensitive issues like caste discrimination and exploitation can be highlighted
without revealing one’s identity
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• Urban areas are characterized by opacity of caste system. The division of labour is no longer on
caste lines which results in occupational diversity and flexible hierarchy. Social media platforms
provide wider reach to the workers and hence, promoting social mobility . This marks a shift
from ascriptive status to achieved status
• Anonymity of urban areas and social media fights exclusion, social injustice and inequality in
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the system. It helps in rediscovering the identity based on achievement rather than ascription
• The new agencies of socialization like mass media and modern education system generates more
acceptance towards inter-caste marriages and assimilation. They prevent it to reach extreme
forms like honor killing, ostracization etc
• Rural areas are marked by strong nexus between political system and caste. Urban areas are
governed by secularism and democracy. Lower castes can gain political power to improve their
position in stratification system
• Social media anonymity allows mobilization of people for a common cause and can initiate
social movements without risking one’s life. Many whistle blowers in the past resorted to this
technique
• Urbanisation and social media celebrates economic success and individualism which makes caste
take a back seat. The social sanctions for violating caste norms are minimal or non-existent
In the recent events, social media platforms were accused of being casteist and discriminatory. For
instance, protests broke out against Twitter over the allegations of a systematic denial of the blue tick
verification to handles belonging to the Dalit and backward communities
These developments support the view of Harold Gould in his study of rickshawallas of Lucknow. He
states that caste still exists in private life and caste identities are strong among all sections though it
appears diffused in public life.

Caste discrimination has taken new forms in the present society. The over-representation of lower
castes in menial jobs, poor health indicators like higher anaemic rates, lower life expectancy associated
with them are manifestations of caste discrimination. However, the instances of Dalit assertions are
also witnessed. The political mobilization in the form of reform movements, pressure groups are
testimony of the awakening of the Dalits for their rights
Clearly, anonymity in social media of urban areas marks a shift from hierarchy to equality, from
holism to individualism, from continuity to historicity and from transcendence to rationalism. It helps
in developing new networks among like-minded people, and changed the contours of public debate
and socio-political mobilization.
4. (e) Critically examine why the National poverty line is different for Parsis, Scheduled
castes, and the general population. Elaborate your stand using the theories of
stratification.
Hints:
Stratification refers to a situation where distinct social groups are arranged in an ordered hierarchy.
Often human societies use identifiers to determine which social group could be placed higher or
lower in the hierarchy, thereby creating various avenues for stratification. An outcome of such
stratification based on class is poverty. Poverty refers to a condition whereby individuals lack access
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to resources required for a healthy living. In India the measurement of poverty is differently arranged
for different social groups such as a Below Poverty Line for the entire population, furthermore a
distinct line for the Parsis and the scheduled castes.
At present the BPL is fixed by the government of India by the 2011 census at Rs. 33 a day in urban
areas and Rs. 27 a day in rural areas. This is the amount calculated keeping in mind the expenses for
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food education health, transport and electricity.
According to the erstwhile Planning Commission of India, the poverty line for Parsis was
conceptualized at Rs. 900 per day. However the Bombay Parsi panchayat organization that governs
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the Zoroastrian community in Bombay states that a person who earns less that 90,000 a month must
be considered as poor thereby making them eligible for cost effective housing.
Causes for Poverty:
• Population explosion is the major cause that leads to unnecessary burden on resources thereby
resulting in relative deprivation.
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• Inequitable distribution of resources due to social exclusion and stigmatization.

• The functionalist theory on stratification espoused by Davis and Moore propound the idea that
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differential allocation of resources is an effective way to ensure that those persons who contribute
to the functionality of the society should receive more resources in terms of time, status, and
material riches to compensate for the losses they incur in the process of preparation for the
functionally important roles.
• Cycle of Poverty – Oscar Lewis and Robert Redfield Can be understood as the phenomena where
individuals that are ridden with poverty tend to repeat the oppressive and cycle and remain
poor throughout their life due to reinforcement and internalization of social exclusion. This
prevents them from advocating social change and being active agents of the same.
• According to the conflict theory on stratification, the causes for impoverishment can be located
in power differential in the society. Class conflict ensures that the resource allocation happens at
the behest of the bourgeoisie at the cost of the proletariat. Raymond Aron states that
“Pauperization is the process by which the proletarians tend to grow poorer and poorer as the
forces of production are developed. Exploitation is inevitable in every mode of production until
the end of history.
Reasons for different Poverty Lines in India:
• In the Indian context, multidimensional poverty as noted by NITI Ayog indicates that there
individuals belonging to various social groups such as caste, class, religion, gender that suffer

from the intersection of multiple lines of social exclusion. In order to address the concern of
different social groups, a varied poverty line has been conceptualized.
• The state intervention in the form of affirmative action is particularly needed in a democracy to
address the concerns of the particularly vulnerable groups.
• Parsis can be considered as an ethno-religious group that is culturally and linguistically distinct
from other communities owing to the migration they undertook. While the Scheduled Castes
refer to an officially designated group that have been perceived as the most disadvantaged socio-
economic group.
The government of India professes certain welfarist measures to ensure equitable distribution of
resources across all verticals of the nation. The differential poverty line is thus a measure to bring
to pace, various social grou0ps that have been subjected to violence and discrimination in the
nation’s past.
While social stratification is an inevitable reality of the Indian society, through effective institutional
measures such as differential poverty line, the level of discrimination can be effectively gauged and
the implication of social exclusion can be tackled.
5. (a) How is the field view different from book view in the study of Indian society?
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Approach:
• Evaluate different ways to study society. Plurality of methodology.
•
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Address differences between the book view and field view, using characteristic features.
• Quote examples for both Book view—Vedas, Puranas; Field view- Sanskritization
• Crucial to mention G.S Ghurye contribution to Indology, Louis Dumont and Pocock supported
the book view.
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• Limitations of both the ways of study

• Conclude by evaluating the relevance of triangulation of methods.
Hints:
Indian society is known for its diversity and pluralism. To study Indian society “one-size-fits-all
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approach” won’t work. Hence there are multiple approaches and methodologies. The book view and
the field view are such two approaches that make the core difference between how sociologists with
these two approaches would perceive and subsequently write about society.
Difference between book view and Field view:
1. Book view
The book view in Indian sociology is one that would make a sociologist develop a picture of the
Indian society which would very much be in line with the way the Hindu scriptures and, partly,
the historical records, describe it. In other words, text view or book view refers to the study of
Indian society by interpretation of ancient texts such as Vedas, Puranas, Manusmriti, Ramayana,
Mahabharata, etc. This text-based approach is also known as Indology.
In Indian sociology, G.S. Ghurye and many other scholars have extensively contributed to the
Indological studies by interpreting ancient Indian texts.
• Ghurye demonstrated through the textual evidence, that the caste system is rooted in the
concept of purity and pollution, and provides an integrative framework in the kinship
structure. He also spoke about new castes such as Khammas and Reddys in the Andhra
region with specific reference to ‘Caste patriotism’ an elevated sense of class consciousness
and solidarity and their relevance in the political system of India.
Dumont and Pocock argue, while it may appear that classical Indology which works in a historical
perspective is too divorced from sociology’s actual temporal methods the sociologist must

familiarize himself with not merely the living language but with classical literature (Indology).
For them a sociological study of India lies at the union of Sociology and Indology.
2. Field view
According to Beteille—
“Field-view or the view from the field refers to an orientation to the experiences of people, with
their inner tensions and contradictions which one seeks to understand and interpret.”
M.N. Srinivas has made a great contribution to the post independent Indian intellectual landscape
by emphasizing on fieldwork. He conducted an extensive field study among Coorgs in South
India and revealed a unique practice there under the caste system which he termed as
sanskritization. Similarly he gave a concept of Dominant caste from another field study.
Another example is the study conducted in Kishangarhi village of Aligarh by Mckim Marriott on
social hierarchy. He found that in relation to the occupational hierarchy or ranking of castes on
the basis of purity of occupations, the placement of castes did not follow from the highness or
lowness of occupation. Thus, those castes that followed clean occupations were ranked differently;
the carpenter was higher than the gardener who was considered higher than the cultivator and
so on.
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Contradictions in both the views:
Writers like James Mill, Charles Metcalfe, viewed Indian villages as little republics and self-sufficient.
Their studies were largely based on the book view of Indian society.
But the fieldwork study conducted in 1970 found that in some parts of the country like coastal
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Kerala, Coorg highland, Gujarat and elsewhere nucleated villages do not exist. Hence, it is difficult to
consider Indian villages as little republics and self- sufficient, according to the field view.
In addition to this, both the views have their own drawbacks as well such as field view may have a
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risk of sociologist’s biases and preconceived notions on the other hand book view, according to some,
would produce a colorized view of the Indian society.
Blend of the approaches:
With all that in mind, it is better to conduct the study in society, having elements of both the approaches
for example — Prof. Dumezill’s historical analysis of Varna complements Hocart’s work on caste,
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largely based on direct observation.

Hence triangulation, which is a mixing of methods and data, is getting popularized these days. It
helps in taking the holistic understanding of the society i.e. first by reviewing the existing literature
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and then giving new insights to it with the help of field work.
5. (b) Evaluate the structural functionalist perspective on social stratification in the
society. Briefly examine the criticism by Melvin Tumin.
Approach:
• Write a brief introduction on structural functional perspective of social stratification
• Give broader outlines of theories of stratification of structural functionalists like Parsons, Davis
and Moore
• Present pros and cons of the theory by giving examples and current relevance
Hints:
Social stratification is a specific form of social inequality which involves ranking of social groups in
terms of factors like wealth, status, prestige, gratification etc
Structural Functional perspective considers social stratification as integrative force whose function is
to provide stability and order in the society. Social stratification according to them is one of the
functional prerequisites of the societal system.

Parsons theory of social stratification:
According to him, social solidarity in the society is the result of value consensus ie general agreement
of what is good and worthwhile. Hence, people performing successfully in terms of societal values
are ranked higher and receives higher reward as compared to those who conflict societal values.
Eg. Modern USA society values individual achievements and materialism, hence economic success is
desired.
Davis and Moore’s theory of stratification:
In their work Some Principles of Stratification, they observed that some form of stratification exists
in every society. Stratification performs the necessary function of effective role allocation and
performance.
According to them, every society has certain functionally important positions which require special
skills and talents. In order to match most- abled people with these positions, a system of higher
rewards and privileges is put in place.
Eg. During Covid19 pandemic, the insurance coverage and security of health workers were increased
because of their role in ensuring the survival of society.
Evaluation of the structural functional perspective:
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1. Melvin M Tumin produced a comprehensive criticism to Davis and Moore’s theory on the
following line- OR
• Many important occupations like manual scavenging, cleaning workers in the society are
not highly rewarded and have little prestige as compared to rewards of entertainers like
actors, stand-up comedians
• They ignored the influence of power in unequal distribution of rewards. For example, the
worker in coal factory has higher bargaining power as compared to farm labourer
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• He questions the assumption that special skills are required for functionally important
positions on the grounds that there is no method to measure talent and there is no proof of
exceptional talent in people holding those positions
• Tumin questions if the training required for important positions should be regarded as sacrifice
or need life-long compensation
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• Stratification acts as a barrier to motivation in the closed system. He considers it inherently

antagonistic to the development of full equality of opportunity
• Those on functionally important positions erect barrier in recruitment to those positions by
means of nepotism, favoritism or making the recruitment process harder for general public
2. In general, structure functionalists consider social stratification as inevitable feature of human
society. The institutions of caste, race, hierarchy supports the argument. However, in some modern
societies the hierarchy of social groups has been replaced by the hierarchy of individuals.
Eg. Ketanji Brown Jackson became first black female Supreme Court judge of USA- shattering
the glass ceiling in regards to gender as well as race
3. Structure functionalists believe stratification as integrative force promoting cooperation and
stability in society. As people at privileged positions are implementing the values originated from
common consensus.
Eg. CEO of multinational companies receive high remuneration because they promote employment
and innovation resulting in the larger good of the society.
However, Marxists consider stratification as divisive force leading to exploitation and creating a
class of ‘haves’ and ‘Have not’
Eg. Master and Slave, Feudal lords and serf, Capitalists and wage labourers

4. Structure Functionalists consider stratification as just and proper associating deserving candidate
to receive rewards. However, stratification seems to have created a vicious circle of poverty and
deprivation
Eg. Poor children receives poor education, landing on low payment jobs, leading a life of
deprivation. On the other hand, institutions like nepotism in politics, judiciary, entertainment
favors elite recruitment.
5. The criteria for functionally important positions are not universally applicable.
Eg. The child-bearing function of women is both unique and crucial to the survival of society,
but still the evils like domestic violence, menstrual stigma, sexual abuse exists.
With all its criticisms, structural functionalists provided a sound proposition leading to broadening of
the understanding of social stratification in different societies.
5. (c) Using AR Desai’s theory, examine the extent and impact of colonial rule on Indian
society.
Approach:
• Brief introduction about A.R. Desai approach
RE
• Changes by British government
• Impact of British rule
• Significance of Desai’s approach
Hints:
O
A.R. Desai was the pioneer Marxist in Indian sociological tradition who introduced Marxist approach
with empirical field studies. Influenced by Marx, he applied the historical dialectical approach Desai
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looked into the macro changes in Indian society like capitalism, nationalism, emergence of new classes
and changes in class structure, peasant movements etc.
Changes by British government
• In the Colonial period the new Zamindari system was introduced because of the absentee
landlords, big and small landlords, tenants, peasants, moneylenders etc. which intensified the
exploitation in rural India.
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• The colonial government introduced different centralised laws, modern education, railway,
modern industry that brought in many socio-economic changes in the urban areas in Indian
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society.
• Polity: The English passed a number of Acts that had both beneficial and harmful consequences.
The most major effect of the new legislation, however, was the establishment of British sovereignty
over the Indian mainland. The evolution of the constitution was aided by new legislation like as
the Regulating Act of 1773, the Pitts India Act of 1784, and several Charter Acts. Various
administrative reforms were also implemented, notably in the tax administration, civil services,
police, army, and judicial services.
• Society: British initiatives affecting education, language, and culture led in considerable changes
in Indian society. While constructive developments were embraced by Indian society, harsh policies
led to revolts and rebellions.
Impact of British rule
• He believes that India’s nationalism stems from the material conditions produced by British
colonialism. By promoting industrialization and modernization, the British established new
economic linkages. The economic relationship is primarily a stabilising component in the continuity
of traditional Indian institutions, which will alter as these relationships change.
• According to Desai, Britishers profoundly altered Indian society’s economic structure by building
a centralised state, commoditizing land, and codifying a pan-India legal system. This led in the
emergence of new social structures and social forces that clashed with British Imperialism and
constituted the foundation for the formation of Nationalism.
• The capital class of Britain, not any indigenous class, succeeded in replacing the feudal system
with the capitalist one. The British also ushered in new land relations and sophisticated industries,
resulting in the demise of self-sufficient village economies.
• Despite its uneven nature, industrialization had a tremendously revolutionary influence in people’s
lives. It resulted in the formation of a united national economy. It also gave rise to modern cities,
which became hubs of contemporary culture and the source of all progressive cultural movements.
• The rise of new social classes was a direct result of a new social economy, a new form of state
structure and administrative apparatus, and the dissemination of new education. They were
essentially the progeny of India’s new capitalist economic system, which arose as a result of
British occupation and the effect of the British and global economies on her. These new social
classes were aware of some shared interests, which led to the development of nationalism in the
country
Significance of Desai’s Approach
The writings of A. R. Desai demonstrate how a Marxist methodology may be used to comprehend
E
Indian social realities. The Economic Interpretation of Indian Society is discussed in The Social
Background of Indian Nationalism. Desai employs historical materialism in order to comprehend the
evolution of Indian society. He shows how national consciousness arose as a result of qualitative
OR
changes in Indian society. It should be noted that Desai has investigated the effectiveness of Marxian
framework in understanding India’s reality in all of his books.

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Sociology Q&A 2023

1. Write short notes on the following:

(b) Outline Durkheim’s theoretical approach to understand the complexity of societies

[2] Hints: Sociology

Temporary nature of work, project duration depends on ‘gigs’.

Hints: Sociology [3]

the responsibility of economic institutions.

[4] Hints: Sociology

Capitalistic mode of Production

Hints: Sociology [5]

[6] Hints: Sociology

meanings and motives that people attach with their action.

society and it later came to be known as ‘Interpretivist approach’ in sociology.

duties, values, and morals.

[8] Hints: Sociology

Hints: Sociology [9]

[10] Hints: Sociology

• As an economic organization Caste is therefore a harmful institution, in as much as it involves

Hints: Sociology [11]

[12] Hints: Sociology

Hints: Sociology [13]

structural-functional and represents an exposition of the complex interrelationship between ritual

• Briefly explain history and sociology with their suitable definitions.

Hints: Sociology [15]

whereas natural science explains.

to transcend the necessities of everyday living.

Hints: Sociology [17]

[18] Hints: Sociology

• Inequitable distribution of resources due to social exclusion and stigmatization.

Hints: Sociology [19]

• Limitations of both the ways of study

[20] Hints: Sociology

largely based on direct observation.

Hints: Sociology [21]

• Stratification acts as a barrier to motivation in the closed system. He considers it inherently

[22] Hints: Sociology

[24] Hints: Sociology

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