Data Communications

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Chapter 1: Introduction
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1-Data Communication:
 Communication:
enAeBleyIgeFVkI arTak;TgKña KWmann½yfaeyIgpþlB; t’maneTAvijeTAmk ( Sharing information ).
- Local Communication: KWCakarpþlB ; t’manenACitKña ¬b¤Tl;muxKña¦.
- Remote Communication KWCakarbBa¢a b¤ pþl; nigTTYlBt’manEdlmanTItaMgenAq¶ayBIKña. dUecñH

Remote Communication CYnkaleKehAfa Telecommunication EdlrYmman Telephone,

Telegraphy, Television ….

Data:

KWsMedAeTAelI Fact, Concept, Instruction …. EdleKGnum½tþyk nig eRbIR)as;nUvBakü (Data).

Data Communication KWCakarbþÚr Data KñaeTAvijeTAmkenAkñúgTMrg; 0S nig 1S rvag]bkrN_BrI tamry³

ExScMlg (Transmission medium).

Ex : Data Communication CaRbePT Local:
1

 Sender
( rUb1.1)
 Receiver

Local Communication

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 Data Communications

Ex2: Data Communication CaRbePT Remote:

 
Telephone Line

Sender Modem Modem Receiver

( rUb1.2)
Remote Communication

 Components:
Data Communication Systems KWbegáIteLIgedayman 5 Components KW÷ Sender, Receiver,
Medium, Protocol nig Message.
Sender: KWCa]bkrN_bBa¢nÚ Data b¤ (Message)
Receiver: KWCa]bkrN_TTYl Data b¤ (Message)

Medium: KWCaGgÁFatuExScMlgEdlCarUbFatu (Component) eFV[ I Data b¤ Message Gacqøgkat;BI

Sender eTA Receiver )an. vaCa]bkrN_RbePTrYmman³ Twisted Pair wire, Coaxial Cable,

Fiber Optic Cable, Laser or Radio Wave.

Message: KWCa Information (Data) EdlRtUv)aneFVTI Mnak;TMngKñaeTAmk. vaGacCa Text,

Number, Picture, Sound, Video….
Protocol: KWCac,ab;sRmab;RKb;RKg Data Communications Protocol eFV[ I ]bkrN_ Commu-
nication TaMgLaycuHsMrugKña. ebIKµan Protocol ]bkrN_BrI GacP¢ab;Kañ )anEtminGacTak;TgKña)an

eT.
2-Network
Network ¬KWmkBIBakü Nodes¦ vaKWCakarP¢ab;rvag]bkrN_bBa¢Ún b¤ TTYl Data eday]bkrN_
(Media Link).
-ehIy]bkrN_EdlRtUveKtP¢ab;enaHehAfa Node.
-Node GacCa Computer b¤ ]bkrN_EdlGacbBa¢Ún nig TTYl Data )an.

-Link Edl)antP¢ab;rvag]bkrN_TaMgenaHehAfa Communication Channels.

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 Data Communications

Distributed Processing:
KWCakarerobcMeLIgedayRkumvisVkr nigeFIkV arEbgEckkargarenAkñúgRbB½nb§ Nþaj Network Edl
man Computer CaeRcInRKOg.
plRbeyaCn_rbs; Distributed Processing mandUcxageRkam³
- Security / encapsulation
- Protocol and Standard

3-Protocol and Standard

3.1-Protocol
-Entity KWCaGtþsBaØaNmYyeKbegáIteLIgEdlmansmtßPaBbBa¢Ún b¤ TTYl)anBt’manRKb;RKan;
Information. EdlrYmman Application Programs, File transfer Package, browser, Database
management Systems and Electronic mail Software.
- Systems KWCa Physical object EdlmanpÞúk Entity mYyb¤eRcIn.

- Entities BIrminGacbBa¢Ún bit Stream )anPøam²enaHeT BIeRBaHvaminGacyl;)an. karTMnak;TMng

rvagKñaekItmaneLIgluHRtaEt Entities yl;RBmRsuHRsYlKñaelIGaRs½yelI Protocol.

- Protocol mansmasPaBbIsx M an;² KW Syntax, Semanties and Timing.
3.2 Standard
- manktþaCaeRcInEdlRtUvKñarvag smasPaKrbs;RbB½n§pþl;lT§PaBRsuHRsYlKñaqøgkat; Nodes TaMg
LayenAkñúg Network .
-Standard KWCakarcaM)ac;sMrab;karRbkYtRbECgenAkñúgTIpSarcMeBaH]bkrN_EdlmankarFanarab;rg

sMrab;Cati nig GnþrCatiEdlGaceRbIR)as;eTAvijeTAmk)ansMrab; Data Communication Technology and

Process.

-Data Communication Standard sßitenAelIktþarYmmYyEdleKsnµtykenAeRkamc,ab;Gegát.

-Standard mYycMnYnRtUv)anvivtþn_edaykic©shRbtibtþk i arrbs;RkumvisV½krCaeRcInRkum BYkeK)anerob

erog[manCalkçN³kMrti sþg;daeTAtambTdæan (Standard Creation Committee)man ÷
International Standard Organization (ISO)
KWCakarerobcMkMritmaRtdÐanCaxñatGnþrCati. enAkñgú smasPaBtMNaMg[RbeTsCaeRcIn)ansMrbsMrYl
rvagCati nigCatiedIm,IbþÚrTinñny½ nigkareRbIR)as;[manKuNPaBkan;Etl¥RbesIeLIg. lT§plmYyya:gl¥

3
 Data Communications

RsuRkitrbs; ISO KW)anbegátI bec©kviTüaénBt’manviTüaKW OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) sMrab;

Network Communication.

International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standard Sector (ITU-T) KWCa

ISO EdlmanTMnak;TMngeTAnwg United State nigvivtþn_ Standard sMrab; Telecommunication.

Standard manBIrRbePTEdlmanRbCaRbiyPaB)anvivtþn_edayGgÁkar ITU-T KW V-Series nig X-Series.

-X-Series man³ X-25, X-400, X-500 sMrab;bBa¢n Ú Data qøgkat; Public Digital Network
dUc E-mail, Directory Service, Intergraded Service Digital Network (ISDN).
-V-Series man³ V-32, V-33, V-42 sMrab;bBa¢n Ú Tinñny½ (Data) tamry³ Modem qøgkat;
Telephone Line.

-American National Standard Institute (ANSI): Nonprofit Organization mYyEdl

United State tMNaMg[ ISO nig ITU-T.

-Electronic Industries Association (EIA): enAkñúg Information Technology (EIA) )an

begáIt Physical Connection Interface mYyya:gc,as;las;GMBI Electronic Signal d¾RtwmRtUv

sMrab; Data Communication dUcCa÷ EIA-232–D; EIA-449; EIA-530 Edl)ankMNt;Ca
Serial Transmission rvag]bkrN_ Digitals.

-Institute Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) EdlCasmaKmn_visVkrmYy

ya:gFMelIBiPBelakeyIgenH edIm,Ivivtþn_ Standard sMrab; Computing Communication

Electrical and Electronic Engineering. CakMrt i maRtdæan (Standard) mYyya:gsMxan;sMrab;
Local Area Network EdlehAfa Object 802.

Object 802 Edl)anbegáIteLIgedaysmaKmn_mYycMnYneTotdUcxageRkam ÷

IEEE-802.1: RtUv)anvivtþn_eday IEEE Object 802 sMrab; LAN vaRKb;RKgelI Internet working

nig System management.

IEEE-802.2: vaRKb;RKgelI Local Link Control Sub Layer kñúg LAN.

IEEE-802.3: vaRKb;RKgelI MAC Sub Layer rbs; LAN edayeRbI SMAC/CD Access method

sMrab; Ethernet.
IEEE-802.4: vaRKb;dNþb;elI MAC Sub Layer sMrab; Network eRbI Bus topology.

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 Data Communications

IEEE-802.5: RKb;RKgelI MAC Sub Layer sMrab; Network eRbI Ring topology.
IEEE-802.6: vaRKb;RKgelI MAC Standard sMrab; LAN

IEEE-802.7: eRbIR)as;sMrab; Broad band Transmission enAkñúg LAN.

IEEE-802.8: eRbIR)as; Fiber Optic enAkñúg LAN

IEEE-802.9: eRbIsrM ab; Integrating Voice and Data enAkñúg LAN.

IEEE-802.11: KW Special Protocol eRbIsrM ab; Wireless LAN.

4
1-dUcemþc)anCaeKehAfa data Communication?
2-etI Data Communication System mansmasFatubn:u µanya:gGVIxHø ?
3-etI Protocol mansmasPaBb:nu µanya:g? mantYnaTIsMrab;eFVGI VIxøH?
4-etIGgÁkar International Standard organization eKbegáIteLigsRmab;eFVIGIV?

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 Data Communications

Chapter2: BASIC CONCEPT

3
mun nigBinitülkçN³Biessrbs; Data Edl)anbBa¢nÚ BI]bkrN_mYyeTA]bkrN_mYyeTot KWcaM)ac;
RtUvsÁal;GMBTI Mnak;TnM grvag Communication Device EdleFVkI arTMnak;TMngKñamandUcxageRkam ÷
- Line Configuration
- Topology
- Transmission Mode
- Categories of Network
- Inter network

1-Line Configuration
Line ConfigurationKWCameFüa)ayrbs; Communication Device BIr b¤ eRcInP¢ab;eTA Link Et
mYy Line Configuration manBIrKW Point-to-point and Multipoint.
Line Configuration

Point-to-Point Multipoint

1.1-Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point KWCakarP¢ab;ExSBIcMnucmYyeTAcMncu mYyEdleFVI;kartP¢ab; (Link) rvag]bkrN_BrI .
eKGaceRbI nig CMerIsepSg²eTotdUcCa Microwave b¤ Satellite Link k¾)anEdr.

Work Station
Link
 Work Station
Link

Mainframe
6
 Work Station
 Data Communications

 Work Station
Point-to-Point Line Configuration
 Work Station

1.2-Multipoint
Multipoint ( b¤ Multi-drop) KWman]bkrN_mYykñúgcMeNam]bkrN_CaeRcIneTotEdlGac Share
enAelI (Link) EtmYy. ]bkrN_mYycMnnY Gac Link kñúgeBlCamYyKñaKWRtUv)anEbgEckRKb;TIkEnøgkñúg Link
Configuration.

 Multipoint Line Configuration

2-Topology:

Topology

Mesh Star Tree Bus Ring

Topology KWCakartP¢ab;]bkrN_BrI b¤eRcInenAkñúg Local Area Network CamYyKña. EdlmanrUbsNæan5

ya:gKW³ Mesh, Star, Tree, Bus, nig Ring.
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 Data Communications

TMnak;TMngBIrEdlGaceFVeI TA)anKW Peer-to-Peer nig Primary-Secondary. Ring nig Mesh topology

mankargayRsYlcMeBaH Peer-to-Peer Transmission cMENkÉ Star nig Tree mankargayRsYlcMeBaH
Primary-Secondary ehIy Bus topology eRbImYyNak¾)anEdr.

2.1-Mesh topology
Mesh topology RKb;]bkrN_TaMgGs;RtUv)anP¢ab; Point-to-Point Link eTARKb;]bkrN_d¾éTeTot. dMeNIr
karrbs; Data enAkñúgbNþaj Mesh-topology KWGaceFVeI TA)antam]bkrN_Edlva)anP¢ab;. kartP¢ab;
enAkñúgbNþaj Mesh topology Edlman n ]bkrN_eyIgRtUvkarExScMnYneRcIn. rIÉ]bkrN_nmi Yy²enAelI
Network RtUvEtman n-Input nig n-Output Port .

 
 

Fully Connected Mesh topology for five devices

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 Data Communications

2.2-Star topology:
Star topology]bkrN_nmi Yy²)antP¢ab; Point-to-Point Link eq<aHeTAkan; Central Controller
EtmYyKt; (Hub). edIm,IbBa¢Ún Data BI]bkrN_mYyeTA]bkrN_mYyeTotEdlRtUvqøgkat; Controller.
ehIy]bkrN_nimYy²man Input / Output EtmYyb:ueNÑaH.

 
HUB


2.3-Tree topology:
Star topology

Tree topology KW)anERbsMrlY BI Star topology. enAkñúg Star Nodes b¤ tree Nodes KW)an Link
eTA Central (HUB) EdlCaGñkRtYtBinitü Network.
-Star Node rbs;va Link eTA Central edaypÞal;cMENkÉ Tree Node rbs;va Link eTA Central
tamry³ Hub mYyeTot nig Gac Link eTAkan; Central edaypÞal;.
-Hub Central KWCa Active Hub EdlmanpÞk ú Repeater (mantYnaTIBRgIk Signal) Hub epSg²
eTotGacCa Active Hub b¤ Passive Hub Edl Passive Hub manmuxgarsMrab;P¢ab; Node eTAkan;
Central. Tree topology KW)anERbsMrYlBI Star topology Active Hub b¤ Passive Hub

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 Data Communications

 HUB

HUB HUB HUB HUB HUB HUB

  
2.4-Bus topology
Bus topology KWCa Topology mYyEdlman Cable emmYysMrab; Link eTAkan;;]bkrN_TaMgGs;enA
kñúgRbB½n§bNþaj Network.
- Node TaMgLayRtUv)anP©ab;eTA Bus Cable edaysar Drop Link nig Tab.

- Drop Link KWCakarP¢ab;edaybMEbkExñgBI]bkrN_eTAExSem (Main Cable).

- Tab KWCak,aldMN (Connector) EdlP©ab;eTAExSem.

- Signal Edl)anqøgkat;ExSemenHfamBlrbs;vamYycMnYn)ankøayeTAfamBlkMedAEdlCaehtu

eFV[I vacuHexSay.
- ktþaEdleFVI[famBlmYycMnYnkøayeTACafamBlkMedAenHekIneLIg KWvaGaRs½yeTAnwgcMnYnry³

eBl nig cMgayrbs;]bkrN_Edl)aneRbIR)as;.

2.5-Ring topology
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 Data Communications

Ring topology KWCaRbePT Topology mYyEdlExSbBa¢Ún Data rbs;vamanTMrg;CaExSbiT (Closed

Loop) RKb; Station TaMgGs;RtUv)antP¢ab;EdlmanlkçN³ Loop b¤ Ring.

-Data eFVdI eM NIrtambeNþayExS Ring RtUv)anqøgkat;BI Node mYyeTA Node mYyeTotkñúgTisedA

EtmYyKt;rhUtdl;TtI aMgrbs;va.
-]bkrN_nm i Yy²enAkñúgRbB½n§ Ring KWCaskmµPaB (Repeater) mYymann½yfa]bkrN_nmi Yy²)an
TTYl Signal rYcehIybBa¢Ún Signal enaHtambeNþayExSem (Repeater).

  
 
Ring topology

 
3-Transmission Mode:
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 Data Communications

Transmission Mode

Simplex Half-duplex Full-duplex

Baküfa Transmission Mode KWsMedAeTAelITisedAéndMeNIrkarrbs; Data EdlRtUvmanlMhrU

eTAmkrvag]bkrN_BIr.
3.1-Simplex Mode:
Simplex Mode KWCa Communication EdlmaneKalkarN_EtmYyKt;énkarbBa¢ÚnTinñn½y (Data)
mann½yfakñúgcMeNam]bkrN_BIr KWman]bkrN_mYyCaGñkbBa¢nÚ ehIy]bkrN_mYyeTotCaGñkTTYlTinñn½y.

Mainframe
Direction of Data

 Monitor

3.2-Half-duplex Mode
Half-duplex Mode ]bkrN_nmi Yy²GacbBa¢nÚ nigTTYl Data )anb:uEnþenAkñúgry³eBlxusKña. man
n½yfaenAeBlEdl]bkrN_mYybBa¢Ún]bkrN_mYyeTotCaGñkTTYl nigRcasmkvij.
Ex: I Com Radio KWCaRbB½n§ Half-duplex

 Direction of Data at time 1

Direction of Data at time 2 

3.3-Full-duplex Mode
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 Data Communications

Full-duplex ( b¤ehAfa duplex) ]bkrN_nmi Yy²GacbBa¢Ún nigTTYl Data kñúgeBlCamYyKña.

- Full-duplex mode Signal eFVd I eM NIrkñúgTisedANamYyedIm,IEcksmtßPaB Link. EdlkarEck
enHGacmankñúgmeFüa)ayBIrKW³
- RtUvmanExScMlgBIrdac;BIKña KWmYysMrab;bBa¢Ún nigmYysMrab;TTYl.

- smtßPaBrbs; Channel EdlGacEbgEckrvag Signal RtUv)anqøgkat;kg ñú TisedApÞúyKña.


4-Categories of Network:
Direction of Data of the same time

bc©úb,nñenHebIniyayGMBI Network KWman Categories bIya:gKW ÷
- Local Area Network (LAN)

- Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

- Wide Area Network (WAN)

Network

LAN MAN WAN

CategorynimYy²rbs;RbB½n§bNþaj Network KWmankarkMNt;ThM Mrbs;vac,as;las; vaGacRKb;RKgelIry³

cm¶ayEdl)ankMNt;Tuk ebIry³cm¶ayelIsBIkarkMNt;enHvaminGacRKb;RKg)aneT.
4.1-Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN GacCa Personal Computer BIrnig Printer Edl)anP¢ab;enAkñgú kariyal½ymYyeTAkariya-
l½ymYy b¤BITItaMgmYyeTATItaMgmYyeTot GacBRgIkrhUtdl;Rkumh‘unEdlTMhMrbs; LAN KWmanEdnkMNt;
rhUtdl;eRcIn Km.

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 Data Communications

- LAN RtUv)anEckcay]bkrN_ b¤FnFanrvag Work Station Edl]bkrN_ b¤FnFanenaHrYmman

Hardware nig Software.

- Software Gac Stored enAelI Central Server mYyehIykareRbIR)as;RtUv)anEckcayeTAelI

Work Station TaMgmUl.

- enAkñúg LAN RtUv)ankMNt;eday License edIm,IkN M t;cMnnY rbs;GñkeRbIR)as; (Users) ehIyGac

eRbIR)as;nUvRKb;RbB½n§RbtibtþikarEdleK)antemøgI (Access The Operating Systems).
- ebIcg;bEnßmTMhs M mtßPaBrbs; LAN RtUvdwgBIlkçN³Biessrbs;RbB½nb§ Nþaj Network dUcCa
Transmission Media nig Topology.

4.2-Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

Metropolitan Area Network KWbegáIteLIgsMrab;BRgIksmtßPaB nigTMhMkargarenAelITtI aMgNa
mYy b¤TRI kugTaMgmUl. vaCaRbePTbNþaj Network manlkçN³CabNþajTUrTsSn_ExSkabmann½yfaCa
RbB½nb§ Nþaj Network EdlP¢ab;BI LAN mYyeTA LAN mYy b¤eRcIneTot.


      
   
Single Building L A N

  

   
Multiple Building L A N



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 Data Communications

Ex: Rkumh‘unmYyeRbI MAN edIm,IP¢ab; LAN enAkñúgkariyal½yrbs;xnøÜ edayqøgkat;TIRkug.

   
  

  
Pubic city
Network


MAN GacRKb;RKgkan;kab;edayxøÜnÉg b¤Gnuvtþn_pÞal;edayRkumh‘unÉkCn (Private Company)
b¤vaGacCa Service pþl;eday Public Company dUcCa Local Telephone Company. manRkumh‘un
TUrs½BÞCaeRcInEdlpþl;esva Service ehAfa Switched Multi-megabit Data Service (SMDS).
4.3-Wide Area Network (WAN):
Wide Area Network sMrab;bBa¢nÚ RKb;Tinñn½ymanry³cMgayq¶aydUcCa³ Data, Voice, Image nig Video
Information eTAelIPUmisaRsþd¾FMdUcCaRbeTs/ TVIb b¤BiPBelakTaMgmUl nig ckávaL. WAN eRbI Public,

Leased b¤ Device edayminKitBIry³cm¶aysMrab;Tak;Tg.

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 Data Communications

 
 
  
 
4.4-Inter networks
ebI Network BIr b¤eRcInRtUv)anP¢ab;KñavanwgkøayeTACa Internet b¤ (Intranet).
- R: tMNaMg[ Routers

-Network: EdlenAq¶ayBIKña ehIyRtUv)aneKtP¢ab;Kñaeday]bkrN_ Internetworking ehAfa Inter

network.

- Intranet: KWCaBaküsMrab;eRbIcMeBaHkartP¢ab;Kañ rvag Network.

- Internet: KWCaBaküsMrab;eRbIcMeBaH World wide Network.

LAN R LAN

R R

LAN R WAN R LAN

R R

LAN R MAN

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 Data Communications

1- etI Communication Device mansmasPaBb:unaµ nya:gGVxI øH?

2- etI Category of Network manb:nu µanRbePTGVIxHø ?
3- etIRbePT Transmission Mode manb:unµanRbePTGVxI øH?
4- etI Topology manb:unµanRbePTGVxI øH?
5- etI Peer to peer nig Primary Secondary eRbIsMrab;RbePT Topology GVxI øH?
6- etIskmµPaBrbs; Hub manb:unaµ nRbePT? RbePTnImYy²mantYnaTIsRmab;eFVIxøH?
7- enAeBltemøgI bNþaj Network eKRtUvsikSaGMBIGVIxHø ?
8- etIkartemøIg Line Configuration manbu:nµanRbePTGVxI øH? cUrBnül;tamRbePTnImYy²

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 Data Communications

Chapter3: THE OSI MODEL

3
enAkñúgqñaM 1947 (ISO) International Standard Organization )anbegáIteLIgnUvkic©RBmeRBogrvag
Catisasn_CaeRcInenAelIBPi BelakGMBI ISO enH.
-ISO RtUv)anRKbdNþb;eTAelIRbB½n§bec©kviTüa (Communication Network) KWCa (OSI): Open

Systems Interconnection.

-OSI Model KWCaQutmYyén Protocol EdlGnuBaØati[RbB½n§BIrxusKñaeFVk I arTak;TgKña)anedaymin

KitBIedImkMeNItén Architecture.
-eKalbMNgén OSI Model KWebIkkarTak;TgrvagRbB½n§BIrxusKñaedayminRtUvkarbþÚr Logic énedIm

kMeNIt Hardware nig Software enaHeT.

OSI Model manTMrg; Layer dUcxageRkam ÷

Application Layer 7
Presentation Layer 6
Higher Layer
Session Layer 5
Transport Layer 4
Network Layer 3
Data Link Layer 2 Lower Layer
Physical Layer 1

1-The Model:
OSI Model: KWCaRsTab;Edl)aneRKagsMrab;sg;RbB½n§ Network ehIyGnuBaØat[eFVIkarTak;Tgqøg
kat;RbB½n§ Computer RKb;RbePT. OSI Model manR)aMBrI RsTab;dac;edayELkBIKña b:uEnþRsTab;nimYy²
manTMnak;TMngKñaya:gCitsñiT§eTARsTab;TaMgR)aMBrI rbs; OSI.
1.1-Layer Architecture:
- OSI Model RtUv)ansg;eLIgCaR)aMBIrRsTab;KW ÷
+ Physical Layer: RsTab;TI1
+ Data Link Layer: RsTab;TI2
+ Network Layer: RsTab;TI3
+ Transport Layer: RsTab;TI4
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 Data Communications

+ Session Layer: RsTab;TI5

+ Presentation Layer: RsTab;TI6
+ Application Layer: RsTab;TI7
-RsTab;TaMgR)aMBIrenHeFVkI arTak;TgKñaenAeBlEdleyIgbBa¢nÚ Message BI]bkrN_ A eTA]bkrN_ B
- Message pøas;TB I I A eTA B KWRtUvqøgkat;cenøaHén]bkrN_ (Intermediate Node).
-sar³sMxan;én OSI Model KWGacsRmbsRmYlya:gTUlMTUlayehIyGnuBaØat[bMeBjnUvkarbBa¢Ún Data
rvagRbB½nx§ usKñaNamYy)an.
CaTUeTARsTab;nimYy²enARtg;]bkrN_bBa¢Ún)anbEnßmBt’manpÞal;xÜønrbs;vaelI Message Edlva
)anTTYlBIRsTab;xagelI ehIybBa¢nÚ bnþeTARsTab;eRkameTot cMeBaHB½t’manEdl)anbEnßmenHmanTRmg;Ca
Header b¤ Trailer.

-Header nig Trailer CaGñkRtYtBinitü Data BIcMnc u cab;epþmI dl;cMnucbBa©b;én Data.

-Header RtUv)anbEnßmeTAelI Data Rtg;RsTab;TI 6, 5, 4, 3 nigTI 2.

-Trailer RtUv)anbEnßmeTAelI Data enARtg;RsTab;TI 2.

Header nig Trailer CaGñkRtYtBinitü Data BIcMnc u cab;epþImdl;cMnucbBa©bé; n Data

1.2-Interface Between Layer
-kareFVIdeM NIrén Data nig Network Information qøgkat;cuHtamRsTab;énkarbBa¢Únrbs;ma:sIunehIy
RtLb;mkvijqøgkat;eLIgtamRsTab;énkarTTYlrbs;ma:snIu vij.
-KWeFV)I ansMerceday Interface rvagKUénRsTab;EdlenACab;KñaehIy Interface nimYy²kMNt; Infor-
mation nig Service EdlRsTab;mYyRtUvEtpþl;sMrab;RsTab;xagelIva.

1.3-Organization of Layer
Layers TaMgR)aMBIrGacEckecjCaRkumtUc²bIKW ÷
RkumTI1³ manRsTab; Physical 1, Data Link 2 nig Network 3 EdlCaRsTab;sMrab;RTRTg; Network. BYk
vaRtUv)anTak;Tgeday Physical aspect sMrab;bMlas;TI Data BI]bkrN_mYyeTA]bkrN_mYyeTotdUcCa
Electrical Specification, Physical Connections, Physical Addressing, Transport Timing and
.
Reliability

19
 Data Communications

RkumTI2³ manRsTab;T4I KWCaRsTab; Transport Layer sMrab; Link RkumTaMgBIr[)anRtwmRtUv nigc,as;las;

dUcCa Lower Layer )anbBa©Únkñgú TMrg;mYyEdl Upper Layer GaceFVI)an.
RkumTI3³ manRsTab; Sessions5, Presentation6 nig Application7 CaRsTab;srM ab;pÁt;pÁg;dl;GñkeRbIR)as;.
BYkvamansmtßPaBGnuBaØati[dMeNIrkar)anrvagRbB½nE§ pñkTn; (Software System) RbB½n§Epñkrwg (Hard ware
System).

-Upper Layer KWCa]bkrN_skmµenAkñúg Software.

-Lower Layer KWCakic©shkarrYmbBa©ÚlKñarvag Hardware nig Software. nig Physical Layer Ca
Hardware.

 L 7 Data
 L 7 Data
L 6 Data H6 L 6 Data H6

L 5 Data H5 L 5 Data H5

L 4 Data H4 L 4 Data H4

L 3 Data H3 L 3 Data H3

T2 L 2 Data H2 T2 L 2 Data H2

1010000000110011101000001101010 101010000000110011101000001101010

Transmission medium
An exchange the O S I Model
-Functions of Layers:
2.1-Physical Layer:
From Data Link Layer To Data Link Layer
L2 Data L2 Data

110101001101 110101001101

20
 Data Communications

Physical Layer KWCaGñksMrbsMrYlkñúgkarbBa¢nÚ Bit qøgkat;rUbFatucMlgEdlTak;TgCamYylkçN³

clnaemkanic nig crnþGKÁisnIénkartP¢ab;CamYy Cable Connector ehIykarpþl; Signal GaceRCIserIstam
ry³rUbFatu Link rvag]bkrN_BrI EdlenAelI Network EtmYy. b:uEnþebIRtUvbBa¢ÚnTinñn½yqøgkat;RbeTs b¤
ry³cMgayCit b¤ q¶ay KWvaRtUvkarpøas;bþÚrBITMrg; Bit eTACaTMrg; Electro magnetic Signal rYcehIy)anbBa¢Ún
Tinñn½yecjBI Sender.
Physical Layer ¬RsTab;TI1¦ TTYlyk Data BIRsTab;TI2ehIydak;vacUleTAkñúgTMrg;mYyGacman

smtßPaBcab;epþImnaMykeTA)aneday Communication Link.

eyIgGaceXIjkarERbRbYlén Bit [eTACa Electromagnetic Signal rYcehIybBa¢Únqøgkat;cUleTAkñúg
ExScMlgdUcrUbxagelI. karbgðaj[eXIjBIkic©karya:gsamBaØenHtRmUv[eyIgBicarNaelIcMnucsMxan;²mYy
cMnYndUcxageRkam÷
1-Link Configuration: etIGac[]bkrN_BrI b¤eRcIn Link Physical )anya:gdUcemþc? etIExSsMrab;
bBa¢ÚnTaMgenaHGacEbgEck b¤manEdnkMnt;rvag]bkrN_BIrya:gdUcemþc? etIExSsMrab;bBa¢nÚ TaMg
enaHGacrk)anEdrb¤ eT ?.
2-Data Transmission mode: karbBa¢n Ú rbs;vahUrtampøÚvEdlmanTismYy b¤pøÚvEdlmanTisBIrrvag
]bkrN_BrI Edl)anP¢ab;Kañ ? b¤vamandMeNIrqøas;Kña?
3-Topology: ]brkN_ Network TaMgenaHRtUv)anerobcMrebobNa? BYkvabBa¢n Ú Data eTA]bkrN_
nimYy²edaypÞal;RtUvqøgkat; Intermedia? b¤tampøvÚ Na?
4-etI Signal: RbePTNaRtUvykmkeRbIsrM ab;bBa¢n Ú Bt’man?
5-Encoding: etI Bit (0S nig 1S) tagedayRbB½n§pþl;sBaØarebobNa? etI Data tMNag[ Signal

ya:gdUcemþc?
6-Interface: etIB½tm
’ anGVxI øHEdlcgRkgeLIgrvag]brkN_BIrGaceFVTI nM ak;TMngKña)an. etImanmeFüa
)ayNamYyEdlmanRbsiT§iPaBCageKedIm,IeFVITMnak;TMng Information enaH.
7-Medium: etIman Physical Environment sMrab;bBa¢Ún Data b¤eT?.

21
 Data Communications

2.2-Data Link Layer

From Network Layer To Network Layer

L3 Data L3 Data

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

T2 H2 T2 H2

11010100 11010100

To Physical Layer From Physical Layer

Data Link Layer KWTTYlbnÞúknaM Data unit eTA nignaM Data unit RtLb;mkvijBI Work Station mYy
eTA Work Station mYyeTotedayKµanPaB Error ekIteLIgkñúgeBlbBa¢nÚ Tinñny½ .
vaTTYl Data unit BIRsTab;TI3 edaybEnßmGtßny½ eBjeljeTAelIcMncu cab;epþmI (Header) nigcMnuc
bBa©b; (Trailer) EdlmanpÞúk Address nig Control Information. Data unit Edl)anbEnßm Information dUc
xagelIehAfa Frame. Header nig Trailer RtUv)anbEnßmedayma:sunI bBa¢ÚnehIyRtUv)anbkERb nigRtYt
Binti üedayma:sIunTTYl. enAkñúgkarbEnßmenH Data Link Layer TTYlbnÞúksMrab; Flow Control and Error
Detection.

Protocol enAkñúgRsTab;enHmankMritya:gRtwmRtUvcMeBaHma:sn Iu bBa¢ÚnedIm,IEfrkSakarbBa¢Ún nigEktRmUv

PaB Error enAkñúgeBlbBa¢nÚ Data.
cMeBaH Header nig Trailer k¾CaGñknaMyknUvB½t_mansþIGBM I Synchronization (1Bit Stop&1Bit Start)
Sequencing (elxlMdab;rbs; Frame EdltMNag[karbBa¢Ún Data TaMgmUl) nig Frame Edlmkdl;cug

eRkayKµanPaB Error ekIteLIg.

-Data Link Layer TTYlbnÞúkdUcxageRkam÷
Node-to-Node delivery: Data Link Layer KWemIlkarxusRtUv nigTTYlbnÞúknaMeTA nignaMRtLb;

mkvijsMrab; Node-to-Node.

22
 Data Communications

Addressing: Header nig Trailer RtUv)anbEnßmeTAelIRsTab;TaMgenHrYmTaMg Physical address

rbs; Node fµI² CaeRcInnig Node Edl)aneRKagTukCabnþbnÞab;.
Access Control: enAeBlEdlmanma:sIunBIr b¤ eRcIn)anP¢ab;eTA Link EtmYy Data Link Layer

Protocol mansar³sMxan;Nas;cMeBaHkarRtYtBinitüenAeBlEdlkMBugkat;qøgkat;ExSeTA nigma:sIun

kñúgeBlNamYy.
Flow Control: edIm,IbeBa©ósma:sIunTTYlEdlmanPaBelIslb;enaH Data Link Layer )andak;

kMritkñúgcMeNam Data EdlGacbBa¢nÚ )an. va)anbEnßmelxsMKal;eTAelI Node EdlGaceFVkI ar

TTYl)anedIm,IRtYtBinitüelIkarbBa¢arbs; Frame.
Error Handling: Data Link Layer sMrab;eFVI[ Data manPaBRbRktIeLIgvijEdlman Frame

TaMgmUleFVkI arbBa¢nÚ .
Synchronization: Header manpÞúk Bit sMrab;R)ab;ma:sn Iu TTYl[)andwgCamunfa Frame kMBug
eFVdI eM NIrmkehIy. kñúgkarbEnßm Bit )anpþl;nUvKMrUmYyGnuBaØati[ma:sIunTTYleFVI Synchronize
eTAelI Timing rbs;vacMeBaHkarbBa¢nÚ Bits TaMgenaH ¬edIm,I[dwgBIry³eBlén Bit nimYy²¦.
Trailer manpÞúk Bit sMrab; Error Control nigkMnt;fa Frame manTIbBa©b;.

   
10 15 17 22

T2 Data 10 22

Trailer Source address Destination address

Rtg;ma:sIunEdlman Physical address10 bBa¢nÚ Frames eTA[ma:sIunEdlman Physical address 22. Edl
ma:suInTaMgenHP¢ab;eTA Link EtmYy. enAkñúg Data Link rbs; Frames enHmanpÞúk Physical address.
- enAkñúg Header ¬RtUv)anpÞúkEt Address EdlRtUvkar¦.
- enAkñúg Trailer manpÞúk Bits elIsEdlCatRmUvkarsMrab;rkPaB Error.

23
 Data Communications

2.3-Network Layer:
From Transport Layer To Transport Layer

L4 Data L4 Data

Network Network
Layer Layer

H3 H3

H3 H3

To Data Link Layer From Data Link Layer

Network Layer TTYlbnÞúknaM Packet BIRbPBedImeTAkan;eKaledAedayqøgkat; Network Link Ca
eRcInedayeCaKC½y nigmanRbsiTP§i aBx<s;.
edIm,IbegátI karnaMeTA nignaMRtLb;mkvijBIcMnuccab;epþImeTAcMncu bBa©b; Network Layer pþl; Service BIrEdl
Tak;TgKñaKW Switching nig Routing ÷ Data Link Address mYysßti enAelI Node EdlkMBugQr
 Switching: KWCakarP¢ab;CabeNþaHGasnñrvag Physical Link.

Routing:mann½yfaeRCIserIspøÚvya:gl¥sMrab;bBa¢Ún Packet BIcMnc u mYyeTAcMnucmYyeTotenAeBl

EdlmanpøÚvelIsBImYy.
Switching nig Routing tRmUv[mankarbEnßmCacaM)ac;nvU Header EdlkñúgenaHman Address

RbPB nig Address eKaledArbs; Packet.

lkçN³Biessrbs; Network Layer rYmman Address TaMgenaHxusBI Physical Address )anbBa©l Ú
eTAkñúg Data Link Header.
eyIgcg;bBa¢Ún Data BI Node mYyEdlman Network Address A and Physical Address 10 sßitenA
elI LAN mYyeq<aHeTAkan; Node mYyeTotEdlman Network Address P nigPhysical Address 95 sßitenA
elI LAN mYyepSg²eTot. Packet enARtg; Network Layer manpÞúk Network Address BIRbPB nigtRmg;
eTAeKaledAEdlRtUvbBa¢nÚ eTA edaymineFVkI arpøas;bþÚrenAeBlEdlpøas;TIqøgkat; Network mYyeTA Network
24
 Data Communications

mYyepSg²eTot. b:uEnþ Physical Address RtUv)anERbRbYlenAEdleBl Packet pøas;TBI I Network mYyeTA

Network mYyepSgeTot.

2.4-Transport Layer:
From Session Layer To Session Layer

L5 Data L5 Data

H4 H4 H4 H4 H4 H4

Transport Layer Transport Layer

L4 Data L4 Data

L4 Data L4 Data

L4 Data L4 Data

To Transport Layer From Transport Layer

Transport Layer TTYlbnÞúksMrab;naM Message eTAeKaledA nignaMmkRbPBvij Source-to-Destination

(end-to-end). müa:geTot Transport Layer erobcM Message TaMgeTA nigmkedayKµanPaB)at;bg;ehIysßt i
enAeRkamkarRtYtBinti üBI Error Control and Flow Control enARtg; Source-to-Destination Level.
karnaMeTA b¤naMmkvij Source-to-Destination mann½yfakarnaMeTA b¤naMmkminEmnmanEt Computer
mYyeTA Computer mYyb:ueNÑaHeT. vaGacbNþalmkBI Specific Application Computer NamYyeTA
Specific Application Computer CaeRcIneTot.

dUcenH Transport Layer Header rYmmanTaMgRbePT Address ehAfa Service-Point address

(b¤ehAmüa:geTotfa Port address b¤ Socket address) RsTab;enHGacTTYl)an Message BIRsTab;x<s;b:uEnþ

minGacpþl; Message eTARsTab;xageRkam)aneT eRBaHfaRsTab;eRkamKµansmtßPaBTTYlyk Message

TaMgmUl)aneT.

25
 Data Communications

dUcenH Transport Layer RtUvEbgEck Segment TaMgenHCa Packets edIm,Ipþl;[ Network Layer.
enAkñúg Header manpÞúk Sequent or sequestration numbers port address.
Transport Layer mantYnaTIdUcxageRkam÷
End-to-end message delivery: RtYtBinitükarbBa¢ÚneTAnigkarmkdl;TaMgGs;én Packet rbs;
Segment enARtg; Destination Point.

Port address (Service Point): RtUv)anFanakarnaM Message eTA nigRtLb;mkdl; Application

elI Computer mYykMBugEtRbtibtþikar Multiple applications.
Segmentation and Reassembly: CaGñkEbgEck Message [eTACa Segment GacbBa¢Ún)an
ehIybegátI Ca Sequence number enAelI Segment nimYy². elxlMdab;TaMgenaHGac Transport
Layer to Reassemble The message ya:gRtwmRtUvRtg; Destination ehIyCMnYsmkvijnUv Packet

Edl)at;bg;kñúgkarbBa¢nÚ .
Connection Control: RtYtBinitü nig karbBa¢Ún Packet tampøvÚ NamYy.

Example:

 Data J K Transport Layer

 Data J K

H3 Data 2 J K AP H3 Data 2 J K A
Network Layer P

H3 Data 1 J K A
P H3 Data 1 J K AP

T2 Data 2 J K A P H2 Data Link Layer T2 Data 2 J K A P H2

T2 Data 1 J K A P H2 T2 Data 1 J K A P H2

Physical Layer

26
 Data Communications

enAkñúg Example Transport Layer Data mkBIRsTab;xagelImanP¢ab; Port address J and K.

Edl J: Ca Address rbs; Receiving Application. ehIyRtg;RsTab; Transport Layer manTMhM Data
FMCagRsTab; Network Layer EdlvaminGacTTYl Data )an dUcenH Data RtUv)anEck Packet CaBIr bnÞab;
mk Packet nimYy² k¾)anpÞkú Tinñn½yBI Port address J and K.
bnÞab;mkenAkñgú Network Layer man Network address A and P bEnßmelI Packet nimYy².
Packet GaceFVd I eM NIrelIpøÚvepSg²Kña b:uEnþeTAdl;eKaledARtg;RsTab; Transport Layer rbs;ma:sInu Edl
)anTTYldUcKñarYcehIybBa¢nÚ Packet TaMgBIrpþl;eTA[RsTab;xagelI.
2.5-Session Layer
Session Layer KWCa Network dialog Control vamansmtßPaB Maintenance nig Synchronize rvag
]bkrN_ Communication. vaGaceFVI)anya:gRtwmRtUvcMeBaH Session nimYy²RbsinebI User biTma:sIuntam
lMdab;lMeday. Session Layer eFV[I mankarTMnak;TMngrvag User.

From Presentation Layer To Presentation Layer

L 6 Data L 6 Data

Session Session
H5 Layer H5
Layer
Syn Syn Syn Syn Syn Syn

L 5 Data L 5 Data

To Transport Layer From Transport Layer

Data Unit enARtg;RsTab;enHGacnaMyklkçN³sMKal;rbs; Host [dwgnUvkartP¢ab;rmY bBa¢lÚ TaMg

Password nig Log-in edIm,IeFVk I arbBa¢ak;. enHCasar³sMxan;enAeBlNaEdlRbB½n§TaMgenHGnuBaØati[
Remote Access to file.

Session Layer RtYtBinitükarbþÚr Data eTAvijeTAmk eTaHCakarbþÚrenaHekIteLIgkñúgTisedATaMgBIr b¤

TisedAEtmYyenAeBlCamYyKñak¾eday.
27
 Data Communications

Header rbs;RsTab;enHrYmTaMg Control information KWCaRbePT Data Unit cab;epþImbBa¢Ún nig

Synchronization Point information.

tYnaTIrbs; Session Layer:

-eFV[I man Logical Connection begáItenAelI End User ebI User cg;bBa¢nÚ File Session Layer nwg
pþl;Bt_manGMBITItaMgrbs; File EdlRtUvbgðajenAelI Remote Computer.
 Session Layer KWCa Network Dialog Control KWCaGñk Main tenant and Synchronization rvag

Communication Equipment.

 Session Layer Eck Session Ca Sub-Session edayeRbI Check Point s‘kcUleTAExS Data

edIm,IsMKal;lkçN³rbs; Host, kartP¢ab,; Password nig Log-in.

-Session management: Eck Session Ca Sub-session nigeFVIkarEbgEck Message Evg[eTA

CaEpñkxøI²ehAfa Dialog unit sMrab;bBa¢Ún.

-Synchronization: RtYtBint i ükarbBa¢nÚ Dialog unit eTA Transport Layer EdlenAkñúgkarbBa¢nÚ
RtUv)anbBa¢ak;BI]bkrN_TTYl.
-Dialog Control: RtYtBinitüya:geBjeljeTAelI Data nig time

-Graceful Close: RtYtBinitüya:gRtwmRtUvnUvkarpøas;bþÚreTAvijeTAmkmuneBlEdl Session biT.

2.6-Presentation Layer:
From Application Layer To Application Layer

L7 Data L7 Data

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer
Encoded-Decoded and Encoded-Decoded and
Compressed Data H6 H6
Compressed Data

L6 Data L6 Data

To Session Layer From Session Layer

28
 Data Communications

Presentation Layer mantYnaTIeFVI[)anRtwmRtUvrvag Communicating Equipment.

vaeFVI[ Computer BIrEdlman Character Code xusKñaehIyGaceFVIkarTak;Tg;Kña)an.
pþl;karbkERbya:gsMxan;sMrab; Control Code epSgKñadUc Character Set, Character Graphics
EdleFV[I Computer b¤]bkrN_BIrGacyl;BIkarbBa¢ÚndUcKña.
Presentation-Layer: mantYnaTIsMrab; Encryption and Decryption Data kñúgeKalbMNgrkSa
suvtþPi aB Data [manRbsiTP§i aB.
Header: )anbEnßmelIRsTab;enHRBmTaMgBa¢ak;nUv)a:ra:Em:Rt nigRbEvgénkarbBa¢ÚnTinñn½y.
 Translation: KWCakarpøas;bþÚrTMrg;rbs; Message Edl)aneRbIR)as;eday]bkrN_bBa¢ÚnehIy

RtUv)anTTYlsÁal; nig yl;RBmBI]bkrN_TTYl.

 Encryption and Decryption Data: KWedIm,IrkSakarsm¶at;

 Compression and Decompression Data: KWeFV[ I manRbsiT§iPaBkñúgkarbBa¢Ún Data.

 Security: KWbBa¢ak;BI Password and Log-in Ca Code BitR)akd.

2.7 Application Layer:

Application Layer Gac[ User eFVkI ar)anenAkñgú Network Application Layer manpÞúk Applica-
tion entities sMrab;RtYtBinitü Application Processes ehAfa Application Layer entities.

 Application Layer pþl;GtßRbeyaCn_sMrab; User dUcCa³ E-mail, Remote File Access, Transfer ,

Shared Database, management. vaman Application Service dUcKña÷

X- 400 (ITU-T Standard for E-mail Message handing)
X- 500 (Directory Service)
FTAM (File Transfer and access management)

User User

Application Application
Layer X-500 FTAM X-400 Layer X-500 FTAM X-400

L7 Data L7 Data

29
 Data Communications

To Presentation Layer From Presentation Layer

Application Layer mantYnaTIdUcxageRkam ÷

-Remote Computer access file cUleTAkñúg Host edIm,IGan Data
-Retrieve File edIm,Irk File enAkñúg Remote Computer, Local Computer nigRKb;RKg Remote
Computer.

-Mail Service: sMrab; E-mail (GacbBa¢Ún b¤ sþúk) Directory Service Eckcay nig Access
Information elIBiPBelak.

-Directory Service: EbgEck Database nigpþl; Information elIBPi Belak.

30
 Data Communications

Chapter4: THE SIGNALS

6
eyIg)andwgehIyfaenAkñgú Information
GacCa Picture, Voice, Image, Numeric, Data, Character,

Sound….

enAkñúg Information Transfer eyIgminGacbBa¢Ún Information TaMgenaH[qøgkat; Network )aneT .

mann½yfaenAkñúg Information Transfer eyIgRtUv)aneRbIR)as; Signal BIrRbePTKW ÷
 Analog Signal KWCaRbePT Electromagnetic Signal
 Digital Signal KWCaRbePT Code Signal (Numeric Signal)

1-Analog and Digital Signal:

1.1-Analog Signal

Picture, Voice, Sound

Encode
Character, Numeric……….

Analog Signal formation Analog Signal

Analog Signal EckecjCa ÷

- Simple analog Signal KW Sine Wave
- Complex analog Signal KWCa Multiple Sine Wave
 Simple analog Signal:
KWCa Signal EdlmanTMrg;ExSekagbegátI )anCarMeyalesµI²KñaénxYbnimYy².
 Simple analog Signal (or Sine Wave) manlkçN³sMxan;²bIKW Amplitude, Period(or
Frequency) and Phase.

31
 Data Communications

V
Amplitude
Maximum

T
0

T1 T2 T3

Minimum

 Amplitude:
KWCatMélBIcMnuckMBUlénTMrg;rlkmkdl;GkS½Gab;sIus. xñatrbs; Amplitude KWKitCa Volts (V),

Amperes (A) nig Watts (W) .

 Frequency:
KWCacMnnY xYb (T) EdlekItmaneLIgenAkñúg1vinaTI. CYnkaleKehAfa Hertz (Hz) . xñatrbs; Fre-
quency KWCa Hertz (Hz).
Terahertz (THz) = 1012 Hz

Gigahertz (GHz) = 109 Hz

Megahertz (MHz) = 106 Hz

Kilohertz (KHz) = 103 Hz

 Phase:
KWCaTItaMgénTMrg;rlk. xñatrbs; Phase KWKitCa Degree (or radians)
V

T 0o (0 degree)

32
 Data Communications

T 90o (90 degree)

T 180o (180 degree)

T 270o (270 degree)

 Complex analog Signal

KWCa Signal EdlmanTMrg;ExSekagbegátI )anCarMeyalminesµIKñaénxYbnimYy².
V

33
 Data Communications

1.2-Digital Signal
Digital SignalRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;kñúgkarbBa¢Ún Data.
- RbsinebI Bit 1 eKtageday (Encode) Positive Voltage
- RbsinebI Bit 0 eKtageday (Encode) Zero Voltage
V

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

 Amplitude, Period and Phase rbs; Digital Signal manlkçN³Rbhak;RbEhleTAnwg

Amplitude, Period and Phase rbs; Analog Signal.

V
Amplitude

T
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
0 Degree Phase Shift
(or No Phase Shift )

Amplitude

0 T

180 Degree Phase Shift

34
 Data Communications

 Bit interval and Bit Rate:

-Bit intervalKWry³eBlbBa¢Ún Data mYycenøaH (1 interval). eKGacniyaymüa:geTotfaCary³
eBlbBa¢nÚ Data kñúg 1Bit.
-Bit rate KWCacMnYn Bit interval Edl)anbBa¢n
Ú kñúgry³eBl 1vinaTI. Bit rate eKtageday bps (bits
per second) Bit interval and Bit Rate mansar³RbeyaCn_kñúgkarbBa¢Ún Data ya:gdUcemþc?

W Bit interval

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 Second = 8 bit interval Time

Bit rate = 8 bps

 Transmission medium Band with:

Transmission medium mYyman Band with kMNt;rbs;va. mann½yfa Transmission medium
Band with KWCasmtßPaBcaM)ac; nigRKb;RKan;rbs;vakñúgkarbBa¢n Ú Digital Signal.
Ex: Signal mYyRtUv)anbBa¢ÚnelI Transmission medium mYyEdlman Band with tUcCag Band with Edl

RtUvkarcaM)ac;enaH Signal nwgRtUv)at;bg;CaehtueFVI[ Receiver minGacTTYl Information )aneLIy.

 Channel Capacity:
Band with mantYnaTIcaM)ac; nigRKb;RKan;rbs; Signal mYyvaGacekItmaneLIgCamYynwg Bit rate
(or Data rate). mann½yfaenAeBl Bit rate ekItmaneLIgeyIgnwgTTYl)an Band with mYyRKb;RKan;.

dUcenH Transmission medium mansmtßPaBbBa¢nÚ Signal )anehAfa Channel Capacity én

Transmission medium enaH. Edl Channel Capacity vaGaRs½yeTAelIkarbMElgkUd.

35
 Data Communications

Bit rate (or Data rate) Transmission medium

1000bps

Band with = 1XHz

Time

2000bps

Band with = 2XHz

Time

3000bps

Band with = 3XHz

Time

(Transmission medium Band with and Data rate)

36
 Data Communications

Chapter 5: ENCODING
3
eyIgFøab;)ansÁal;rYcmkehIyfa Signal manBIrRbePTKW Analog nig Digital b:uEnþenAkñúg Encoding

enHeyIgmanbYnRbePTeTotedIm,IeFVIkarbMElg.
 Digital-to-Digital
 Digital-to-analog
 Analog-to-analog
 Analog-to-Digital

Encoding

Digital – to - Digital Digital – to -Analog Analog -to - analog Analog – to –Digital

( Difference encoding schemes )

1-Digital-to-Digitial Encoding:

KWCakartag Digital Information eday Digital Signal.

EX: eyIgbBa¢n Ú Data BI Computer eTA Printer eyIgnwgeXIjman Data BIrKW Original Data nig Data Edl
)anbBa¢nÚ eTACa Digital Signal enAeBlenaH Encoding mancMnYn Binary 1S nig 0S Edl)anbegáIteLIg
eday Computer ehIyRtUv)anbMElgCalMdab;én Pulse Voltage )anqøgkat;ExScMlgmanTMrg; Digital
Infortmation dUcxageRkam ÷

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

01011101 Digital-to-Digital Encoding

( Digital-to-Digital Encoding )

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Digital-to-Digital Encoding)anEbgEckCabIEpñkeTotKW ÷
Unipolar, Polar and Bipolar.

Digital-to-Digital Encoding

UniPolar Polar Bi Polar

(Type of Digital-to-Digital Encoding)

1.1 UniPolar:

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

(UniPolar encoding)

UniPolar encoding RtUv)aneRbIR)as;muneKbg¥s; EtkñúgeBlbc©úb,nñenHvahYssm½ybnþci eTAehIy.

b:uEnþvamansar³RbeyaCn_pþl;nUvPaBgayRsYlenAkñúg Digital transmission Systems. kñúgRbePT Encoding
nimYy²man Voltage Level sMrab; Binary 0 nig Voltage Level sMrab; Binary 1. Polarity KWsMedAeTAelI
Positive, Zero.

dUcenHeyIgeXIjfa UniPolar encoding man Polarity dUcKñaelIsBIenHeTot UniPolar encoding

minGaceRbIR)as;)anCamYy DC Component nig Synchronization.

 DC Component:
DC Component KWCa Component EdlKµan Frequency b¤ Frequency esµI Zero. dUcenHenAeBl
Edl Signal manpÞúk DC Component vaminGacqøgkat;ExScMlgEdlCaRbePT Microwave (b¤ Trans
former) )aneLIy.

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 Synchronization:
Synchronization Problem GacekItmaneLIgenAeBlNaEdl Data Stream bBa¢ÚnCaes‘rI 1S b¤ 0S
EdlKµankarERbRbYl Voltage Level.
CaeKalkarN_ Digital encoding eRbIR)as;bMErbMrYl Voltage Level edIm,IkN
M t;[dwgfa 1bit RtUv
)anbBa©be; hIy 1bit fµIeTotRtUv)ancab;epþIm.
dUcenHenAkñúg UniPolar encoding enAeBles‘rIénRbePT bit EtmYy)anekIteLIgedayminERbRbYl
Voltage Level vaRtUvkarCacaM)ac;nUv Synchronization Problem.

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

1.2 Polar:
Polar encoding man Voltage Level BIrKW Positive Voltage Level and negative Voltage Level.
edayeRbIR)as; Voltage Level BIrenAkñúg Polar encoding method begáIt)anCa Average Voltage Level
kat;bnßynUv DC Component eFV[I FUrRsaldl; Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding.
enAkñúg Polar encoding manbIKW ÷
 NRZ: Non-Return to Zero

 RZ: Return to Zero

 Biphasic (Diphase)

Polar

NRZ RZ Biphase

(Type of Polar encoding)

NRZ-L NRZ-I Differential Manchester
Manchester

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 Non-Return to Zero
man Positive Voltage Level and Negative Voltage Level sMrab;tag Signal.
NRZ encoding

EdlxusBI Unipolar encoding EdlmanEt Positive Voltage Level nig Zero Voltage Level sMrab;tagkMrit
Signal .
Non-return to Zero-Level:
NRZ-L encoding man Positive Voltage Level tag[ bit 1 nig Negative Voltage Level tag[
bit 0 .
Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Non-return to Zero-Invert:
TMrg;rlkEdlmankarERbRbYlBI Positvie Voltage Level eTA Negative Voltage
NRZ-I encoding

Level ¬b¤mankarERbRbYlBI Negative Voltage Level eTA Positive Voltage Level¦ tag[ bit1 nigTMrg;

rlkEdlKµankarERbRbYltag[ bit 0.
Amplitude

1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

 Return to Zero
TMrg;rlkEdlmankarERbRbYlRtg;cMncu kNþalén bit BI Positive Voltage Level eTA
RZ encoding

Zero tag[ bit 1 ehIyTMrg;rlkEdlmankarERbRbYlRtg;cMnuckNþalén bit BI Negative Voltage Level

eTA Zero tag[ bit 0 .

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 Positve-to-Zerotag[ bit 1
 Negative-to-Zero tag[ bit 0

Amplitude

0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

Time

These Positive and Negative to zero are Transitions

Can be used for Synchronization

 Biphase:
Biphase encoding TMrg;rlkmankarERbRbYlBI Positive Voltage Level eTA Negative Voltage
Level b¤ERbRbYlBI Negative Voltage Level eTA Positive Voltage Level EdlkarERbRbYlenH KWcab;epþIm

Rtg;cMnuckNþalén bit.
Biphase encoding Edl)aneRbIR)as;enAkñúg Network sBVéf¶enHmanBIrRbePTKW Manchester nig

Differential Manchester.

 Manchester
Manchester encoding TMrg;rlkEdlERbRbYlRtg;cMnuckNþalén bit BI Negative–to–Positive tag
[ bit 1 ehIyTMrg;rlkEdlERbRbYlRtg;cMnuckNþalén bit BI Positive–to–Negative tag[ bit 0.
 Positive-to-Negative tag[ bit 0

 Negative-to-Positive tag[ bit 1

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Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

 Differential Manchester:

- TMrg;rlkEdlERbRbYlenARtg;cMnuccab;epþImén bit tag[ bit 0

- TMrg;rlkEdlminERbRbYlenARtg;cMncu cab;epþImén bit tag[ bit 1 .

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

5.1.3 Bipolar:
Bipolar encoding eRbIR)as; Voltage Level bIKW Positive Voltage Level, Negative Voltage Level
and Zero Voltage Level .

 Zero Voltage Level tageday bit 0

 Positive Voltage Level nig Neagative Voltage Level tageday bit 1.

Bipolar encoding EckecjCabIRbePTKW ÷

- Bipolar Alternate Mark inversion (BAMI)

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- Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution ( B8ZS )

- High-Density Bipolar 3 ( HDB3 )

Bipolar

BAMI B8ZS HDB3

 Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (BAMI)

BAMI man Zero Voltage Level tageday bit 0 ehIyman Positive Voltage Level nig Negative
Voltage Level tageday bit 1.

KWmann½yfa Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion man bit 1.

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

The Positive and Negative alternately

Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion encoding

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 Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS):

B8ZS encoding cab;epþImeRbIR)as;dMbUgeKbg¥se; nAGaemricxageCIgsMrab; Synchronization bit 0S
EdlmancMnYneRcIn.
PaBxusKñarvag B8ZS encoding and BAMI ekIteLIgenAeBlEdlman bit 0S eRcInt²Kña (KW 8 bit 0S

t²Kña) enAkñúgkarbBa¢Ún Data.

B8ZS encoding begáItnUvmuxgarmYyedIm,IbMErbMrYl Signal enARtg; bit 0S ehAfa Violation.

-B8ZS encoding form:

 Positive; 8-Zero form

Polarity of Previous bit

+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 Negative ; 8-Zero form

Polarity of Previous bit

- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 Positive; 8-Zero form Can be will Chang to Positive; 3-Zero; Positive; Negative; Zero;
Negative; Positive

Polarity of Previous bit

+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Can be will Chang to

+ 0 0 0 + - 0 - +

Violation Violation

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 Negaitive; 8-Zero form Can be will Chang to Negative; 3-Zero; Negative; Positive; Zero; Positive;
Negative

Polarity of Previous bit

- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Can be will Chang to

- 0 0 0 - + 0 + -

Violation Violation

 High-Density Bipolar 3 (HDB3)

- eKeXIjmandMeNaHRsay Synchronizing xus²Kñaén bit 0 eRcInt²Kña rvagGWrb:u / Gaemrik nig
Cb:nu .
- HDB3 KWCadMeNaHRsaymYyEdleKbegáIteLIg edIm,ICnM YsdMeNaHRsay B8ZS .
 HDB3 encoding form:
 Positive; 4-Zero form

+ 0 0 0 0

 Negative; 4-Zero form

- 0 0 0 0

 Positive; 4-Zero form Can be will chang to Positive; 3-Zero ; Positive

+ 0 0 0 0

Can be will to Chang

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+ 0 0 0 +

 Positive; 4-Zero form Can be will chang to Positive; Negative; 2-Zero ; Negative

+ 0 0 0 0

Can be will to Chang to

+ - 0 0 -

 Negative; 4-Zero form Can be will chang to Negative; 3-Zero; Negative

- 0 0 0 0

Can be will to Chang to

- 0 0 0 -

 Negative; 4-Zero form Can be will chang to Negative; Positive; 2-Zero; Positive

- 0 0 0 0

Can be will to Chang to

- + 0 0 +

5.3 Digital-To-Analog Encoding

Digital-to-analog encoding KWCatMNagén digital information eday Analog signal.
enAeBlEdlGñkbBa©Ún data BI Computer mYyeTotqøgkat; Public access phone mYy[bkrN_ data
cab;epþImbBa¢nÚ ecjeTAeRkACa digital b:uEnþ eRBaHEtExS telephone naMyk analog signal dUecñH data RtUv
)anbMElg.

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Digital data RtUv)anbMElgkUdeTACa Analog signal EdlmantémøBIepSgKñaeqøyI tbeTAnig binary 1 and

binary 0 .
rUbxageRkamKWCaTMnak;TnM geTAnig digital information, the digital-to-analog encoding.

01011101 Digital/ analog encoding

Digital-To-Analog Encoding

manrebobCaeRcInsMrab; digital-to-analog encoding eyIgnigBiPakSavaTaMgenaHcMeBaHEt data

Communications. dUc)anBiPakSakñúgCMBUkTI4 Sine wave KWkMNt;edaylkçN³bIya:g³

-Amplitude
-Frequency
-Phase
enAeBlEdleyIgeFVI[ERbRbYllkçN³NamYykñúgcMeNamenaHeyIgbegáIt)anCarlkfµmI YyeTot.
eyIgGacniyay)anfaPaBedImrbs;rlktMNag[ binary1karERbRbYlGactMNag[ binary 0 b¤Rcasmk
vij. dUecñH karpøas;bþÚrTidæPaBmYyén Electrical signal fyeRkay nigeTAmuxeyIgGaceRbIvaedIm,ItN
M ag[
digital data.

manya:gticbIrebobsMrab;bMElgkUd digital data eTACa analog signal:

-Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
-Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
-Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Encoding

kñúgkrNIbEnßmmanbYn rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgclnanigkarpøasbþÚrTaMgBIkrNIenH Amplitude and Phase

RtUv)an ehAfa quadratur amplitude modulation (QAM).

QAM KWmanRbsiTP §i aBx<ss; Mrab;kareRCIserIs nigrebobeRbIR)as; modems TMenIb²TaMgGs;.

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Digital/Analog encoding

ASK FSK PSK

QAM

3.1-Digital-To-Analog Encoding
muneyIgBiPakSasaviFIsaRsþbMElgkUd Digital-to-Analog KWmanmUldæanBIrEdlRtUvkMNt;[)an
c,as;las;KW bit/buad rate and carrier signal.
Bit Rate and Baud Rate
BaküBIrEdleRbIenAkñúg data communication KW bit rate and baud rate. KWCacMnnY rbs; bit
Edl)anbBa¢nÚ kñúgry³eBlEtmYyvinaTI. cMENk baud rate KWeyageTAelIcMnYn Signal unit kñúgmYyvinaTI
edIm,Itag[ Bit TaMgenaH. enAkñúgkarBiPakSaénsmtßPaBkuBM üÚT½r bit rate. eyIgcg;dwgetIRbEvgb:unµanEdl
Gaccab;ykedIm,I Process EpñknImyY ²rbs; Information enAkñúg Data Communication eyIgBinitüemIl
smtßPaBEdlGacpøas;TI Data BIkEnøgmYyeTAkEnøgmYyeTot)anenAkñgú Epñk b¤ Block rbs; data.
Signal mYycMnYntRmUv[manstßPaBx<s; dUecñHRbB½nn § ig Bandwidth tRmUv[mankarbBa¢Ún Bit kan;
EteRcIn.
Bitrate esµn
I ig Baudrate enAeBl Signal Unit nImYy²tMNagedaymYy Bit.
Carrier signal:
enAkarbBa¢nÚ Analog ]bkrN_begátI Signal manrlksBaØax<s;eFVICamUldæan Information signal
. mUldæan SignalenHehAfa Carrier signal or Carrier frequecy. ]bkrN_TTYlsuIKñaCamYyrlksBaØa
rbs; Carrier Signal. EdlekItmaneLIgBI]bkrN_bBa¢Ún Digital information bnÞab;mkbMElgkUdcUleTA
kñúg Carrier signal edaybBa¢ak;BlI kçN³rbs;vamYyb¤eRcIn (Apltude, Frequency, Phase). RbePTén
karbBa¢ak;enHehAfa Modulation (Shift keying) ehIy infortion signal ehAfa modulation signal.

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bBa¢Úntam Amplitude Shift keying (ASK):

3.1.1-

enAkñúg ASK kmøagM rbs; Signal KWERbRbYledIm,Itag binary 1 b¤ 0 Amplitude mankarERbRbYl

cMENk Frequency and Phase mantémøefr. kRmittg;süúgmYytageday 1 nigkRmittg;süúgmYyeTot
tageday 0 . ASK KWCakarERbRbYl Amplitude b:uEnþ frequency nig phase mantémøefr.
Amplitude
Bit rate: 5 Baud rate: 5

1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit

0 1 0 1 0

Time

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

1 Second
ASK encoding

bBa¢Úntam Frequency Shift keying (FSK):

3.1.2-

enAkñúg Frequency Shift keying frequency rbs; Signal RtUv)anERbRbYledIm,Itag[ Binary 1

b¤ 0. KYrkt;sMKal;fa Amplitude nig phase rbs;vaminERbRbYleT. karERbRbYl Frequency rbs; Signal
enHGaRs½yelI bit 1TI 0. Frequency x<s;sMrab;bBa¢Ún bit 1rIÉ Frequency TabsRmab;bBa¢Ún Bit 0.
Amplitude
Bit rate: 6 Baud rate: 6

1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit

0 1 1 0 1
0

Time

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

1 Second

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bBa¢Úntam Phase Shift keying (PSK):

3.1.3-

enAkñúg Phase Shift keying KWCa Phase rbs;vaRtUv)anERbRbYledIm,Itag[ Binary 0. PSK KWCa
karERbRbYl Phase rbs; Signal cMENkÉrlksBaØa nig GMBøITutminEmnERbRbYleT. ]TahrN_ eyIgcab;
epþmI enARtg;cMNcu sUnSGgSartMNag[ Bit 0 bnÞab;mkeyIgGacbþÚreTACa 180 GgSaredIm,IbBa¢Ún Bit 1.
Amplitude

Bit rate: 5 Baud rate: 5

1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit
1 1 0 1
0

Time

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

1 Second

viFIsaRsþxagelIeKehAfa 2-PSK b¤ Binary PSK eRBaHman Phase BIxsu Kña (0 and 180 degree) )an
eRbIkarbMElgkUd. rUbxageRkambegáItcMNucenHya:gc,as;edaybgðajBITMnak;TMngén Phase eTAnigtémøBit
diagram ehAfa Constellation b¤ Phase-state diagram bgðajTMnak;TMngdUcKñaenHEdr.

Bit Phase

0 0
1 180

eKGaceRbIkarERbRbYlBIrbs; Signal EdlnImYy²tag[ 1bit CMnYsedaykarERbRbYlbYnehIyGnuBaØati[

Phase nImYy²tag[BIr bit emIlrUbxageRkam³

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Amplitude

Bit rate: 5 Baud rate: 5

1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit
10 10 11 00
01

Time

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

1 Second

The Constellation diagram rbs; Signal xagelIenH Phase 0 degree tag[ 0, 180 degree tag[ 10
nig 270 degree tag[ 11. bec©keTsenH ehAfa 4-PSK b¤ Q-PSK. KUrrbs; bit tMNag[ Phase
nImYy²ehAfa dibit. eyIgGacbBa¢nÚ data BIrdgelOnCagedayeRbI 4-psk.
01

Data bit Phase

00 0
01 90 10 00
10 180
11 270
11
Dibit (2 bit) Costellation diagram

eyIgGacBRgIkKMnti enHdl; 8-PSK. CamYy 8 Phase epSg²KñakarbþrÚ TItaMgnImYy²GactagedaybI

bits b¤ (one tribit) mþg. eyIgGaceXIjTMnak;TMngéncMnYnrbs; bit kñúgbERmbRmYlcMnYn Phase KWsV½yKuN

énBIr. enAeBleyIgman 4 phase eyIgGacbBa¢nÚ mþg)anBI bits 2 esµI 4 enAeBleyIg)an 8 Phase eyIg
2

GacbBa¢Ún)anmþg 8bit 2 esµ8I . rUbxageRkambgðajTMnak;TMngrvagbERmbRmYl Phase nig Tribits nImYy²

3

tMNag[ 8-PSK KWelOnCagbIdgén 2-PSK.

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Bit Phase 010

000 0 011 001
001 45
010 90
011 135 100 000
100 180
101 225
110 270 101 111
111 315 110

Costellation diagram
Tribits (3 bits)

4-sBaØaNénkarbBa¢ÚnBI Analog To Analog Encoding:

Analo-to-Analogencoding KWCakartag Analog information eday Analog signal ]TahrN_ radio
KWCakareRbIR)as; Analog-to-Analog Communication. rUbxageRkamenHbgðajBITnM ak;TMng Analog
information .

Analog/Analog
encoding

Analog-to-analog encoding

Analog-to-analog encodingmanbIRbePT³ Amplitude modulation (AM), Frequency modulation

(FM), Phase modulation (PM).

Analog-to-analog
encoding

AM FM PM

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4.1 -Amplitude modulation

enAkñúgkarbBa¢Ún AM, carrier signal RtUv)anbMElg dUecñH Amplitude rbs;vaERbRbYlCamYykar
pøas;bþÚr Amplitude Signal. Frequency nig Phase rbs; Carrie rkSaTuk[d¾EdlmanEt Amplitude
b:ueNÑaHEdlERbRbYledIm,I[karERbRbYlenAkñúg Information edImtam. rUbxageRkamenHbgðajBIdMeNIrkar
rbs;va.

Modulation signal

Carrier frequency

AM Signal

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AM Bandwith
AM Bandwith rbs; Signal esµInigBIrdg Bandwith rbs; Modulation signal nig cRmas;rbs;
vaenACMuvijcMNuckNþal Carrier frequency dUcxageRkam.
Amplitude

Frequency

Bwm Fc Bwm
Bwt=2 Bwm
Am Bandwidth

BMm: Bandwidth of the modulation signal (audio)

BWt: Total bandwidth (radio bandwidth)
fc: Frequencyof carrier
Badwith rbs; Audio signal sMeLgniyay b¤ tRnþI CaTUeTAman 5KH dUecñHsßanIy_viTüú AM RtUv
Z

kar Banwidth 10KH ya:gTab. kñúgkrNIenH Federal communication commission (FCC) GnuBaØati
Z

[ 10KH sMrab;viTüú AM nImYy²RtUvsßti dac;edayELkBIKña BImYyeTAmYyya:gtic 10KH edIm,IeCosvag

Z Z

BIkarrMxan. ebIsßanIy_mYyeRbI Carrier frequency 1100KH dUecñHsßanIbnÞab;RtUvkar Frequency minGac

Z

TabCag 1100KH )aneLIy.

Z

fc fc fc fc fc fc fc

530KHZ 1700KHZ
10KHZ
AM band allcation

4.2-Frequency modulation (FM)

enAkñúg FM Transmission, Frequency rbs; Carrier signal RtUv)anERbRbYledIm,I[
Modulation edIrtam. cMENk Amplytude nig Phase rbs;vaminERbRbYleT.

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Amplitude

Time
Modulation sigal (audio)
Amplitude

Time

Carrier frequency
Amplitude

Time

FM signal
FM Bandwith
Bandwith rbs; FM signal esµnI ig 10dg bandwith rbs; Modulation signal nigcRmas;cMgaycMNuc
kNþalCMuvij Carrier frequency. Bandwith rbs; Sterio audio signal CaTUeTA 15KH dUecñHsßanIy_
Z

viTüúRtUvkartic Bandwith mYyKW 150KH . FCC tRmUv[manya:gtic 200KH (0.2MHZ). sßanviTüú

Z Z

FM GnuBaØati[ Carrier frequency RKb;kEnøgkñúgcenøaHBI 88MH eTA 108MH . BIsaß nnIy_viTüúmYyeTA

Z Z

sßannIy_viTüúeTotRtUvXøatBIKñaya:tci 200KH edIm,IrkSa Bandwith TaMgenaHBIkarCan;elIKña. FCC tRmUv

Z

enAkñúgtMbn;NamYyRtUvqøas;TItaMg Bandwith eTIbGaceRbIR)as;)an. Bandwith enAsl;EdlmineRbI KWedIm,I

karBarPaBrMxanrvagsßanIy_BIrEdlman Bandwith enACab;Kña.
Amplitude

Frequency

5 Bwm Fc 5 Bwm
Fm Bandwidth Bwt=10 Bwm

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4.3-Phase modulation (PM)

enAkñúg Phase modulation (PM), Phase rbs; Carrier signal RtUv)anbMElgedIm,I[ Modulation
rbs; Carrier signal edIrtam Amplitude rbs; Information signal RtUvERbRbYl.

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4-3 Phase Modulation

enAkñúg Phase modulation (PM), Phase rbs; Carrier signal RtUv)anbMElgedIm,I[ Modulation
signal edIrtam. Amplitude and Frequency rbs; Carrier signal efr b:Eu nþ Ampllitude rbs; Information

signal RtUvERbRbYl.

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