EXCITABLE TISSUES: NERVE AND MUSCLE

INTRODUCTION
 All cells of the body possess a membrane potential related to the nonuniform
distribution and varying permeability to Na + and K+ and large intracellular anions.
Nerve and muscle cells are excitable tissues developed a specialized use for the
membrane potential. Nerve and muscle cells are capable of producing electrical
signals when excited. Action potentials are brief reversals of membrane potential
brought about by rapid changes in membrane permeability. Once started, action
potentials are propagated throughout an excitable cell.
 An action potential is a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane.
The membrane voltage, or potential, is determined at any time by the relative ratio of
ions, extracellular to intracellular, and the permeability of each ion. In neurons, the
rapid rise in potential, depolarization, is an all-or-nothing event that is initiated by the
opening of sodium ion channels within the plasma membrane. The subsequent return
to resting potential, repolarization, is mediated by the opening of potassium ion
channels. To reestablish the appropriate balance of ions, an ATP-driven pump (Na/K-
ATPase) induces movement of sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the
cell.
Membrane Potential
 All plasma membranes are polarized electrically. It means separation of electric
charges across the membrane, or to a difference in the relative number of cations and
anions in the intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. A separation of charges across
the membrane is referred to as membrane potential. It is primarily due to differences
in the distribution and membrane permeability of sodium, potassium and large
intracellular anions. All living cells have a slightly excess of positive charges outside
and a corresponding slight excess of negative charges on the inside of its membrane.

Effect of sodium-potassium pump on membrane potential

 About 20% of membrane potential is contributed by the Na + - K+pump. This pump
generates unequal transport for both positive ions, that creates a membrane potential
with the outside becoming more positive than the inside. This active transport
mechanism pumps three sodium ions out for two potassium ions pumped in.
However,
 most of the potential (80%) is caused by passive diffusion of potassium and sodium
ions down their gradients.
Concurrent potassium and sodium effects on membrane potential
 As potassium is more permeable at rest, it influences the resting membrane potential
to a greater extent than does sodium. The resting membrane potential (RMP) of a
typical nerve is -70 mV. It is slightly less than potassium equilibrium potential
because of the weak influx of sodium. (See Figure 19). Nerve and muscle use the
membrane potential for their specialized advantages. They are capable of rapidly and
transiently alter the permeability of these ions in response to appropriate stimulation,
thereby bringing about fluctuations in membrane potential.

NEURONS
  The nervous system consists of cells that are called neurons varying enormously in
size, and shape than any other cell. The neuronal cell contains a body and processes
that are arranged to the cell to receive, conduct and transmit stimuli to other cells.
Glial cells:

 The neurons gain efficiency through special glial cells. These surround the neuron,
adhering to their surface and helping to remove problem of resistance to the
conduction of excitation.
Interneurons:

 Neural connections are established between the segment by means of interneurons.

The interneurons may act as amplifier (excitatory) by enhancing or as attenuator
(inhibitory) by putting a damper on an incoming signal or it may act as a polarity
signal switch transforming a positive signal into negative one or vice versa.
Components of the nervous system
 The cells typical of the nervous tissue are the neurons and glial cells.
 Neurons: The original neuron is "nerve cell"- cells best equipped to sense and react to
the chemical and physical change occurring in their surrounding environment. They
are present in the entire human body and communicate with each other regarding their
conditions and reactions. Primary neural functions include reception, conduction and
transmission. To detect, conduct and transmit stimuli to another cell or cells. Nerve
cells grow 2 types of processes from their cell bodies - axons and dendrites.

Dendrites:

 Dendrites are those processes that are concerned with reception of stimuli from
environment.
Axons:
 Axons are those processes that are concerned with conduction and transmission of the
stimuli-signal to another cell or cells. The axon gives out collateral branches when the
target consists of many cells.
Glial cells or Neuroglial cells
The various functions of glial cells are:
• Mechanical supportive elements of neurons
• Insulator of neuron
• Phagocytic defence mechanism
• Secretory
• Modifiers of electrical activity in neuron
• Regulation of metabolism in neuron
• Development assistance in neuronal circuitry
• Producers of myelin sheath

Glial cells retain the ability to divide throughout life.

Endings or terminals in peripheral nervous system (PNS): Sensory endings
 The sensory endings pick up a stimulus either directly from the environment as simple
receptors or indirectly through specialized cells, as encapsulated receptors organs. A
receptor is a biologic transducer which picks up one form of energy or stimulus and
transforms it into another form of energy. All peripheral sensory endings are receptors
either directly or indirectly.
 Motor endings are neural endings that transmit impulses to the effector cells. Effectors
are cells in organs that respond to impulses from the NS. Muscles and glands are
effectors.
Classification of sensory endings or receptors:
1. Exteroceptors: Localized in the body surface; receive information from the external
environment
• Sight, hearing, smell
• Pick up distant stimuli (tele receptors)
• Touch, pressure, temperature
• Stimulation by contact

2. Proprioceptors
 Localized in the locomotion apparatus (muscles, tendons, joints). Receive information
regarding posture, movements

3. Interreceptor (visceroreceptors)
 Visceral activity (digestion, excretion,
Free nerve endings:

 Most free nerve endings arborize between the tissue cells; other surround the hair
follicles.
Nerve Fibers:

 The axons are covered by glial cells. Only the sites of synapses are free from the glial
lining. The axons in the CNS are covered by glial cells and the PNS by Shawn cells.
An axons with its glial covering is called nerve Fiber. Depending on the presence or
absence of myelin, the Fibers are classified as myelinated or nonmyelinated. The
unmyelinated Fibers in the CNS are covered by astrocytes. A certain relation exists
between speed of the impulse and Fiber calibre.
Peripheral nerve:

 A bundle of Fibers wrapped in a connective tissue sheath is a peripheral nerve.

Within each bundle, between the Fibers, collagen Fibers and a few fibroblasts are
situated. This is called endoneurium.
Electric signal in nerve:
  Nerve cells or neurons make up the nervous system (NS), one of the control systems
of the body. The nervous system controls body's muscular and glandular activities
that are mostly directed towards maintaining homeostasis. Neurons act rapidly for
electrical and chemical signalling for communication. Through chemical means
neurons pass messages to muscles and glands through intricate pathways from
neuron to neuron.
Electric signal:

 Nerve and muscle are excitable tissues. They are able to develop rapid and transient
change in their membrane potentials. These fluctuations serve as signal / impulse in
2 forms. 1. Graded potentials- serving as short distance signals, and 2. Action
potentials- which serve as a long distance signals without any change.
Graded potentials:

 Graded potentials die out over short distances. These are local membrane potentials.
Changes occur in varying grades of magnitude or strength. For example, RMP of -70
mV may become -60 mV or -50 mV. This magnitude is related to the magnitude of the
triggering event, i.e. the stronger the triggering event, the larger the graded potential.

The triggering event may be one of the following.

 Stimulus - such as light stimulating photoreceptors on the retina
 Interaction of chemical with a receptor on a nerve or muscle cell membrane
(neurotransmitter).
 Spontaneous change of potential caused by imbalance in the leak-pump cycle.

Characteristics of Graded potential

• Graded potential change: magnitude varies with the magnitude of triggering
event
• Decremental conduction: magnitude diminishes with distance from initial site
• Passive spread to nearby inactive areas of membrane
• No refractory period
• Can be summed (temporal and spatial)
• Can be depolarized or hyperpolarized
• Triggered by stimulus, by combination of neurotransmitter with receptor or by
spontaneous shift in leak-pump cycle.
• Occurs in specialized regions of membrane designed to respond to triggering
event: egs: end plate potential, receptor/ generator potential, excitatory
postsynaptic potentials, inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

THE ACTION POTENTIAL

Characteristics:
 All or none membrane response, magnitude of the triggering event coded in
frequency rather than amplitude of action potential
 Propagated throughout membrane in undiminished fashion
  Self-generation in nearby inactive areas of membrane
 Refractory period present
 Summation impossible
 Always depolarization to threshold through spread of graded potential
 Occurs in regions of membrane with abundance of voltage-gated sodium
channels
Initiation of the Action Potential
 Action potential is generated when an axon is stimulated by sufficient strength electric
current so that the membrane is suddenly depolarized from -80 to -60 mV, the critical
drop initiating further change in potential. As soon as the critical level of depolarized,
the threshold is reached, any further increase in the strength of the applied current do
not affect size of the potential. It is all- or- none response. The action potential crosses
the zero line it is moving from -80 to +30 mV inside the membrane. The action
potential is propagated along the whole length of the fiber membrane with a constant
speed and amplitude.
Monophasic and diphasic action potential.
 When one electrode is kept inside and the other is outside, potential changes across
the membrane can be measured and if properly amplified and electrodes connected to
a cathode ray oscilloscope, they can be recorded as the monophasic action potentials.
Using 2 surface electrodes on the nerve or muscle, a diphasic action potential can be
seen on the screen and recorded.
Phases of the action potential:
 Resting membrane potential (RMP): Voltage difference between inside and outside of
cell in absence of excitatory or inhibitory stimulation.
 Threshold potential: Membrane potential to which excitable membrane must be
depolarized to incite an action potential
 Upstroke or rising phase: This is a very rapid period of change, when the cell is losing
its negative resting potential, and becomes depolarized (zero potential) and shows
reversal of the membrane potential so that the inside of the membrane is transiently
positive.
 Overshoot: The short positive phase is known as overshoot and is usually of
about +30 mV- +40 mV in amplitude.
 Repolarization phase: The down stroke of the potential change is the repolarization, a
slower process than the initial phase of depolarization.