The Ultimate Chemistry Reviewer
SOLUTIONS
•homogeneous mixture composed of two or
more substances
• composed of a solute and a solvent.
• Solutions containing more than one solute are
common.
SOLUTE
• component that is dissolved and lesser
amounts than
SOLVENT
• component that dissolved and greater
amounts
TYPES OF SOLUTION
SOLUBILITY
• is the extent to which the dissolution takes
place. (very soluble, moderately soluble, or
slightly soluble)
• defined as the maximum amount of solute that
dissolves in a given amount of solvent at a
specified temperature.
• Miscible and Immiscible -ability of a liquid
solute to mix homogeneously with a liquid
solvent.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY
1. TEMPERATTURE
• The solubility of many substances
changes greatly with temperature.
• An increase in the temperature of the
solution increases the solubility of a
solid solute.
• For solutions of gas in the liquid, the
solubility decreases with
temperature.
• The kinetic molecular theory explains
why the solubility of gases decreases
at higher temperatures.
• At a high temperature, the kinetic
energy of the gas molecules is
increased, and so is their speed,
making it more difficult for these
molecules to form bonds with the liquid
molecules
• In the case of solids being dissolved
in liquids, for many substances, the
solubility increases with
temperature.
2. PRESSURE
• LIQUID/SOLID Solute- pressure have
practically no effect on solubility.
• GAS Solute- an increase in pressure
increases solubility.
- In 1803, Henry showed that the solubility
of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional
to the partial pressure of the gas above the
liquid.
- Henry’s law states that the solubility of a
gas in a liquid solvent is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of that
gas above the liquid.
- This means that doubling the partial
pressure of the gaseous solute must also
double its solubility, and if its partial
pressure is halved, the solubility must
decrease by one-half as well.
FACTORS AFECTING DISSOLUTION
• The rate of dissolution is a measure of how fast
a substance dissolves. It is the quantity of
solute that will dissolve during one unit of time.
The rate at which a solute dissolve in a solvent
is influenced by different factors.
PARTICLE SIZE
• Due to the greater surface that is exposed to
the solvent, smaller solute particles will
dissolve more readily than larger ones. Thus,
the rate of solution of these is faster than for
large particles.
AGITATION/STIRRING
• With liquid and solid solutes, stirring brings
fresh portions of the solvent in contact with the
solute, thereby increasing the rate of
dissolution.
• As the solid dissolves, the concentration of
dissolved solute in the immediate
surroundings of every solid particle remains
high, which hampers further dissolution of the
remaining crystals.
• If it is left such that the process of diffusion will
facilitate the movement of dissolved solute
away from the undissolved crystals, the rate of
dissolution will be consistently slow.
• Stirring makes sure that this does not happen
by continuously replenishing the immediate
surroundings of every dissolved crystal with
more solvent as it dissolves.
INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE
• The reason for the increase is that the kinetic
energies of the solute, solvent, and solution
increase.
• The increased kinetic energy of the solute
causes the particles to break away from the
crystals more readily.
• The increased kinetic energy of the solvent
causes the molecules to move rapidly.
• In considering the change in the rate of the
solution by heating, it should be kept in mind
that temperature is a measurement of the
average kinetic energy of the particles in a
sample.
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
● Dilute solution - contains a relatively small
amount of dissolved solute.
● Concentrated solution- contains a relatively
large amount of dissolved solute.
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 The Ultimate Chemistry Reviewer
1. SATURATED SOLUTION
- is a solution in which dissolved and
undissolved solutes are in dynamic
equilibrium.
- It can also be defined as a solution that
contains as much of the solute as can be
dissolved at the given temperature.
- The maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve in a given volume of solvent at a
given temperature is constant.
2. UNSATURATED SOLUTION
- contains less amount of solute than a
saturated solution.
- In such cases, heating a saturated solution
containing some undissolved solute
causes mare solute to dissolve.
3. SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
• is an unstable solution in which the
concentration of the solute is greater than
when the solution is saturated.
COLLOIDS
• Colloids are one of the primary types of
mixture. It is a type of mixture in which solid or
liquid particles are dispersed uniformly
throughout a gas, liquid or solid.
PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDS
• They seem homogenous but are
heterogeneous mixtures.
• The size of colloidal particles is very small.
Particle size varies from 0.1 nm to 1 nm.
• It shows the Tyndall effect. It means it
scatters the beam of light and shows its
path through itself.
To be classified as colloid, the substance in dispersed
phase must be larger than the size of a molecule but
smaller than what can be seen with the naked eye.
DISPERSED PHASE- The component typically
presents in a relatively small amount.
DISPERSION MEDIUM- the substance or solution
throughout which particulate is dispersed.
TYNDALL EFFECT
• it is the effect of light scattering in colloidal
dispersion, if no light is shown, then it is a true
solution. This effect is used to determine
whether a mixture is a true solution or a colloid.
For example, milk solution, blood, smoke or
dust in a room, etc.
TYPES OF COLLOIDS
1. SOL- is a colloidal suspension with solid
particles in a liquid.
2. EMULSION- between two liquids.
3. FOAM- formed when many gas particles are
trapped in a liquid or solid.
4. AEROSOL- contains small particles of liquid or
solid dispersed in a gas.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLUTION, COLLOIDS,
SUSPENSION
SOLUTION- homogeneous mixture composed of two
or more substances it.
• SOLUTE - component that is dissolved and
lesser amounts than
• SOLVENT - component that dissolved and
greater amounts.
COLLOIDS
• It is a type of mixture in which solid or liquid
particles are dispersed uniformly throughout a
gas, liquid or solid.
SUSPENSION
• a heterogeneous mixture of two or more
substances. The particles can be easily seen
by naked eyes. Here, the particles of the solute
do not dissolve in the solution and are rather
suspended.
APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDS
1. Colloids are used in the foods and food
industries at a large level. Many foods which
we consume are actually colloidal in nature.
Such as milk, cheese etc.
2. Many medicines which we use are in the form
of emulsions. Antibiotics such as penicillin and
streptomycin are given in the form of colloidal
solutions so that they can be absorbed by the
human body easily.
3. Colloids are used as cosmetic ingredients for
many cosmetic products.
4. The blue color of the sky is due to a colloidal
property shown by the sky. Dust particles
dispersed in the air scatter sunlight.
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COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF
SOLUTION
FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION
• lowers the freezing point of a liquid when
another substance is dissolved in it.
• The presence of a solute in water disrupts
the formation of the orderly pattern of ice.
Therefore, more kinetic energy must be
withdrawn from a solution than from the
pure solvent to cause the solution to
solidify.
• The magnitude of the freezing-point
depression is proportional to the number of
solute particles dissolved in the solvent and
does not depend upon their identity.

VAPOR-PRESSURE LOWERING
• VAPOR PRESSURE is the pressure exerted
by the vapor that is in dynamic equilibrium with
its liquid in a closed system at a specified
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
temperature.
• A solution that contains a solute that is not
easily vaporized always has a lower vapor
pressure than the pure solvent. This is true
because in a solution, solute particles
reduce the number of free solvent particles
able to escape the liquid.
• A substance with very low vapor pressure is
NON-VOLATILE, while one that exhibits a high
vapor pressure is VOLATILE.
BOILING-POINT ELEVATION
• BOILING POINT is the temperature at which
the vapor pressure of the liquid phase equals
atmospheric pressure.
• Because of the decrease in vapor pressure,
additional kinetic energy must be added to
OSMOSIS- the movement of solvent particles through
raise the vapor pressure of the liquid phase
a semipermeable membrane from the region of lower
of the solution to atmospheric pressure to
solute concentration (or higher solvent concentration)
initiate boiling.
to the region of higher solute concentration (or lower
• The difference in temperature between the solvent concentration).
boiling point of a solution and the boiling point ✓ Isotonic - If two solutions have the same
of the pure solvent. The boiling point of a concentration of solute.
solution is higher than the boiling point of the ✓ Hypertonic- one with the higher concentration
pure solvent. ✓ Hypotonic- one with the lower concentration
• The elevation depends on the type of solvent
being used and the concentration of the
solution.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF

• The water molecules are attracted to ions in
solution, the ions “hold” the water molecules SOLUTION
down instead of allowing them to be released
into the vapor phase. The water molecules CONCENTRATION
need more energy to “escape” from the ions in • Measures the relative proportions of solute and
solution! solvent in a solution.
• The magnitude of the boiling-point elevation is • The concentration of a solution helps us
proportional to the number of solute particles determine the collision speed between
dissolved in the solvent. particles in a molecule or compound.
• It takes additional kinetic energy for the solvent
particles to overcome the attractive forces that
keep them in the liquid.

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 The Ultimate Chemistry Reviewer
•This will, in turn, determine the rate of a MOLE FRACTION
particular reaction and the conditions in which • Another measure of concentration involves
equilibrium can be maintained for the reaction. mole fractions, X.
• The concentration of the solution also helps us • The mole fraction is the number of moles of
to determine the solute and solvent quantity. one component divided by the total number of
MOLARITY moles in solution.
• When working with solutions, we need to know • The component can either be solute or solvent.
how much solute is present.
• The molarity of a solution is the number of
moles of solute per liter of solution. Molarity
(abbreviated M) is equal to

• To find the mole fraction of the solute, we use

the following equation:

MOLALITY
• Molality is another common unit in chemistry
for expressing the concentration of a solution.
• Molality is the number of moles of solute • The equation to find the mole fraction of the
dissolved in I kilogram of solvent. solvent is:

WHEN TO USE MOLALITY AND WHEN TO USE • Mole fraction has no units because moles
MOLARITY? appear in the numerator and the denominator
✓ Used any time you expect the solute may and thus cancel. The sum of the mole fractions
interact with the solute and in the following for the solute and solvent must add up to 1.
situations:
- To determine a boiling point
X solute + X solvent = 1
- To determine a melting point
✓ When working with colligative properties
(boiling point elevation, freezing point
depression)
✓ Used for dilute aqueous solutions held at a
constant temperature. In general, the
difference between molarity and molality for GAS LAWS
aqueous solutions near room temperature is
minimal, and it won't matter whether you use a PROPERTIES OF GASES
molar or molal concentration - No definite shape
NORMALITY - No definite volume
• Another important concentration concept is - Compressible
normality.
• The definition of normality is similar to the
definition of molarity.
• It is most often applied to solutions of acids and
bases.
• The normality of a solution is the number of
equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
• To find the number of grams in 1 equivalent of
an acid or base, we first calculate the
substance’s molar mass.
• Next, we divide the molar mass by the number
of replaceable hydrogen ions (for an acid) or UNITS
the number of replaceable hydroxide ions (for PRESSURE- atm, Pa, mmHg and torr
a base). VOLUME- mL, L, cm3 and m3
TEMPERATURE- Kelvin(K), Degree Celsius °C and
Degree Fahrenheit °F
BOYLE’S LAW
• The inverse relationship between pressure and
volume is known as Boyle's law.
• Robert Boyle first observed the title in 1662.
• He found that if the pressure on a gas sample
was increased, the volume occupied by the
gas would decrease proportionally.

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 The Ultimate Chemistry Reviewer
Based on the formula you can derive four other COMBINED GAS LAW
formulas with different unknown variables,
and it is as follows. Based on the formula you can derive six other
formulas with different unknown variables and
it is as follows:
P1V1 = P2V2
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃2 𝑉2 =
𝑃1 = 𝑉1 = 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝑉1 𝑃1
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 =
𝑃2 = 𝑉2 = 𝑃1 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑇1
𝑉2 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2
CHARLES LAW
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 =
𝑉1 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑇1
• The relationship between volume and
temperature was first observed by French 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1
physicist and balloonist Jacques Charles 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 =
(1746-1823). 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1
• To convert temperature from degrees Celsius
to Kelvin, you add 273. DALTON’S LAW
• Charles' law states the volume-temperature
relationship this way: • Dalton’s law of partial pressures is a gas
The volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained law which states that the total pressure
at constant pressure is directly proportional to its exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to
absolute temperature. the sum of the partial pressures exerted
Based on the formula you can derive four other by each individual gas in the mixture.
formulas with different unknown variables and • Mixing the gases in one container results
it is as follows: in the formation of a mixture of gases each
exerting its own pressure (partial
𝑽𝟏 𝑽 𝟐 pressure) independent of the pressure
= exerted by the other gases.
𝑻𝟏 𝑻 𝟐 • Partial pressure refers to the pressure
𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑉1 𝑇2 each gas would exert at the same
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = temperature and at the same volume, in
𝑇2 𝑇1 the absence of all other gases.
• The partial pressure of each gas
𝑉1 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑇1 component reflects the fraction of its
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = molecules in the total number of
𝑉2 𝑉1
molecules of the entire mixture.
GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW Ptotal= Pa+Pb
• Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850), a
French chemist, pioneered the study of the
relationship between pressure and Pa= Ptotal -Pb
temperature.
• He stated that: For a given mass of gas in a IDEAL GAS LAWS
container of fixed volume, the pressure is
● The kinetic molecular theory assumes that the
directly proportional to the absolute
particles of a gas have a negligible volume and
temperature (in Kelvin).
no attraction exists between molecules. The
• The ratio of pressure (P) to temperature (T) is theory describes what is called an ideal gas.
the same under all conditions as long as ● The ideal gas law states that the volume of the
volume (V), and the amount (n) of gas do not gas varies directly with the number of gas
change. molecules and the absolute temperature and
• Based on the formula you can derive four varies inversely with the pressure.
other formulas with different unknown
variables, and it is as follows. PV=nRT
P1 = P2 Where:
n= Number of moles
T1 T2 R=Universal Gas Constant (0.0821 L.atm/mol.K)

𝑃2 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇2 AVOGADRO’S LAW
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 =
𝑇2 𝑇1 • Avogadro's Law is the relation which
𝑃1 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑇1 states that at the same temperature
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = and pressure, equal volumes of all gases
𝑃2 𝑃1 contain the same number of molecules.
The law was described by Italian chemist
and physicist Amedeo Avogadro in 1811.
• Avogadro's law states that the volume of
a gas is directly proportional to the
quantity of gas present if temperature and
pressure remain constant.

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 The Ultimate Chemistry Reviewer
• According to Avogadro’s law, different
gases with the same number of molecules
at the same condition of pressure and
temperature occupy the same volume.
• Based on the formula you can derive
four other formulas with different
unknown variables, and it is as follows.
𝑽𝟏 𝑽 𝟐
=
𝒏𝟏 𝒏 𝟐
𝑉2 𝑛1 𝑉1 𝑛2
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 =
𝑛2 𝑛1
𝑉1 𝑛2 𝑉2 𝑛1
𝑛1 = 𝑛2 =
𝑉2 𝑉1

Note: Please try the following

formulas with sample problems
and learn more about how to
derive formulas. You can
review the posted PowerPoint
presentation in your GENYO
for more examples and
detailed information.

Value the power of working hard today,

and witness yourself achieve the
pinnacle of success tomorrow.
- Sir Bryan

4TH GRADING CHEMISTRY REVIEWER