National Fertilizers Limited

Vijaipur Plant

SUMMER VOCATIONAL TRAINING

REPORT

“Study On Various Firefighting

Equipment and Their Application”

NATIONAL FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE

NAGPUR, MAHARASHTRA – 440013

B. TECH (Fire Engineering)

3rd YEAR (2021-2025 BATCH)

1
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

We bow in reverence to the almighty for bestowing upon us the opportunity and determination
to embark on this study. Learning is an active process hence perseverance to complete this task
has been a pleasing memory.

We Thank to the Management of NATIONAL FERTILIZERS LIMITED, who gave us the

opportunity for obtaining training at this prestigious organization, as a part of our academic
curriculum.

We express our sincere thanks to Mr. Sidheshwar Srivastav (Fire & Safety Department) and Mr.
Atul Kumar Srivastav (Fire & Safety Department) NFL Vijaipur, for their precious direction. He
always has been a source of inspiration and knowledge for us.

We are obliged to Mr. Sir , (Assistant Commandant) and Mr. Kapil Dev (Fire Inspector CISF) for
his invaluable guidance and unwavering support throughout our internship, we are truly grateful
for the opportunity to learn under his mentorship.

Also, we want to thank the Central Industrial Security Force for the Help they rendered
ungrudgingly in completion of the work.

NFL Plant Vijaipur:

1. Mr. Rehan Mansoori

2. Mr. Sachin Gautam
3. Ms. Tisha Meena
4. Mr. Ayush Chaware

2
 ABSTRACT

The National Fertilizers Limited (NFL) Vijaipur plant, located in Guna district, Madhya
Pradesh, India, is one of the most prominent urea production facilities in the country.
Established in 1988, the plant is divided into two units: Vijaipur I and Vijaipur II. The
primary feedstock for this plant is natural gas, making it one of the more
environmentally friendly fertilizer production units in India. Over the years, the plant has
undergone several upgrades to incorporate advanced technology, ensuring energy-
efficient and sustainable production processes.

The combined annual capacity of the Vijaipur plant exceeds 1.7 million metric tonnes of
urea, contributing significantly to the agricultural sector by meeting a substantial
portion of India's fertilizer demand. This high output is achieved through state-of-the-art
production techniques and stringent quality control measures, ensuring that the
fertilizers produced meet national and international standards.

The plant's infrastructure is designed to optimize resource utilization, with a strong

emphasis on minimizing environmental impact. This includes advanced mechanisms
for waste management, effluent treatment, and emission control. The Vijaipur plant's
commitment to environmental sustainability is further demonstrated through its
initiatives in water conservation and energy efficiency. These measures not only
enhance the plant's operational efficiency but also align with global standards for
sustainable industrial practices.

Safety is a paramount concern at the Vijaipur plant. Comprehensive safety protocols

and regular training programs are in place to ensure the well-being of the workforce and
the surrounding community. The plant has received several accolades for its safety
practices and operational excellence.

In addition to its industrial contributions, the NFL Vijaipur plant is actively involved in
community development initiatives. These include healthcare, education, and
infrastructure development projects that benefit the local population. By fostering a
symbiotic relationship with the community, the Vijaipur plant not only drives economic
growth but also enhances the quality of life in the region.

Overall, the National Fertilizers Limited Vijaipur plant stands as a model of industrial
efficiency, environmental sustainability, and community engagement, playing a crucial
role in India's agricultural and economic landscape.

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 INDEX

Sr No. Content Page No.

1. Introduction 5-7

2. Bio- Fertiliser Plant 8-10

3. Ammonia 11-14

4. Chlorine 15-18

5. Natural Gas 19-22

6. Sulphuric Acid 23-27

7. Sodium Hydroxide 28-32

8. 32-59
Fire-Fighting Equipment and Their
Application

9. Recommendation 60

4
 INTRODUCTION

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

Main raw material for National Fertilizers Ltd., Vijaipur Plant is Natural Gas supplied
from Bombay High through HBJ (HVJ) gas pipeline by M/s Gas Authority of India Ltd.
Natural Gas is used in Captive Power Plant and Ammonia Plants. Provision of dual fuel
ie. N.G. and Naphtha has been made for feed in Primary Reformer of Ammonia Line-II,
HRU-GT/PAC and HRU &GTG of C.P.P. Naphtha is generally supplied from Mathura &
Koyali Refinery through railway wagons. There are three Gas Turbine Generator of 16
MW capacities each installed for power generation.

AMMONIA PLANT:
At NFL. Vijaipur, we have two Ammonia plants of 2x1520 MTPD_ each. based on the
renowned Haldor TopsoeSteam reforming Process. The plants have been recently
revamped to 1750 MTPD & 1864 MTPD capacity respectively. The Natural Gas/ Naphtha
is de sulphurised and mixed with steam and passed in a battery of tubes in a furnace
called Primary Reformer, where the Gas Steam mixture passes through the bed of
Nickel catalyst as well as heated externally to a temperature of 800 °C, to reform the
hydrocarbons into CO, CO2 and H2. This partially reformed gas mixture is then passed
on to the Secondary Reformer where a ir is added in stoichiometric proportion to supply
the required N2 as well as to facilitate the complete reforming. The reformed gas passes
through the high, medium and low temperature shift converters, where the CO is
converted into CO2. The gas mixture containing N2 and H2 in the ratio of 1.3 is then
methanated to remove the final traces of CO, CO2 and compressed in Syn. Gas
Compressor to a pressure of 220 Kg/Cm²g and passed over iron catalyst to convert into
Ammonia. The Ammonia formed is refrigerated at -33 °C and stored in the atmospheric
storage tanks.
The waste heat generated in various stages of exothermic reactions is utilized to
produce steam at 105 ata pressure. This steam coupled with that from an auxiliary
boiler provides power for all the drives in the Ammonia Plant and satisfies the process
steam requirement, reliability and energy efficiency. In Ammonia Plant Line - II the
process air compressor used is Natural Gas turbine driven & exhaust of gas turbine &
additional firing in HRU are used to produce HP steam @ 117 Te/hr.

5
REACTION IN DESULPHURISATION

RSH + H2 -------> RH + H2S

R1SSR2 +3H2 ----->R1H+R2H+2H2S
R1SR2 + 3H2 ----->R1H+R2H + H2S
COS + H2 -------> CO + H2S

REACTION IN ABSORPTION
ZnO + H2S ------> ZnS + H2O
ZnO + COS ------> ZnS + CO2

REACTION IN REFORMING
CnH2n+2 + 2H2O----> Cn-1H2n+CO2+3H2 (endothermic)
CH4 + 2H2 ----> CO2 + 4H2
CO2 + H2 ------> CO+ H2O

REACTION IN CO-CONVERSION
CO + H2O ----> CO2 + H2 (exothermic)

REACTION IN CO2 REMOVAL

K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O --> 2KHCO3

REACTION IN METHANATION:
CO + 3H2--> CH4 + H2O (exothermic)
CO2 + 4H2 ---> CH4 + 2H2O

REACTION IN AMMONIA SYNTHESIS:

3H2 + N2---> 2NH3 (exothermic)

6
UREA PLANT:
We have two Urea plants of 2x2620 MTPD capacity each and after revamp the re-
assessed capacities have been changed to 3030 MTPD & 3231 MTPD respectively The
Plant is based on the proven Snamprogetti Ammonia Stripping Process. Ammonia and
CO2 obtained from the Ammonia Plant is pressurised and allowed to react in an
autoclave at a pressure of 145 atm and temperature of 180 °C maintaining a net ratio of
NH3/CO2 3.5:1. They react in the autoclave to form a mixture of Ammonium
Carbamate, Urea and Water. This mixture flows into the steam heated falling film
stripper. Urea Solution is let down further in stages to free it from unconverted
carbamate. The Urea solution is further concentrated in the vacuum evaporators and
made as prills in 96 &104 mtr high Natural Draught Prilling Towers to achieve better
quality of Urea Prills. The unconverted Ammonia and CO2 are recombined to form
carbamate solution and recycled back into the autoclave to achieve further conversion.

The Ammonia stripping process enables to strip off and re-condense most of the
carbamate at the autoclave pressure itself, facilitating the recycling of this into
autoclave just by an ejector The Stripping, Condensing and Recycling at high Pressure
saves a lot of energy otherwise spent on carbamate pumping as well as enables to
generate LP steam within the Plant.

REACTION:
2NH3 + CO2 ---> NH2COONH4 (exothermic)
NH2COONH4 ----> NH2CONH2 + H2O (endothermic)

CAPTIVE POWER AND STEAM GENERATION PLANT

The power and steam requirement of the plant are met from the Gas Turbine in addition
to supply from State Grid and Heat Recovery Units and Package Boiler These are very
economical and energy efficient systems. The fuel for these units is Natural Gas or
Naphtha/NGL.

OTHER UTILITIES:
Facilities exist for the supply of utility items like Raw Water, Demineralised Water,
Cooling Water, Instrument Air, Inert Gas etc.

7
 BIO- FERTILIZERS PLANT

OBJECTIVE & BRIEF DESCRIPTION: -

The three types of Bio-fertilizers are being produced at NFL Vijaipur, are as follows
a) Rhizobium
b) P.S.B.
c) Azotobacter

The technology for the plant is supplied by M/S Madras Fertilizers Ltd., Chennai. The
mother culture produced from reputed Research Institutes like IARI, New Delhi,
IMTECH, Chandigarh, Regional Bio Fertilizer Centre, Jabalpur etc. is multiplied from test
tube to flask and from flask to bottle under controlled conditions. Then it is transferred
to fermentor tank and allowed to multiply. The broth from the tank is checked for quality
and mixed with finely divided lignite powder as carrier. The product is packed in LDPE
bags/Laminated Pouches for marketing.

RAW MATERIALS USED: -

a) FOR RHIZOBIUM: -
1. Calcium Carbonate (L.R.)
2. Calcium Carbonate (Ordinary)
3. Di-Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate (K2HPO4)
4. Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4 7H2O)
5. Mannitol
6. Lignite Powder
7. Sodium Chloride (L.R.)
8. Yeast Extract

b) FOR P.S.B: -
1. Ammonium Sulphate
2. Calcium Carbonate (Ordinary)
3. Dextrose
4. Ferrous Sulphate Tri-Calcium Phosphate

8
5. Lignite Powder
6. Magnesium Sulphate
7. Manganese Sulphate
8. Potassium Chloride Yeast Extract
9. Tri-Calcium Phosphate

c) FOR AZOTOBACTOR: -
1. Lignite Powder
2. Calcium Carbonate (Ordinary)
3. Sucrose
4. Di-Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate
5. Magnesium Sulphate
6. Sodium Chloride
7. Ferric Sulphate
8. Sodium Molybdate

PROCESS DESCRIPTION: -
production of Bio-Fertilizers involves different stages of multiplication of bacteria under
rich quality control even starting from procurement of mother cultures. The mother
culture to produce bio-fertilizers is generally obtained from Agricultural universities or
from the National bio-fertilizers centres set up by Govt. of India.

A process flow diagram is enclosed as annexure. The process involves multiplication of

organisms in glass containers initially at the laboratory and then in the fermenter and
blending it with neutralized and sterilized carrier material (Lignite Powder / Charcoal).
Curing and packing in polythene bags and storing them under recommended
conditions, to ensure a minimum count of viable cells as per FCO-1985 specifications.

9
 Mother Culture
I
Subculture
I
Flask Culture
I
Bottle Culture
I
Fermento
I
Broth

PROVISION OF PPE'S, FIRE FIGHTING & TRAINING:

a) PROVISION OF PERSONNEL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS: -
Personnel protective equipments are provided to the employees as per the
requirements.
It is a non-hazardous plant, however all required safety equipments have been provided
in the plant.

b) PROVISION OF FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENTS: -

Required first aid firefighting equipments are provided in the plant. Fire hydrant points
have been provided in and around the plant and adequate firefighting equipments are
available to handle all type of emergencies.

c) TRAINING OF PLANT PERSONNEL: -

Adequate training has been given to all plant personnel and workers are trained with
plant operation as well as maintenance.

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 AMMONIA

Chemical and Physical Properties of Ammonia

Chemical Properties
Chemical Formula: NH₃
Molecular Weight: 17.031 g/mol
Chemical Structure: One nitrogen atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms in a trigonal
pyramidal shape.
Reactivity:

• Base: Ammonia acts as a weak base, forming ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) in water.
• Solubility: Highly soluble in water, forming ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH).
• Reaction with Acids: Reacts with acids to form ammonium salts (e.g., NH₃ + HCl
→ NH₄Cl).
• Oxidizing and Reducing Properties: Can act as a reducing agent, reacting with
halogens and certain metal oxides.
• Decomposition: Decomposes into nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high
temperatures.
Physical Properties

• State: Colourless gas at room temperature.

• Odor: Pungent, suffocating odor.
• Boiling Point: -33.34°C (-28.01°F)
• Melting Point: -77.73°C (-107.91°F)
• Density: 0.73 g/L at 25°C (gas); liquid ammonia has a density of 0.682 g/cm³
at its boiling point.
• Vapor Pressure: 8.5 bar at 20°C.
• Critical Temperature: 132.4°C.
• Critical Pressure: 113.5 atm.
• Specific Gravity: 0.682 (liquid at boiling point).
• Viscosity: Low viscosity in both liquid and gas phases.
• Flammability: Ammonia is not highly flammable but can form explosive
mixtures with air within the concentration range of 16-25%.

11
 Associated Hazards

Health Hazards
• Inhalation: Exposure to ammonia gas can cause respiratory irritation, coughing,
and damage to the lungs. High concentrations can be fatal.
• Skin Contact: Ammonia can cause irritation and chemical burns upon contact
with skin.
• Eye Contact: Exposure can result in severe eye irritation, burns, and potential
permanent eye damage.
• Ingestion: Swallowing ammonia can cause corrosive damage to the mouth,
throat, and stomach.

Environmental Hazards

• Aquatic Toxicity: Ammonia is highly toxic to aquatic life and can lead to
significant environmental damage if released into water bodies.
• Air Pollution: Ammonia contributes to the formation of fine particulate matter
(PM2.5) and can affect air quality.
• Fire and Explosion Hazards
• Combustibility: While ammonia is not highly flammable, it can form explosive
mixtures with air under certain conditions.
• Reactivity with Other Chemicals: Can react violently with strong oxidizers,
halogens, and acids, potentially causing fires or explosions.

12
 Safety Precautions

In Case of Leakage
Immediate Actions:

• Evacuate the area and restrict access.

• Notify emergency services and facility management.
• Use water spray to disperse vapors if safe to do so.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
Wear appropriate PPE including chemical-resistant gloves, goggles, and respiratory
protection (e.g., self-contained breathing apparatus - SCBA).

Containment and Cleanup:

• Use water spray to knock down vapors.

• Contain the spill with non-combustible absorbent materials.
• Neutralize spills with dilute acid (e.g., hydrochloric acid) if safe and trained to do
so.
• Ventilation:
• Ensure adequate ventilation in the affected area to disperse ammonia vapors.
• Monitoring:
• Use ammonia detectors and continuous monitoring to ensure the area is safe for
re-entry.

First Aid Measures:

• Inhalation: Move the affected person to fresh air and seek medical attention
immediately.
• Skin Contact: Rinse the affected area with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing.
• Eye Contact: Flush eyes with water for at least 15 minutes and seek medical
attention immediately.
• Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Seek medical attention immediately.
• General Safety Measures

13
Storage:

• Store ammonia in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible

materials (e.g., acids, halogens, oxidizers).
• Use appropriate storage containers made of materials resistant to ammonia
(e.g., steel, certain plastics).

Handling:

• Use proper ventilation systems in areas where ammonia is used or stored.

• Implement strict procedures for handling ammonia, including training for
personnel on safe handling practices.

Emergency Planning:

• Develop and implement an emergency response plan for ammonia leaks and
exposures.
• Conduct regular drills and training sessions for employees on emergency
procedures and the use of PPE.

14
 CHLORINE

Chemical and Physical Properties of Chlorine

Chemical Properties
• Chemical Formula: Cl₂
• Molecular Weight: 70.906 g/mol
• Chemical Structure: Diatomic molecule consisting of two chlorine atoms.

Reactivity:

• Oxidizing Agent: Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent, readily accepting electrons

from other substances.
• Reaction with Water: Reacts with water to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) (Cl₂ + H₂O → HCl + HOCl).
• Reaction with Organic Compounds: Chlorine can chlorinate organic
compounds, forming chlorinated hydrocarbons.
• Reaction with Metals: Reacts with many metals, forming metal chlorides (e.g.,
2Al + 3Cl₂ → 2AlCl₃).

Physical Properties
• State: Greenish-yellow gas at room temperature.
• Odor: Pungent, irritating odor.
• Boiling Point: -34.04°C (-29.27°F)
• Melting Point: -101.5°C (-150.7°F)
• Density: 3.2 g/L at 25°C (gas); liquid chlorine has a density of 1.56 g/cm³ at its
boiling point.
• Vapor Pressure: 6.7 atm at 20°C.
• Critical Temperature: 144°C.
• Critical Pressure: 76 atm.
• Specific Gravity: 1.56 (liquid at boiling point).
• Solubility: Moderately soluble in water, more soluble in organic solvents like
carbon tetrachloride and chloroform.
• Flammability: Chlorine is not flammable but can support combustion by acting
as an oxidizer.

15
 Associated Hazards

Health Hazards
• Inhalation: Chlorine gas is highly irritating and can cause severe respiratory
damage, including coughing, choking, and pulmonary edema. High
concentrations can be fatal.
• Skin Contact: Chlorine can cause skin irritation, burns, and blistering upon
contact.
• Eye Contact: Exposure can result in severe eye irritation, burns, and potential
permanent eye damage.
• Ingestion: Swallowing chlorine can cause corrosive damage to the mouth, throat,
and stomach.

Environmental Hazards
• Aquatic Toxicity: Chlorine is highly toxic to aquatic life and can cause significant
environmental damage if released into water bodies.
• Air Pollution: Chlorine gas can contribute to air pollution and pose risks to public
health and the environment.
• Fire and Explosion Hazards
• Combustibility: While chlorine is not flammable, it can react explosively with
hydrogen and other combustible materials.
• Reactivity with Other Chemicals: Can react violently with organic compounds,
ammonia, and certain metals, potentially causing fires or explosions.

16
 Safety Precautions

In Case of Leakage
Immediate Actions:

• Evacuate the area and restrict access.

• Notify emergency services and facility management.
• Use water spray to disperse vapours if safe to do so.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
Wear appropriate PPE including chemical-resistant gloves, goggles, and respiratory
protection (e.g., self-contained breathing apparatus - SCBA).

Containment and Cleanup:

• Use water spray to knock down vapours.

• Contain the spill with non-combustible absorbent materials.
• Neutralize spills with sodium thiosulfate or sodium bisulfite if safe and trained to
do so.
• Ventilation: Ensure adequate ventilation in the affected area to disperse chlorine
vapours.

Monitoring:
Use chlorine detectors and continuous monitoring to ensure the area is safe for re-
entry.

First Aid Measures:

• Inhalation: Move the affected person to fresh air and seek medical attention
immediately.
• Skin Contact: Rinse the affected area with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing.
• Eye Contact: Flush eyes with water for at least 15 minutes and seek medical
attention immediately.
• Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Seek medical attention immediately.

17
 General Safety Measures

Storage:

• Store chlorine in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible

materials (e.g., organic compounds, ammonia, metals).
• Use appropriate storage containers made of materials resistant to chlorine (e.g.,
steel, certain plastics).

Handling:

• Use proper ventilation systems in areas where chlorine is used or stored.

• Implement strict procedures for handling chlorine, including training for
personnel on safe handling practices.

Emergency Planning:

• Develop and implement an emergency response plan for chlorine leaks and
exposures.
• Conduct regular drills and training sessions for employees on emergency
procedures and the use of PPE.

18
 NATURAL GAS

Chemical and Physical Properties of Natural Gas

Chemical Properties
Composition:

• Primarily methane (CH₄), typically 70-90%

• May contain ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈), butane (C₄H₁₀), carbon dioxide
(CO₂), nitrogen (N₂), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), and trace amounts of other gases.
Molecular Weight: Approximately 16 g/mol (varies with exact composition).
Combustion:
Highly combustible, burns with a blue flame producing carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water
vapor (H₂O).
CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O.
Physical Properties

• State: Colorless and odorless gas at room temperature (an odorant like
mercaptan is usually added for detection).
• Density: Lighter than air; density approximately 0.7 kg/m³.
• Boiling Point: -161.5°C (-258.7°F) for methane.
• Melting Point: -182.5°C (-296.5°F) for methane.
• Vapor Pressure: Gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP).
• Critical Temperature: -82.6°C.
• Critical Pressure: 45.8 atm.
• Solubility: Slightly soluble in water; more soluble in organic solvents.
• Flammability Range:
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL): 5%
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL): 15%
• Auto-ignition Temperature: Approximately 537°C (999°F).

19
 Associated Hazards

Health Hazards
Inhalation:

• Methane itself is relatively non-toxic but can displace oxygen, leading to

asphyxiation in confined spaces.
• Presence of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) can cause respiratory issues, eye irritation,
and at high concentrations, can be fatal.
Exposure to Additives: Odorants like mercaptan can cause irritation to the respiratory
system and eyes.

Environmental Hazards
• Greenhouse Gas: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, significantly contributing
to climate change.
• Pollution: Leakage can contribute to air pollution and the formation of ground-
level ozone.

Fire and Explosion Hazards

• Highly Flammable: Natural gas is highly flammable and can form explosive
mixtures with air.
• Explosion Risk: Accumulation of natural gas in confined spaces can lead to
explosions if an ignition source is present.

20
 Safety Precautions

In Case of Leakage
Immediate Actions:

• Evacuate the area and restrict access.

• Shut off the gas supply if it is safe to do so.
• Notify emergency services and the gas supplier.
• Avoid using electrical switches or open flames.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
Use appropriate PPE including flame-resistant clothing, safety goggles, and respiratory
protection (e.g., self-contained breathing apparatus - SCBA) in high-risk areas.
Containment and Cleanup:

• Ventilate the area to disperse gas.

• Ensure the gas is dispersed to a safe location away from ignition sources.
• Do not attempt to contain or clean up gas leaks without proper training and
equipment.

Monitoring:

• Use gas detectors to continuously monitor the concentration of natural gas in

the air.
• Ensure detectors are calibrated and maintained regularly.

First Aid Measures:

• Inhalation: Move the affected person to fresh air and seek medical attention if
they exhibit symptoms of asphyxiation or H₂S exposure.
• Skin Contact: Natural gas itself poses minimal risk to the skin, but frostbite can
occur with contact with liquid natural gas (LNG). Rinse with warm water.
• Eye Contact: If exposed to odorants, rinse eyes with water for at least 15 minutes
and seek medical attention.
• Ingestion: Not applicable as natural gas is a gas at standard temperature and
pressure.

21
 General Safety Measures

Storage:

• Store in well-ventilated areas, away from sources of ignition and combustible

materials.
• Ensure storage facilities are equipped with gas detectors and proper ventilation
systems.

Handling:

• Follow proper procedures for the safe handling of natural gas.

• Train personnel on safe handling practices and emergency procedures.
• Use flame-resistant tools and clothing when working with natural gas.

Emergency Planning:

• Develop and implement an emergency response plan for natural gas leaks and
exposures.
• Conduct regular drills and training sessions for employees on emergency
procedures and the use of PPE

22
 Sulfuric Acid

Chemical and Physical Properties of Sulfuric Acid

Chemical Properties

• Chemical Formula: H₂SO₄

• Molecular Weight: 98.079 g/mol
• Chemical Structure: Consists of two hydrogen atoms, one sulfur atom, and four
oxygen atoms.
Reactivity:

• Strong Acid: Sulfuric acid is a strong acid and dissociates completely in

water to produce hydrogen ions (H⁺) and sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻).
• Dehydrating Agent: Highly effective in removing water from other
substances.
• Oxidizing Agent: Can act as an oxidizing agent, especially at high
concentrations.
• Reaction with Metals: Reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas (e.g.,
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂).
• Reaction with Bases: Reacts exothermically with bases to form water and
salts (e.g., H₂SO₄ + 2 NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2 H₂O).
Physical Properties
• State: Colorless to slightly yellow, viscous liquid.
• Odor: Odorless.
• Boiling Point: 337°C (639°F) at 1 atm.
• Melting Point: 10.31°C (50.56°F).
• Density: 1.84 g/cm³ at 25°C.
• Viscosity: 26.7 cP at 20°C.
• Solubility: Highly soluble in water, with exothermic heat release.
• Vapor Pressure: 0.001 mmHg at 20°C.
• Concentration: Commercially available in various concentrations,
typically ranging from 10% to 98%.

23
 Associated Hazards

Health Hazards
• Inhalation: Vapours or mists can cause severe respiratory irritation and
damage, including coughing, difficulty breathing, and pulmonary edema.
• Skin Contact: Causes severe skin burns and blistering upon contact.
• Eye Contact: Exposure can result in severe eye irritation, burns, and
potential permanent eye damage.
• Ingestion: Swallowing sulfuric acid can cause severe burns and damage
to the mouth, throat, esophagus, and stomach, and can be fatal.
• Environmental Hazards
• Water Pollution: Highly toxic to aquatic life and can cause significant
environmental damage if released into water bodies.
• Soil Contamination: Can cause soil acidification and harm to plant and
animal life.

Fire and Explosion Hazards

• Combustibility: Non-flammable, but can react with combustible
materials.
• Reactivity with Other Chemicals: Reacts violently with water, organic
materials, and metals, potentially causing fires or explosions.

24
 Safety Precautions
In Case of Leakage
Immediate Actions:

• Evacuate the area and restrict access.

• Notify emergency services and facility management.
• Avoid direct contact with the spilled material.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):

Wear appropriate PPE including acid-resistant gloves, goggles, face

shield, and chemical-resistant clothing.
Use respiratory protection (e.g., self-contained breathing apparatus -
SCBA) in areas with high vapor concentrations.

Containment and Cleanup:

• Contain the spill using non-combustible absorbent materials such as

sand, earth, or vermiculite.
• Neutralize the acid with a suitable neutralizing agent (e.g., sodium
bicarbonate, lime) if safe and trained to do so.
• Collect the neutralized material in appropriate containers for disposal
according to local regulations.
• Ensure the area is well-ventilated during cleanup operations.

Ventilation:

• Ensure adequate ventilation in the affected area to disperse any vapours

or fumes.

Monitoring:

• Use acid vapor detectors to monitor the concentration of sulfuric acid in

the air.
• Ensure detectors are calibrated and maintained regularly.

First Aid Measures:

25
• Inhalation: Move the affected person to fresh air and seek medical
attention immediately.
• Skin Contact: Rinse the affected area with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes. Remove contaminated clothing. Seek medical attention.
• Eye Contact: Flush eyes with water for at least 15 minutes and seek
medical attention immediately.
• Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Rinse mouth with water and seek
medical attention immediately.

26
 General Safety Measures

Storage:

• Store sulfuric acid in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from

incompatible materials (e.g., organic materials, bases, metals).
• Use appropriate storage containers made of materials resistant to
sulfuric acid (e.g., glass, certain plastics).

Handling:

• Follow proper procedures for the safe handling of sulfuric acid.

• Train personnel on safe handling practices and emergency procedures.
• Use proper ventilation systems in areas where sulfuric acid is used or
stored.

Emergency Planning:

• Develop and implement an emergency response plan for sulfuric acid

spills and exposures.
• Conduct regular drills and training sessions for employees on emergency
procedures and the use of PPE.

27
 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Chemical and Physical Properties of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Chemical Properties

• Chemical Formula: NaOH

• Molecular Weight: 39.997 g/mol
• Chemical Structure: Consists of one sodium (Na) atom, one oxygen (O) atom,
and one hydrogen (H) atom.

Reactivity:
• Strong Base: NaOH is a strong base, dissociating completely in water to form
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) and sodium ions (Na⁺).
• Reaction with Acids: Reacts exothermically with acids to form water and salts
(e.g., NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O).
• Reaction with Metals: Can react with certain metals (e.g., aluminium, zinc) to
produce hydrogen gas.
• Reaction with Organic Compounds: Can saponify fats and oils, forming soaps.

Physical Properties
• State: White solid (available as pellets, flakes, granules, and in solution form).
• Odor: Odorless.
• Boiling Point: 1,388°C (2,530°F).
• Melting Point: 318°C (604°F).
• Density: 2.13 g/cm³ at 20°C.
• Solubility: Highly soluble in water, with significant heat release upon dissolution.
Also soluble in ethanol and methanol.
• Vapor Pressure: Negligible at room temperature.
• Hygroscopic: Readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from the air, forming
sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃).

28
 Associated Hazards
Health Hazards
• Inhalation: Dust or mist can cause severe respiratory irritation, coughing, and
difficulty breathing. High concentrations can cause damage to the respiratory
system.
• Skin Contact: Causes severe skin burns, redness, and blistering upon contact.
• Eye Contact: Exposure can result in severe eye irritation, burns, and potential
permanent eye damage, including blindness.
• Ingestion: Swallowing NaOH can cause severe burns and damage to the mouth,
throat, esophagus, and stomach, and can be fatal.

Environmental Hazards
• Water Pollution: Highly toxic to aquatic life due to its high alkalinity and can
cause significant environmental damage if released into water bodies.
• Soil Contamination: Can cause soil alkalization, affecting plant and animal life.

Fire and Explosion Hazards

• Combustibility: Non-flammable, but can react exothermically with water and
certain chemicals.
• Reactivity with Other Chemicals: Reacts violently with acids, certain metals, and
organic compounds, potentially causing fires or explosions.

29
 Safety Precautions

In Case of Leakage
Immediate Actions:

• Evacuate the area and restrict access.

• Notify emergency services and facility management.
• Avoid direct contact with the spilled material.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):

Wear appropriate PPE including chemical-resistant gloves, goggles, face shield, and
chemical-resistant clothing.
Use respiratory protection (e.g., self-contained breathing apparatus - SCBA) in areas
with high dust or mist concentrations.

Containment and Cleanup:

• Contain the spill using non-combustible absorbent materials such as sand,

earth, or vermiculite.
• Neutralize the spill with a suitable neutralizing agent (e.g., dilute acetic acid,
citric acid) if safe and trained to do so.
• Collect the neutralized material in appropriate containers for disposal according
to local regulations.
• Ensure the area is well-ventilated during cleanup operations.

30
Ventilation:

• Ensure adequate ventilation in the affected area to disperse any dust or mist.

Monitoring:

• Use pH meters or indicators to monitor the concentration of NaOH in the air and
water.
• Ensure detectors are calibrated and maintained regularly.

First Aid Measures:

• Inhalation: Move the affected person to fresh air and seek medical attention
immediately.
• Skin Contact: Rinse the affected area with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing. Seek medical attention.
• Eye Contact: Flush eyes with water for at least 15 minutes and seek medical
attention immediately.
• Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Rinse mouth with water and seek medical
attention immediately.

31
 General Safety Measures

Storage:

• Store NaOH in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible materials
(e.g., acids, organic materials).
• Use appropriate storage containers made of materials resistant to NaOH (e.g.,
certain plastics, stainless steel).

Handling:

• Follow proper procedures for the safe handling of NaOH.

• Train personnel on safe handling practices and emergency procedures.
• Use proper ventilation systems in areas where NaOH is used or stored.

Emergency Planning:

• Develop and implement an emergency response plan for NaOH spills and
exposures.
• Conduct regular drills and training sessions for employees on emergency
procedures and the use of PPE.

32
 FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT AND THEIR
APPLICATION

1. Collecting & Dividing Breaching

Collecting Breeching
Definition: Collecting breeching is a piece of firefighting equipment used to combine the
flow from two or more hoses into a single stream.
Application:

• Multi-Source Water Supply: It is commonly used when there are multiple water
sources (e.g., multiple hydrants or fire engines) that need to be combined to
increase the water flow and pressure.
• Fire Fighting Operations: Allows firefighters to effectively manage and control
water distribution during large fire fighting operations where a higher volume of
water is needed.
Structure:

• Inlets: Multiple inlets (usually equipped with valves) for connecting hoses.
• Outlet: A single outlet through which the combined water flow is directed.
• Control Valves: Equipped with control valves to regulate the flow from each inlet.

Dividing Breeching
Definition: Dividing breeching is a piece of fire fighting equipment used to split a single
hose line into two or more separate lines.
Application:

• Branching Water Supply: It is used when the water supply from a single source
needs to be divided to supply multiple hoses, allowing firefighters to tackle
different areas of the fire simultaneously.
• Fire Fighting Operations: Enhances flexibility and efficiency in distributing water
to various parts of the fireground.
Structure:

• Inlet: A single inlet for connecting the main hose line.

33
 • Outlets: Multiple outlets for connecting additional hose lines.
• Control Valves: Equipped with control valves to manage the flow to each outlet.

Importance in Fire Fighting

• Efficiency: Both collecting and dividing breeching devices play a crucial role in
ensuring efficient water management during firefighting operations.
• Flexibility: They provide flexibility in adapting to various fireground scenarios,
whether it requires combining multiple water sources or distributing water to
different attack lines.
• Control: Equipped with control valves, these devices allow precise control over
the water flow, enhancing the effectiveness of firefighting efforts.
Safety Considerations

• Regular Maintenance: Ensuring that all valves and connections are in good
working condition to prevent leaks and failures during operations.
• Proper Training: Firefighters should be trained in the correct use and handling of
breeching devices to maximize their effectiveness and ensure safety.
• Compatibility: Ensuring that the breeching devices are compatible with the
hoses and other equipment used by the fire department.

2. Foam Making Branch

Definition
A Foam Making Branch, also known as a Foam Branchpipe or Foam Nozzle, is a
specialized firefighting tool designed to produce and apply foam to extinguish fires,
particularly those involving flammable liquids and gases (Class B fires).
Components

34
 • Foam Inductor: Draws in foam concentrate from a container and mixes it with
water.
• Branch pipe (Nozzle): Dispenses the foam mixture, creating a foam spray that
can blanket a fire.
• Air Aspirating Mechanism: Introduces air into the foam-water mixture, generating
a stable foam with good expansion properties.

Application

Fire Suppression:

• Class B Fires: Effective against flammable liquid fires, such as those involving
oil, gasoline, and other hydrocarbons.
• Class A Fires: Can also be used on solid combustibles to prevent re-ignition by
creating a cooling and smothering layer.

Vapor Suppression:
Prevents the release of flammable vapors from liquid spills, reducing the risk of ignition.

Cooling Agent:
Cools the surrounding environment and surfaces, lowering the temperature to reduce
fire intensity and prevent spread.

Types of Foam

• Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF): Creates a thin film on the surface of
flammable liquids, preventing oxygen from reaching the fuel.
• Alcohol-Resistant Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AR-AFFF): Effective on both
hydrocarbon and polar solvent fires.
• Protein Foam: Made from natural protein sources, providing good stability and
heat resistance.
• Synthetic Foam: Uses synthetic detergents, offering high expansion rates and
effective coverage.

Advantages

• Effective Coverage: Provides a large surface area coverage, smothering the fire
and cutting off the oxygen supply.

35
 • Versatility: Suitable for a variety of fire types, particularly effective on flammable
liquid fires.
• Cooling Effect: Reduces the temperature of the fire and surrounding area,
preventing re-ignition.
• Environmentally Friendly Options: Some modern foam concentrates are
designed to be less harmful to the environment.
Safety Considerations

• Proper Concentration: Ensure the correct ratio of foam concentrate to water for
effective fire suppression.
• Equipment Maintenance: Regularly check and maintain foam making branches
and associated equipment to ensure reliability during emergencies.
Training: Firefighters should be trained in the correct use of foam making branches,
including understanding different types of foam and their applications.
Environmental Impact: Be aware of the environmental regulations regarding the use
and disposal of foam concentrates, especially those containing PFAS (Per- and
Polyfluoroalkyl Substances).

3. Triple Purpose Branch

Definition
A Triple Purpose Branch, also known as a Triple Purpose Nozzle, is a versatile firefighting
nozzle designed to deliver water in three different patterns: jet, spray, and shut-off. This
multifunctional tool allows firefighters to adapt their water application strategy based
on the specific requirements of the fire scene.

36
Components

• Nozzle Body: The main structure of the branch, usually made from durable
materials like brass or aluminum.
• Adjustable Head: Enables switching between different water discharge patterns.
• Control Valve: Allows firefighters to start, stop, or regulate the flow of water.
Application
Jet Stream:

• Long-Range Attack: The jet stream provides a concentrated and powerful water
flow for long-range firefighting, penetrating deep into the fire.
• Cooling: Effective for cooling hot surfaces and knocking down flames from a
distance.
Spray Pattern:

• Wider Coverage: The spray pattern disperses water over a broader area, creating
a water shield that protects firefighters and cools the surrounding environment.
• Heat Absorption: Helps absorb heat and reduce the temperature of the fire,
preventing the spread and protecting nearby structures.
Shut-Off:

• Control: The shut-off function allows firefighters to quickly stop the water flow
when needed, conserving water and enabling precise control over the firefighting
efforts.
• Mobility: Facilitates safe movement and repositioning of firefighters without
wasting water.
Advantages

• Versatility: Combines three essential functions into one device, reducing the
need for multiple nozzles and simplifying equipment management.
• Efficiency: Enhances firefighting efficiency by allowing rapid adjustment of water
discharge patterns to match the evolving conditions of the fire scene.
• Control: Provides precise control over water application, enabling firefighters to
effectively manage water usage and adapt to different firefighting scenarios.
• Durability: Made from robust materials, ensuring reliability and long service life
even in harsh firefighting conditions.
Safety Considerations

• Training: Firefighters should be trained in the proper use and handling of the
triple purpose branch to maximize its effectiveness and ensure safety during
operations.
• Regular Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance are essential to
ensure that the nozzle operates smoothly and effectively when needed.

37
 • Compatibility: Ensure compatibility with the hose and water supply systems
used by the fire department to prevent operational issues.

4. Water Curtain
Definition
A water curtain is a firefighting technique and equipment used to create a continuous
sheet of water to protect against the spread of fire, heat, and smoke. It is deployed by
using specialized nozzles or equipment to produce a barrier of water droplets.

Components

• Water Curtain Nozzles: Specially designed nozzles that produce a flat, wide
spray pattern, creating a wall of water.
• Piping and Hose System: Delivers water to the nozzles from a water source, such
as a fire hydrant or fire engine.
• Control Valves: Allow firefighters to start, stop, and regulate the flow of water to
the nozzles.
Application
Fire Containment:

• Prevents the spread of fire to adjacent areas or structures by creating a barrier

that absorbs heat and blocks radiant heat.

38
 • Commonly used in industrial facilities, warehouses, and during wildland
firefighting operations.
Exposure Protection:

• Protects firefighters, equipment, and nearby structures from intense heat and
flames.
• Can be used to cool down structures and prevent ignition from radiant heat.
Smoke Control:

• Helps in controlling the movement of smoke, making it easier for firefighters to

operate and for evacuations to occur.
• Reduces visibility issues caused by smoke, enhancing safety.
Advantages

• Heat Absorption: The water curtain absorbs and dissipates heat, reducing the
temperature and protecting exposed surfaces and personnel.
• Fire Spread Prevention: Creates a physical barrier that prevents flames from
jumping to nearby structures or areas.
• Versatility: Can be used in various fire scenarios, including structural fires,
wildfires, and industrial fires.
• Visibility Improvement: Helps to reduce the density of smoke, improving visibility
for firefighters and evacuees.
Safety Considerations

• Proper Deployment: Ensure that water curtain nozzles are correctly positioned
and aimed to provide effective coverage.
• Adequate Water Supply: Requires a continuous and reliable water source to
maintain the effectiveness of the curtain.
• Training: Firefighters should be trained in the correct use and deployment of
water curtain systems to maximize their protective benefits.
• Regular Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance of the nozzles and
piping system are essential to ensure proper functioning during an emergency.

39
 5. Long Branch ( Branch pipe)
Definition
In firefighting terminology, a long branch refers to a type of branch pipe or nozzle that is
designed for delivering water over long distances with high pressure and velocity. It is
typically used in situations where firefighters need to reach fires that are not easily
accessible or are at a considerable distance.
Components

• Nozzle: The nozzle of a long branch is designed to produce a powerful,

concentrated stream of water.
• Control Valve: Allows firefighters to regulate the flow rate and pressure of the
water.
• Handling Lugs or Grips: Provide ergonomic handles or grips for firefighters to
hold and manoeuvre the long branch during operations.
• Connector: Attaches the long branch to a hose, which is connected to a water
source such as a fire engine or hydrant.
Application
Long-Range Firefighting:

• Used to deliver water to fires that are located far away or are difficult to access
due to terrain or structural barriers.
• Effective in reaching fires on upper floors of buildings or in areas where direct
access is limited.
High-Pressure Applications:

• Capable of delivering water at high pressures, which is necessary to penetrate

deep into a fire and extinguish flames effectively.
40
 • Used in conjunction with fire engines or water towers to provide elevated water
streams.
Industrial and Structural Fires:

• Commonly employed in industrial settings, warehouses, and large-scale

structural fires where a robust and powerful water stream is required.
Advantages

• Reach: Provides extended reach and penetration power, allowing firefighters to

effectively target and suppress fires from a safe distance.
• Fire Suppression: Capable of delivering a high volume of water to quickly
extinguish flames and cool hot surfaces.
• Versatility: Suitable for various firefighting scenarios, including urban firefighting,
industrial fires, and wildfire control.
Safety Considerations

• Proper Training: Firefighters must undergo training in the operation and handling
of long branches to ensure safe and effective use.
• Equipment Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance of long branches
are essential to ensure they function properly during emergency situations.
• Operational Coordination: Effective coordination between firefighters and
operators is crucial to control and direct the water stream accurately and safely.

41
 6. Short Branch (Branch pipe)
Definition
In firefighting, a short branch, also known as a branch pipe or nozzle, refers to a type of
nozzle that is typically used for delivering water in firefighting operations at a shorter
range and lower pressure compared to long branches. It is a versatile tool that allows
firefighters to direct water with precision and control.

Components

• Nozzle: The nozzle of a short branch is designed to produce various water

discharge patterns, including solid stream and spray.
• Control Valve: Allows firefighters to adjust and regulate the flow rate and
pressure of water.
• Handling Lugs or Grips: Provides ergonomic handles or grips for easy handling
and manoeuvrability during firefighting operations.
• Connector: Attaches the short branch to a hose, which is connected to a water
source such as a fire engine or hydrant.
Application
Direct Fire Attack:

• Used for direct application of water onto flames and hot surfaces to extinguish
fires effectively.
• Suitable for fires in buildings, vehicles, and other confined spaces where
precision and control are crucial.
Interior Firefighting:

• Often used by firefighters entering structures to suppress fires and protect

occupants and property.
• Allows firefighters to work closely and safely in hazardous environments.
Ventilation and Cooling:

• Used to cool down hot surfaces and prevent fire re-ignition.

• Helps in ventilating smoke and toxic gases from enclosed spaces, improving
visibility and safety.
Advantages

• Precision: Provides precise control over the direction and flow of water, allowing
firefighters to target specific areas of the fire.
• Manoeuvrability: Lightweight and portable, making it easy for firefighters to
handle and manoeuvre in tight or congested spaces.

42
 • Versatility: Suitable for various firefighting scenarios, including structure fires,
vehicle fires, and urban firefighting operations.
Safety Considerations

• Training: Firefighters must receive training in the proper operation and

techniques for using short branches to ensure effective and safe firefighting.
• Equipment Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance of short
branches are essential to ensure they function properly during emergency
responses.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Firefighters should wear appropriate PPE,
including gloves and eye protection, when operating short branches to protect
against heat and debris.

7. London hand-controlled branch

Definition
The London Hand Controlled Branch, often referred to as the London Branch or LFB
(London Fire Brigade) Branch, is a specialized firefighting nozzle designed for controlling
the flow and direction of water manually by hand. It is widely recognized for its
effectiveness and versatility in firefighting operations, particularly in urban settings.

Components

43
 • Nozzle: The London Branch is equipped with a nozzle that allows firefighters to
adjust the water flow and spray pattern manually.
• Control Mechanism: Hand-operated controls on the nozzle enable firefighters to
regulate the water flow, switch between spray patterns, and direct the water
stream with precision.
• Connector: Attaches the London Branch to a hose, which is connected to a
water source such as a fire engine or hydrant.
• Handling Lugs or Grips: Provides ergonomic handles or grips for easy handling
and manoeuvrability during firefighting operations.
Application
Urban Firefighting:

• Widely used by fire departments in urban areas for structure fires, high-rise
buildings, and complex fire scenarios.
• Allows firefighters to effectively control and direct water streams to reach fires in
narrow alleys, confined spaces, and other challenging environments.
Interior Fire Attack:

• Enables firefighters to enter buildings and direct water precisely onto flames and
hot surfaces to suppress fires and protect occupants.
• Effective for ventilating smoke and cooling hazardous environments during
interior firefighting operations.
Exterior Fire Suppression:

• Used for exterior fire attack to protect exposures, such as neighbouring

buildings, vehicles, and outdoor equipment.
• Helps in creating water curtains and cooling down external surfaces to prevent
fire spread.
Advantages

• Manual Control: Provides firefighters with direct control over water discharge,
allowing for immediate adjustments based on fire conditions.
• Precision: Enables precise targeting of water streams to specific areas of the fire,
enhancing firefighting efficiency and effectiveness.
• Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of firefighting scenarios, including urban
firefighting, structure fires, and industrial firefighting operations.
Safety Considerations

• Training: Firefighters must receive specialized training in the operation and

handling of the London Branch to ensure safe and effective firefighting.

44
 • Operational Procedures: Follow established procedures for using the London
Branch to maximize its effectiveness while maintaining safety for firefighters and
the public.
• Equipment Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance of the London
Branch are essential to ensure reliable performance during emergency
responses.

8. BA Set
Definition
A Breathing Apparatus (BA) Set, also known as Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus
(SCBA), is a critical piece of personal protective equipment used by firefighters and
rescue personnel to provide breathable air in hazardous or oxygen-deficient
environments. It allows firefighters to work safely in smoke-filled areas, toxic
atmospheres, or areas with insufficient oxygen levels.

Components

• Cylinder: Contains compressed air or oxygen for breathing. The cylinder is worn
on the firefighter's back and connected to the face mask.
• Face Mask: Covers the firefighter's nose and mouth, providing a tight seal to
prevent inhalation of harmful gases or smoke.
• Regulator: Controls the flow of air from the cylinder to the face mask, allowing
firefighters to breathe at a normal rate.
• Harness: Supports the cylinder and allows firefighters to carry the BA set
comfortably during operations.

45
 • Pressure Gauge: Indicates the remaining air pressure in the cylinder, ensuring
firefighters can monitor their air supply.
• Alarm System: Activates when the air supply is low, alerting firefighters to exit the
hazardous area and replace their cylinder.
Application
Firefighting Operations:

• Enables firefighters to enter burning buildings, search for trapped individuals,

and extinguish fires in environments with smoke and toxic gases.
• Facilitates effective fire suppression and ventilation operations by providing
firefighters with breathable air.
Rescue Operations:

• Used in confined space rescues, collapsed buildings, hazardous material

incidents, and other emergency situations where air quality is compromised.
• Allows rescue personnel to safely access and extract individuals in dangerous
environments.
Training and Exercises:

• Essential for training firefighters in simulated fire and rescue scenarios to

familiarize them with BA set operation and safety protocols.
• Ensures readiness and proficiency in using BA sets during actual emergency
responses.
Advantages

• Safety: Protects firefighters from smoke inhalation, toxic gases, and oxygen-
deficient atmospheres, enhancing their safety and survivability.
• Mobility: Enables firefighters to maneuver and perform tasks effectively in
challenging and hazardous environments.
• Versatility: Suitable for various firefighting and rescue operations, including
structural fires, vehicle fires, hazardous material incidents, and confined space
rescues.
• Reliability: Designed with robust materials and safety features to withstand
harsh conditions and provide dependable performance during emergencies.
Safety Considerations

• Training and Certification: Firefighters must undergo comprehensive training in

BA set operation, maintenance, and emergency procedures to ensure safe and
effective use.
• Regular Inspection and Maintenance: Conduct routine inspections and
maintenance of BA sets to ensure they are in optimal working condition and
comply with safety standards.

46
 • Air Supply Management: Monitor and manage air supply carefully to prevent
running out of air during operations, using alarms and buddy systems for safety.

9. Controlled dividing and collecting breaching

Definition
Controlled dividing and collecting breaching are specialized firefighting techniques and
equipment used to manage water distribution effectively during firefighting operations.
These tools are designed to either combine water from multiple sources into a single
stream (collecting breaching) or divide a single water source into multiple streams
(dividing breaching), providing flexibility and efficiency in water supply management.

Components

47
 • Valves: Equipped with control valves to regulate the flow of water from each inlet
or outlet, allowing firefighters to adjust water distribution as needed.
• Inlets and Outlets: In collecting breaching, multiple inlets allow connections
from different water sources, while in dividing breaching, a single inlet is
connected to multiple outlets for distributing water.
• Construction: Constructed from durable materials such as brass or stainless
steel to withstand high-pressure water flow and ensure reliability during
firefighting operations.

Application
Water Supply Management:

• Collecting Breaching: Used to combine water from multiple hydrants, fire

engines, or other water sources into a single stream, increasing water flow and
pressure for firefighting operations.
• Dividing Breaching: Enables firefighters to divide a single water supply into
multiple streams, allowing simultaneous firefighting efforts in different areas or
floors of a building.
Efficiency in Operations:

• Facilitates efficient water distribution and utilization, optimizing firefighting

efforts and enhancing the effectiveness of fire suppression.
• Provides flexibility in adapting to various fire scenarios, including large-scale
fires, industrial incidents, and structural firefighting operations.
Advantages

• Flexibility: Allows firefighters to adapt and respond quickly to changing fire

conditions by adjusting water distribution as needed.
• Enhanced Water Flow: Increases water flow and pressure by combining multiple
water sources, ensuring sufficient supply for effective fire suppression.
• Operational Efficiency: Streamlines firefighting operations by maximizing water
utilization and minimizing downtime associated with water supply management.

Safety Considerations

• Proper Training: Firefighters should receive training in the operation and use of
controlled dividing and collecting breaching equipment to ensure safe and
effective deployment during emergencies.
• Equipment Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance of valves,
connections, and hoses are essential to ensure reliable performance and
prevent malfunctions during firefighting operations.

48
 • Coordination: Effective coordination among firefighters and operators is crucial
for managing water supply and optimizing the use of breaching equipment during
firefighting operations.

10. AFFF Foam

Definition
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) is a type of firefighting foam concentrate used to
suppress fires involving flammable liquids such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuels, and
alcohols (Class B fires). It is designed to quickly spread over the surface of burning
liquids, forming a film that suppresses the release of flammable vapors and prevents
oxygen from reaching the fuel.

Components

• Surfactants: Lower the surface tension of water, allowing the foam to spread
rapidly over the surface of the fuel.
• Fluorocarbon or Fluoroprotein: Enhances the stability and effectiveness of the
foam by creating a durable barrier between the fuel and the air.
• Water: Dilutes the foam concentrate to the appropriate concentration for
firefighting applications.
Application
Fire Suppression:

• Class B Fires: Effective against fires involving flammable liquids and gases, such
as those found in industrial settings, fuel storage facilities, and airports.
• Forms a blanket over the fuel, smothering the fire and preventing reignition.
Vapor Suppression:

• Reduces the release of flammable vapors from liquid spills, minimizing the risk
of ignition and explosion.
• Enhances safety for responders by reducing the hazards associated with vapor
clouds.
Cooling Effect:

• Absorbs heat from the fire, lowering the temperature of the fuel and surrounding
surfaces.
• Helps in preventing the spread of fire and protecting adjacent equipment and
structures.

49
Advantages

• Rapid Action: AFFF foam spreads quickly and effectively over the surface of
burning liquids, providing rapid fire suppression.
• Versatility: Suitable for use with various firefighting equipment, including foam
branches, handlines, and fixed foam systems.
• Long-Lasting Effect: Forms a durable foam blanket that remains on the fuel
surface, providing sustained fire suppression and preventing re-ignition.

Safety Considerations

• Environmental Impact: Some AFFF formulations contain fluorinated compounds

that can persist in the environment and may have potential health and
environmental concerns. Use formulations with lower environmental impact
where possible.
• Training: Firefighters should receive training in the proper application and use of
AFFF foam, including understanding foam concentrations and application rates
for different fire scenarios.
• Compatibility: Ensure compatibility with firefighting equipment and systems to
maximize effectiveness and safety during firefighting operations.

50
 11. Fire Fighting Hose
Definition
A firefighting hose is a flexible conduit used to carry pressurized water or other
firefighting agents from a water source to the point of fire suppression. It is a critical
component of firefighting equipment and comes in various types, sizes, and materials
to suit different firefighting scenarios.

Components

• Lining: The inner layer of the hose that comes into contact with water. It is
designed to be smooth to reduce friction loss and facilitate water flow.
• Reinforcement: Layers of fabric or synthetic fibers (such as polyester or nylon)
that provide strength and durability to the hose, allowing it to withstand high
pressures.
• Cover: The outer layer of the hose that protects it from abrasion, heat, and
weathering. It may be made of synthetic rubber or a blend of materials for
durability.
• Couplings: End fittings or connectors attached to the hose to allow it to be
connected to a water source (such as a fire hydrant or pump) and firefighting
equipment (such as nozzles or branch pipes).

51
 12. Chlorine Kit
Definition
A chlorine kit, often referred to as a chlorine emergency kit or chlorine response kit, is a
specialized set of equipment used for handling and containing chlorine gas leaks or
spills. Chlorine kits are designed to facilitate prompt response and mitigation of
chlorine emergencies, which can occur in industrial, water treatment, or chemical
processing facilities where chlorine is used.

Components
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):

• Includes respiratory protection (such as gas masks or self-contained breathing

apparatus), chemical-resistant gloves, goggles, and protective clothing to shield
responders from exposure to chlorine gas.
• Leak Containment and Repair Tools:
• Tools and materials for sealing leaks, such as chlorine gas leak repair kits, leak-
sealing putty, patches, or leak containment bags.
Gas Detection and Monitoring Devices:

• Portable chlorine gas detectors or monitors to detect and measure chlorine

levels in the air, helping responders assess the extent of the leak and determine
safe entry conditions.
Decontamination Supplies:

• Equipment for decontaminating personnel and equipment exposed to chlorine,

including water hoses, decontamination showers, and neutralizing agents.
Emergency Response Instructions and Documentation:

• Guidelines, procedures, and emergency contact information for handling

chlorine emergencies effectively.
Application

• Emergency Response:
• Enables trained personnel to quickly respond to chlorine gas leaks or spills,
implementing containment measures and protecting individuals and the
environment from exposure.
• Mitigation of Hazards:

52
 • Facilitates the prompt sealing of leaks and the safe containment or
neutralization of chlorine gas to prevent its dispersion and minimize health and
environmental risks.
• Worker Safety:
• Provides essential tools and equipment to protect responders from chlorine gas
exposure and facilitate safe and effective emergency response operations.
Advantages

• Rapid Deployment: Allows for quick deployment of equipment and resources in

chlorine emergency situations, enhancing response efficiency and minimizing
potential hazards.
• Comprehensive Preparedness: Includes a range of tools and supplies needed for
effective chlorine emergency response, ensuring readiness and capability to
handle emergencies.
• Safety and Compliance: Helps organizations comply with safety regulations and
standards governing the handling and containment of hazardous chemicals like
chlorine.

Safety Considerations

• Training: Personnel should undergo regular training in the use of chlorine kits,
including proper handling procedures, PPE usage, and emergency response
protocols.
• Equipment Maintenance: Ensure that chlorine kit components are regularly
inspected, maintained, and replaced as needed to ensure functionality during
emergencies.
• Emergency Planning: Incorporate chlorine emergency response plans into
overall facility emergency preparedness and response procedures to ensure
coordinated and effective actions.

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 13. Hydrant
Definition
A fire hydrant is a vital component of a municipal water supply system designed
specifically for firefighting purposes. It provides firefighters with access to pressurized
water for extinguishing fires in urban and suburban areas.

Components

• Body: Typically made of cast iron or ductile iron, the hydrant's body houses the
internal valve mechanism and water supply connection.
• Valve Mechanism: Controls the flow of water from the underground water mains
to the outlet nozzle of the hydrant. It can be operated using a special hydrant
wrench.
• Outlet Nozzle: The outlet where hoses are connected to access the water supply.
Standard hydrants have one or more outlet nozzles, allowing multiple firefighting
operations simultaneously.
• Bonnet and Operating Nut: Protects and secures the valve mechanism inside the
hydrant. The operating nut is used to open and close the hydrant.
• Hydrant Cap: Protects the outlet nozzle from debris and contamination when not
in use.

Operation

• Water Supply: Connected to underground water mains, the hydrant is designed

to provide a ready source of pressurized water for firefighting operations.
• Access: Firefighters use a hydrant wrench to open the hydrant's valve, allowing
water to flow to firefighting hoses.
• Flow Rate: Hydrants are designed to provide sufficient water flow and pressure to
effectively suppress fires in buildings, streets, and other urban environments.

Types of Hydrants

• Dry Barrel Hydrant: Common in regions with cold climates, the valve mechanism
is located below the frost line to prevent freezing.
• Wet Barrel Hydrant: Found in warmer climates, the valve mechanism remains
above ground level and is susceptible to freezing.

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Advantages

• Reliability: Provides a reliable and continuous water supply for firefighting

operations, crucial for quick response and effective fire suppression.
• Accessibility: Strategically located throughout urban areas to ensure firefighters
have quick access to water sources during emergencies.
• Versatility: Compatible with various firefighting equipment and techniques,
including fire trucks, hoses, and water delivery systems.

Safety Considerations

• Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance ensure hydrants are

operational and ready for use during emergencies.
• Accessibility: Ensure hydrants are visible, accessible, and not obstructed by
vehicles or debris to facilitate quick deployment during firefighting operations.
• Training: Firefighters should be trained in hydrant operation and water supply
management to maximize firefighting effectiveness and safety.

14. Sprinkler System

Definition
Sprinkler systems are fire protection systems designed to automatically detect and
extinguish or control fires in buildings. They are widely used in residential, commercial,
industrial, and institutional settings to provide active fire protection.

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Components

• Sprinkler Heads: Devices installed in the ceiling or walls that release water when
exposed to high temperatures, typically around 155-165°F (68-74°C).
• Piping Network: Pipes connected to a reliable water supply (such as a municipal
water main or dedicated water tank) distribute water to sprinkler heads
throughout the building.
• Control Valve: Manually or automatically operated valve that controls the flow of
water to the sprinkler system. Automatically opens when a sprinkler head
activates.
• Alarm System: Alerts occupants and emergency services when the sprinkler
system activates, indicating a fire emergency.

Types of Sprinkler Systems

• Wet Pipe Systems: Pipes are constantly filled with water, ready to discharge
immediately upon activation of a sprinkler head.
• Dry Pipe Systems: Pipes are filled with pressurized air or nitrogen, with water
held back by a valve. When a sprinkler head activates, the valve opens, and
water flows into the pipes and through the activated sprinkler head.
• Pre-action Systems: Like dry pipe systems but require both a heat-sensitive
element at the sprinkler head and a separate fire detection system (e.g., smoke
detectors). Water flows into the pipes only when both elements are triggered.
• Deluge Systems: All sprinkler heads are open and release water simultaneously
when triggered, typically used in high hazard areas or where rapid-fire spread is a
concern.

Operation

• Detection: Heat from a fire raises the temperature of the air surrounding the
sprinkler head, causing the heat-sensitive element in the sprinkler head to
activate.
• Activation: Individual sprinkler heads activate based on the temperature
increase in their immediate area, releasing water directly onto the fire.
• Discharge: Water is discharged onto the fire, cooling the flames and preventing
the spread of fire and smoke to other parts of the building.

Advantages

• Early Fire Suppression: Automatically activates to suppress fires in their early

stages, minimizing damage and potential injury.

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 • Reliability: Operates independently of human intervention once activated,
providing continuous protection even if occupants are not present.
• Property Protection: Limits fire damage to the area where the fire originated,
reducing loss of property and business interruption.

Safety Considerations

• Maintenance: Regular inspection, testing, and maintenance of sprinkler systems

are essential to ensure they function correctly during a fire emergency.
• Design: Proper design and installation by qualified professionals are crucial to
ensure the sprinkler system meets building codes and effectively protects the
entire facility.
• Occupant Safety: Educate building occupants on the purpose and operation of
sprinkler systems to alleviate concerns and promote fire safety awareness.

15. Deluge system

Definition
A deluge system is a type of fire protection system designed to quickly and uniformly
discharge large quantities of water or specialized firefighting agents over a specific area
or hazard area. Unlike traditional sprinkler systems, all the sprinkler heads in a deluge

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system are open and connected to a water supply, ready to release water
simultaneously upon system activation.

Components

• Deluge Valve: A specialized valve that remains open and allows water to flow into
the piping system when the system is activated. It is typically controlled
manually or automatically by a fire detection system.
• Sprinkler Heads: Like traditional sprinkler systems, but in deluge systems, all
sprinkler heads are open and release water when the deluge valve opens.
• Piping Network: Pipes distribute water or firefighting agents throughout the
protected area, ensuring rapid and widespread coverage.
• Detection and Alarm System: Often integrated with fire detection devices such
as heat or smoke detectors, which trigger the deluge valve to open when a fire is
detected.

Operation

• Detection: Fire detection devices (e.g., heat detectors) detect the presence of
fire or high temperatures in the protected area.
• Activation: Upon detection of fire, the fire alarm system signals the deluge valve
to open, allowing water or other agents to flow into the piping network.
• Discharge: Water is discharged through all open sprinkler heads simultaneously,
flooding the protected area with water to suppress the fire rapidly.

Application

• High Hazard Areas: Deluge systems are commonly used in areas with high fire
risk or where rapid-fire spread is a concern, such as industrial facilities,
chemical storage areas, aircraft hangars, and power plants.
• Specialized Applications: Effective for protecting hazards that require a large
volume of water to control or extinguish fires quickly, including flammable liquid
storage areas and certain types of industrial processes.

Advantages

• Rapid Fire Suppression: Releases a large volume of water quickly and uniformly
over the entire protected area, suppressing fires rapidly before they can escalate.
• Wide Coverage: Ensures comprehensive coverage of the protected area,
preventing fire spread and minimizing damage to property and equipment.

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 • Suitability for Hazards: Well-suited for protecting high hazard areas and
scenarios where traditional sprinkler systems may not provide adequate fire
protection.

Safety Considerations

• System Design: Proper design and installation are critical to ensure the deluge
system meets specific fire protection objectives and effectively addresses the
hazards present.
• Maintenance: Regular inspection, testing, and maintenance of deluge systems
are essential to ensure operational readiness and compliance with safety
standards.
• Occupant Safety: Proper education and training of personnel regarding the
operation and safety aspects of deluge systems are essential to minimize risks
during emergency situations.

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 RECOMMENDATION

❖ There should be Inert gas flooding system to be installed in

the control rooms.
❖ Inside mechanical warehouse Personal protective
equipment should be compulsorily from sight of safety.
❖ Dyke area should be clean with no combustible materials
spread over it.

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