A.

Hybrid Underground Method : Sublevel and Block Caving

a.1 Definition:
Sublevel and block caving methods are applicable to near-vertical deposits of
metallic or nonmetallic minerals. In sublevel caving, overall mining progresses
downward while the ore between sublevels is broken overhand the overlying waste
rock (hanging wall or capping) caves into the void created as the ore is drawn off.
Mining is conducted on sublevels from development drifts and crosscuts connected
to the main haulage level below by ramps, ore passes, and raises. Since only the
waste is caved, the ore must be drilled and blasted customarily; generally, fan hole
rounds are utilized. Block caving is the mining method in which masses, panels, or
blocks of ore are undercut to induce caving, permitting the broken ore to be drawn
off below. If the deposit is overlain by capping or bounded by a hanging wall, it
caves, too, breaking into the void created by drawing the ore. Sublevel and block
caving methods proceed in a columnar fashion to the surface, often belling out to a
stable angle of repose (50-90" from the horizontal).

a.2 Sequence of Development

In sublevel caving, the major portion of the development is horizontal, both on the
haulage level and sublevels (drifts, crosscuts), although some are inclined (access
ramps) or near-vertical (orepasses). Assuming a steep pitch, and depending on the
width of the ore body, sublevel caving operations are arranged longitudinally in
narrow deposits and transversely in thick deposits. If the deposit has a flat dip but is
sufficiently thick, sublevel caving may still be applicable (Cokayne, 1982). Haulage
level, and optionally sublevels, are usually laid out in a grid of drifts and crosscuts
analogous to room and pillar or longwall development. Multiple, interconnected
openings facilitate transportation. More importantly, it substantially improve
ventilation.
In developing a sublevel for ore extraction, crosscuts are driven across the deposit to
the hanging wall or cave boundary (see Fig, 12.6; note the deepest sublevel). At the
end of the crosscuts, slot raises are driven 10 the cave above, then slabbed off to
form slots the shape of the fanhole round. The first blast breaks into the slot;
subsequent rounds pull against the broken muck. Several rounds may be blasted
simultaneously to initiate the first cave on the uppermost sublevel. Subsequently,
multiple blasts in adjacent crosscuts or even an entire sublevel arc detonated as
needed to meet production requirements.

In block caving, the main–level development commences from the shaft station in
the usual way, providing for high-speed, high-capacity haulage and ample ventilating
– airflow capacity. Main haulage ways are often paralleled by laterals, interconnected
by crosscuts to ensure good ventilation and to provide adequate lanes or stub
crosscuts for loading. One or more sublevels are required for grizzly or slusher
operations in the gravity and slusher variations of block caving. To provide ore-
drawing facilities, chutes drawn points or trenches are prepared in the ore body
under the block to be caved (Hamrin, 1982). They lie adjacent to the haulage drifts
and crosscuts on the main level, as may be seen in Figures 12.4-16. Finger raises to
serve as orepasses are then driven to the sublevels (slusher or grizzly) above, if any,
and to the undercut sublevel, where they are belled out; other finger raises serve
manways. The most critical development operation is undercutting, which is carried
out in the usual manner.

a.3 Spatial Characteristics of the deposit

1. Ore strength: weak to moderate or even fairly strong, preferably soft or friable,
fractured or jointed, not blocky; caves freely under own weight when undercut; free –
running, not readily oxidized; may have occasional heavy or sticky /ones, but require
enough competence to stand without excessive support; less strength than for
unsupported methods, but more than for block caving

2. Rock strength: weak to fairly strong, similar to ore in characteristics; distinct ore-
rock boundary; may be blocky, but should be fractured or jointed and cavable;
preferably moderate to large fragments. no fines to dilute ore.

3. Deposit shape: massive or thick tabular, fairly to moderately regular (if elongated
along one axis, preferably vertical)

4. Deposit dip: fairly steep (>60°) or vertical; can be fairly flat if deposit is thick

5. Deposit size: very large areal extent; thickness >100 ft (>30 m> large)

6. Ore grade: low, ideal for disseminated ore, most suitable of underground methods
for low-grade deposits

7. Ore uniformity: moderate to fairly uniform and homogeneous; sorting not possible

8. Depth: moderate (>2000 and <4000 ft, or >600 and <1200 m); depth must be
sufficient to develop overburden stress which exceeds rock strength.

a.4 Drilling Patterns of the rock into the holes

Fandrill jumbo, two- or three-boom, pneumatic or hydraulic machines (percussion or
rotary-percussion); air- or diesel-powered; hole size 2-5 in. (51-76 mm); drilling factor
0.7 ft/ton (0.2 m/tonne) (Hamrin 1982).

a.5 Charging of the Holes

ANFO. slurries; bulk charging by pneumatic loader or pump, firing electrically or by
detonating fuse; blasting round for caving method; drill and blast, mudcap, impact
hammer, and dynamite bomb (for secondary blasting of sublevel).

a.6 Ground Support and Roof Support

This requires elaborate ground-control measures (Hamrin, 1982). Reinforcement as
well as conventional support is often called for in development openings (e.g., raises,
orepasses, slusher drifts, haulage drifts) that serve a production function. The usual
forms of ground support are bolts shotcrete steel sets or arches cable, or mesh.
Reinforcement consisting of reinforced concrete or steel liner is often installed to
prevent excessive wear or damage to important, openings, especially slusher and
haulage drifts.

a.7 Mining Machines and equipment used

Loading: LHD. overhead loader, front-end loader, gathering-arm loader
Haulage: LHD. truck, shuttle car on sublevel; gravity flow through ore- pass; rail
conveyor on haulage level

a.8 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
1. Fairly high productivity (range 20-40 tons, or 18-36 tonnes, per employee
shift; maximum 40-50 tons, or 36-45 tonnes, per employee- shift)
2. High production rate: large-scale method
3. Fairly high recovery (80-90%, attaining 125% if dilution excessive)
4. Suitable for full mechanization
5. Somewhat adaptable, flexible, and selective: no pillars required
6. Good health and safety
7. Fairly low mining cost, least of the underground methods
8. Rock breakage in production occurs entirely by caving, induced by
undercutting; no drilling and blasting cost (except for secondary breakage).
9. Suitable for gravity-draw or fully mechanized materials handling; repetitive.
standardized operations
10. Ventilation usually very satisfactory ; good health and safety (except in
undercutting and some drawing)

Disadvantages
1. Moderate to fairly high mining cost (relative cost: 50%)
2. Moderate to high dilution (10-35%): highly sensitive with regard to dilution
3. Caving and subsidence occur, destroying surface
4. Draw control critical to success of methods. High development cost
6. Must provide stope access for mechanized equipment