Political Parties

Organised groups of individuals sharing similar political views, aiming to gain power through constitutional means for promoting
national interest.

Types of political parties:

 Reactionary parties: Uphold old socio-economic and political institutions.
 Conservative parties: Support the status quo.
 Liberal parties: Seek to reform existing institutions.
 Radical parties: Aim to establish a new order by overthrowing existing institutions.

Ideological classification of political parties:

 Leftist parties: Radical parties (e.g., CPI, CPM in India).
 Centrist parties: Liberal parties (e.g., Congress in India).
 Rightist parties: Reactionary and conservative parties (e.g., BJP in India).

Three types of party systems:

 One-party system: One ruling party, no opposition (e.g., former communist countries).
 Two-party system: Two major parties (e.g., USA, Britain).
 Multi-party system: Multiple parties leading to coalition governments (e.g., France, Switzerland, Italy).

Party System in India:

1. Multi-Party System: India has a large number of political parties due to its size and diverse society, leading to coalition
governments and hung Parliaments. There are left, centrist, right, communal, and non-communal parties.
2. One-Dominant Party System: The Congress dominated Indian politics for a long time, leading to a one-party dominance
system or the "Congress system." This dominance has declined with the rise of regional and national parties, creating a
competitive multi-party system.
3. Lack of Clear Ideology: Except for a few parties like the BJP and communist parties, most parties lack a clear ideology. They
advocate democracy, secularism, socialism, and Gandhism, focusing more on capturing power than ideological principles.
4. Personality Cult: Parties often revolve around charismatic leaders, overshadowing the party and its ideology. Leaders like
Nehru, Indira Gandhi, and Rajiv Gandhi have been crucial for Congress's popularity, and parties are sometimes named after
their leaders.
5. Based on Traditional Factors: Many Indian parties are formed based on religion, caste, language, culture, and race, working
for communal and sectional interests rather than the general public interest.
6. Emergence of Regional Parties: Regional parties have gained prominence, becoming ruling parties in states and influencing
national politics. They were initially regional but now play a significant role in national politics due to coalition governments.
7. Factions and Defections: Factionalism, defections, splits, and mergers are common, driven by the lust for power and
material considerations. Defections have led to political instability and party disintegration.
8. Lack of Effective Opposition: India has lacked a strong and effective national Opposition for the last 50 years. Opposition
parties often lack unity and adopt conflicting positions, failing to play a constructive role in nation-building.

Recognition of National and State Parties:

a) Registration and Recognition: The Election Commission registers political parties for elections and grants them recognition
as national or state parties based on their poll performance. Other parties are registered as unrecognised parties.
b) Privileges: Recognised parties enjoy benefits like allocation of party symbols, political broadcast time, and access to
electoral rolls. They also need only one proposer for nomination filing.
c) Campaigning: Recognised national parties can have forty "star campaigners" during elections, while state and unrecognised
parties are allowed twenty. Travel expenses of these campaigners are not included in candidates' election expenditures.
d) Symbol Allocation: National parties receive a symbol exclusively for national use, while state parties get symbols for state
use. Unrecognised parties can choose from a list of free symbols, while certain symbols are reserved for recognised parties.

Recognition Criteria for National Parties:

 Secure six per cent of valid votes in four or more states in Lok Sabha or legislative assembly elections, and win four Lok
Sabha seats from any state(s); OR
 Win two per cent of Lok Sabha seats in a general election, elected from three states; OR
 Be recognised as a state party in four states.

Recognition Criteria for State Parties:

 Secure six per cent of valid votes in a state's legislative assembly election, and win two seats in that assembly; OR
 Secure six per cent of valid votes in a state's Lok Sabha election, and win one Lok Sabha seat from that state; OR
 Win three per cent of seats in a state's legislative assembly, or three seats, whichever is more; OR
 Win one Lok Sabha seat for every 25 seats allotted to the state; OR
  Secure eight per cent of total valid votes in a state's Lok Sabha or legislative assembly election. (Added in 2011)
The number of recognised parties fluctuates based on their performance in general elections. As of the 2019 general elections,
there were national parties, 52 state parties, and 2354 registered-unrecognised parties in India.

Role of Regional Parties

Features of Regional Parties:
 Regional Focus: Regional parties primarily operate within a specific state or region, limiting their electoral base to that area.
 Articulation of Regional Interests: They identify with and articulate the interests of a particular cultural, linguistic, or ethnic
group within their region.
 Primordial Demands: These parties often address local issues and grievances based on factors such as language, caste,
community, or region, seeking to preserve or promote regional identity.
 State-Level Political Ambition: While focused on regional issues, they aim to capture political power at the state level rather
than expanding to control the central government.
 Desire for Regional Autonomy: Regional parties often advocate for greater autonomy for their states within the Indian
Union, seeking to strengthen the federal structure.

Classification of Regional Parties:

 Cultural or Ethnic Basis: Parties like Shiromani Akali Dal, National Conference, DMK, and AIADMK are rooted in regional
culture or ethnicity.
 All-India Outlook, Limited Base: Parties such as Indian National Lok Dal and Samajwadi Party have a broader outlook but
lack a national electoral base.
 Split from National Parties: Parties like Biju Janata Dal and Rashtriya Janata Dal were formed due to splits in national parties.
 Personalised Parties: Some parties are formed around individual leaders' personalities, often short-lived, like Lok Janshakti
Party and Haryana Vikas Party.

Reasons for the Emergence of Regional Parties in India:

1. Cultural and ethnic pluralism of the Indian society.
2. Economic disparities and regional imbalances in the development.
3. Desire of certain sections or areas to maintain separate identity due to historical factors.
4. Self-interest of the deposed Maharajas and dispossessed Zamindars.
5. Failure of national politics to meet the regional aspirations.
6. Reorganisation of states on the basis of language.
7. Charismatic personality of the regional leaders.
8. Factional fights within the larger parties.
9. Centralising tendencies of the congress party.
10. Absence of a strong opposition party at the central level.
11. Role of caste and religion in the political process.
12. Alienation and discontentment among the tribal groups.

Role of Regional Parties:

1. Improved Governance: Regional parties have often provided better governance and stability at the regional level,
addressing local issues more effectively.
2. Challenge to Dominant Parties: They have challenged the dominance of national parties like the Congress, leading to a more
competitive political landscape.
3. Impact on Centre-State Relations: They have influenced centre-state relations by demanding greater autonomy, making the
central government more responsive to regional needs.
4. Enhanced Political Participation: They have increased popular participation in politics, especially at the grassroots level, by
offering more choices to voters.
5. Wider Voter Choice: Regional parties have widened the choice for voters, who can now support parties that prioritize their
state or regional interests.
6. Increased Political Consciousness: They have raised political awareness among the people, focusing on local or regional
issues that directly affect them.
7. Check on Central Government: Regional parties have acted as a check on the central government's potentially authoritarian
tendencies, forcing it to be more responsive to regional concerns.
8. Contribution to Parliamentary Democracy: They have contributed to the functioning of parliamentary democracy by
representing minority views and providing a check on majority power.
9. Exposing Partisan Actions: They have exposed partisan actions, such as biased decisions by Governors in appointing or
dismissing Chief Ministers, or in issuing ordinances.
10. Coalition Politics: With the era of coalition politics, regional parties have played significant roles in national governments,
forming alliances and sharing power with national parties.
Dysfunctions of Regional Parties:
1. Neglect of National Interests: Regional parties often prioritize regional interests over national ones, leading to neglect of
broader national issues and implications.
2. Encouragement of Regionalism: They can promote regionalism, casteism, linguism, communalism, and tribalism, which
pose challenges to national integration.
3. Unresolved Inter-State Issues: Regional parties' focus on regional interests can result in unresolved inter-state water
disputes, border disputes, and other inter-state issues.
4. Corruption and Nepotism: Some regional parties have been associated with corruption, nepotism, and favoritism, using
power for self-interest rather than public welfare.
5. Populist Measures: They often resort to populist schemes and measures to expand their electoral base, which can strain
state finances and hinder development.
6. Regional Influence in Decision-Making: In coalition governments at the center, regional parties can bring in regional factors
in decision-making, sometimes pressuring the central leadership to accede to their demands.

Elections
Electoral System in India:
Election Commission: Ensures fair elections for Parliament, state legislatures, President, and Vice-President; consists of a chief
election commissioner and two election commissioners.
Single Electoral Roll: One general electoral roll per territorial constituency for Parliament and state legislatures, abolishing
communal representation.
Inclusion in Roll: No exclusion based on religion, race, caste, or sex; no special rolls based on these criteria, ensuring equal rights.
Adult Franchise: Every Indian citizen above 18 can vote, unless disqualified for reasons like non-residence or crime.
Parliamentary Authority: Parliament makes laws for elections, including electoral roll preparation and constituency delimitation.
State Legislative Authority: State legislatures can make laws on election matters not covered by Parliament.
Constituency Delimitation: Laws related to delimitation or seat allotment cannot be questioned, ensuring finality of decisions.
Challenging Elections: Elections can be challenged only through an election petition to a specified authority; since 1966, tried by
high courts with Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction.

Article 323B allows tribunals for election disputes, excluding all courts except Supreme Court's special leave appeal jurisdiction.
However, this provision has been declared unconstitutional.

Election Machinery in India:

Election Commission of India (ECI):
 Supervises, directs, and controls Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly elections.
 Consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners.
 Appointed by the President of India.

Chief Electoral Officer (CEO):

 Supervises election work in states/Union Territories under ECI's overall control.
 Nominated or designated by ECI in consultation with the state/Union Territory administration.

District Election Officer (DEO):

 Supervises election work in a district under the Chief Electoral Officer's control.
 Nominated or designated by ECI in consultation with the state government.

Returning Officer (RO):

 Conducts elections in a Parliamentary or assembly constituency.
 Nominated or designated by ECI in consultation with the State Government/Union Territory Administration.

Electoral Registration Officer (ERO):

 Prepares electoral rolls for a Parliamentary/assembly constituency.
 Appointed by ECI in consultation with the state/UT government.

Presiding Officer:
 Conducts the poll at a polling station with the assistance of polling officers.
 Appointed by the District Election Officer or Returning Officer.

Observers in Indian Elections:

General Observers:
 Ensure smooth conduct of elections.
 Monitor every stage of the electoral process.
Expenditure Observers:
 Monitor election expenditure of candidates.
 Ensure no inducement is offered to voters.

Police Observers:
 Monitor force deployment and law and order.
 Coordinate between civil and police administration.

Awareness Observers:
 Oversee voter awareness initiatives.
 Monitor media-related aspects and address the issue of 'Paid News'.

Micro Observers:
 Observe poll proceedings in critical polling stations.
 Verify Ballot Marking Device (BMF) and report any irregularities.

Assistant Expenditure Observers:

 Assist Expenditure Observers in monitoring election campaign events.
 Attend to complaints of electoral malpractices promptly.

Election Process in India:

Timing of Elections:
 Elections for the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies must occur every five years, unless called earlier.
 The President can dissolve the Lok Sabha and call for new elections before the five-year term ends if the government loses
confidence and no alternative government is available.

Schedule of Elections:
 The Election Commission announces the election schedule a few weeks before elections begin.
 The Model Code of Conduct comes into effect immediately after the announcement.

Nomination and Campaigning:

 Candidates file nominations after the announcement and undergo scrutiny by the Returning Officer.
 Valid candidates can withdraw their nominations within two days.
 The official campaign period lasts at least two weeks.
 Manifestos detailing party programs are issued, and campaigns involve rallies, meetings, and appeals to voters.

Polling Days:
 Polling is held on different days in different constituencies.
 Polling stations are set up within two kilometers of every voter.

Ballot Papers and Symbols:

 After nominations, a list of candidates is prepared, and ballot papers are printed with candidates' names and allotted
symbols.
 Recognized parties are allotted their party symbols.

Voting Procedure:
 Voting is by secret ballot.
 Electors mark their choice on the ballot paper and insert it into a ballot box.
 Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) are increasingly used instead of ballot papers for faster counting and reduced paper
usage.

Supervision:
 The Election Commission appoints Observers to ensure fair campaigning and voting.
 Election expenditure is monitored to prevent overspending.

Counting of Votes:
 After polling, votes are counted under supervision.
 The candidate with the most votes is declared the winner.
 First-past-the-post system is used for Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections.
Media Coverage:
 Media are encouraged to cover the elections to ensure transparency.
 Special passes are issued for media to enter polling stations and counting halls.

Election Petitions:
 Any elector or candidate can file an election petition if malpractice is suspected.
 Election petitions are tried by the High Court and can lead to the restaging of the election if upheld.

Election Laws
The Representation of the People Act, 1950, provides for:
 Allocation of seats in the House of the People, State Legislative Assemblies, and State Legislative Councils.
 Delimitation of Parliamentary, Assembly, and Council Constituencies.
 Appointment of election officers such as chief electoral officers, district election officers, and electoral registration officers.
 Preparation of electoral rolls for Parliamentary, Assembly, and Council constituencies.
 Procedure for filling seats in the Council of States by representatives of union territories.
 Definition of local authorities for elections to State Legislative Councils.
 Exclusion of jurisdiction of civil courts in matters related to elections.

The Representation of the People Act, 1951, covers various aspects of elections in India, including:
 Qualifications and disqualifications for membership of Parliament and State Legislatures.
 Notification of general elections.
 Administrative machinery for conducting elections.
 Registration of political parties.
 Conduct of elections.
 Free supply of certain material to candidates of recognized political parties.
 Disputes regarding elections.
 Corrupt practices and electoral offenses.
 Powers of the Election Commission in connection with inquiries into disqualifications of members.
 Bye-elections and time limit for filling vacancies.
 Miscellaneous provisions relating to elections.
 Exclusion of jurisdiction of civil courts.

Specifically, the act covers the following aspects of election conduct:

 Nomination of candidates.
 Candidates and their agents.
 General procedure at elections.
 The poll.
 Counting of votes.
 Multiple elections.
 Publication of election results and nominations.
 Declaration of assets and liabilities.
 Election expenses.

The Act also outlines the procedures for disputes regarding elections, including:
 Presentation of election petitions to the High Court.
 Trial of election petitions.
 Withdrawal and abatement of election petitions.
 Appeals to the Supreme Court.
 Costs and security for costs.

Delimitation Act, 2002

 Established Delimitation Commission for redrawing electoral boundaries based on 2001 census.
 Aimed to address population changes, migration, and ensure balanced constituency sizes.
 Commission adjusted number of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes based on 2001 census.
 Goal was to complete process by July 31, 2008.
 New boundaries to apply to all elections held after Commission's final orders were published, including bye-elections.

Other Acts Relating to Elections:

 Parliament (Prevention of Disqualification) Act, 1959: Certain offices of profit under the Government do not disqualify
holders from being chosen as members of Parliament.
 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Act, 1976: Includes or excludes certain castes and tribes from
the lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for the readjustment of representation in parliamentary and assembly
constituencies.
 Government of Union Territories Act, 1963.
 Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi Act, 1991.
 Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952: Regulates matters related to elections for the offices of the President
and Vice-President of India.

Rules Relating to Elections:

 Registration of Electors Rules, 1960: Prepare and publish electoral rolls.
 Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961: Facilitate fair and free elections to Parliament and State Legislatures.
 Prohibition of Simultaneous Membership Rules, 1950.
 Members of Lok Sabha (Disqualification on Ground of Defection) Rules, 1985.
 Members of Rajya Sabha (Disqualification on Ground of Defection) Rules, 1985.
 Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Rules, 1974.
 Members of Lok Sabha (Declaration of Assets and Liabilities) Rules, 2004.
 Members of Rajya Sabha (Declaration of Assets and Liabilities) Rules, 2004.

Orders Relating to Elections:

 Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968: Specifies, reserves, chooses, and allots symbols at elections in
parliamentary and assembly constituencies for the recognition of political parties.
 Registration of Political Parties (Furnishing of Additional Particulars) Order, 1992: Requires furnishing of additional
particulars by associations or bodies of individual citizens of India seeking registration as a political party with the Election
Commission of India.

Electoral Reforms
COMMITTEES ON ELECTORAL REFORMS:
 Joint Parliamentary Committee on Amendments to Election Laws (1971–72).
 Tarkunde Committee (1974) during Jaya Prakash Narayan's “Total Revolution” movement.
 Dinesh Goswami Committee on Electoral Reforms (1990).
 Vohra Committee on the Nexus between Crime and Politics (1993).
 Election Commission of India Recommendations on Electoral Reforms (1998).
 Indrajit Gupta Committee on State Funding of Elections (1998).
 Law Commission of India 170th Report on Reform of Electoral Laws (1999).
 National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000–2002).
 Election Commission of India Report on Proposed Electoral Reforms (2004).
 Second Administrative Reforms Commission of India Report on Ethics in Governance (2007).
 Tankha Committee (Core Committee) in 2010 for election laws and reforms.
 J.S. Verma Committee Report on Amendments to Criminal Law (2013).
 Law Commission of India 244th Report on Electoral Disqualifications (2014).
 Law Commission of India 255th Report on Electoral Reforms (2015).

Based on the recommendations made by the above Committees and Commissions, various reforms have been introduced in our
electoral system, election machinery and election process. These can be studied under the following four heads.
 Electoral reforms before 1996
 Electoral reforms of 1996
 Electoral reforms after 1996
 Electoral reforms since 2010

ELECTORAL REFORMS BEFORE 1996:

1. Lowering of Voting Age: The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act of 1988 lowered the voting age from 21 years to 18 years
for Lok Sabha and assembly elections.
2. Deputation to Election Commission: In 1988, a provision was made for officers and staff engaged in electoral roll
preparation to be deemed on deputation to the Election Commission.
3. Increase in Number of Proposers: In 1988, the number of electors required to sign as proposers in nomination papers for
Rajya Sabha and state legislative council elections was increased.
4. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs): In 1989, provisions were made to facilitate the use of EVMs in elections, first
experimented in selected constituencies in 1998 and used in Goa's 1999 general elections.
5. Booth Capturing: In 1989, provisions were made for adjournment of polls or countermanding of elections in case of booth
capturing.
6. Elector’s Photo Identity Card (EPIC): In 1993, the Election Commission decided to issue EPICs to check bogus voting and
impersonation, based on continuous electoral roll revisions.

ELECTORAL REFORMS OF 1996:

1. Listing of Names of Candidates: Candidates listed in separate categories based on party affiliation or independence, in
alphabetical order.
2. Disqualification for Insulting National Honour: Conviction for certain offences under the Prevention of Insults to National
Honour Act leads to a 6-year disqualification from contesting elections.
3. Prohibition on Sale of Liquor: Sale of liquor or intoxicants banned 48 hours prior to polling, punishable with imprisonment
or fine.
4. Number of Proposers: 10 registered electors required as proposers for non-party candidates, 1 proposer for candidates
sponsored by recognised parties.
5. Death of a Candidate: Election not countermanded on the death of a candidate; the party can propose another candidate
within seven days.
6. Time Limit for By-Elections: By-elections to be held within six months of a vacancy, unless remainder of the term is less than
a year or exceptional circumstances exist.
7. Holiday to Employees on Polling Day: Registered voters entitled to a paid holiday on polling day; employer violation
punishable with a fine.
8. Contestants Restricted to Two Constituencies: Candidates limited to contesting from two constituencies in general elections
or simultaneous by-elections.
9. Prohibition of Arms: Entering polling stations with arms considered a cognizable offence, punishable with imprisonment,
fine, and confiscation of arms.
10. Effective Campaigning Period Reduced: Minimum gap between last date for withdrawal of candidature and polling date
reduced from 20 to 14 days.

ELECTORAL REFORMS AFTER 1996:

1. Presidential and Vice Presidential Elections: Increased number of electors required as proposers and seconders, and raised
the security deposit amount to discourage frivolous candidates.
2. Requisitioning of Staff for Election Duty: Provision made for deployment of employees from various institutions on election
duty.
3. Voting through Postal Ballot: Introduced voting by postal ballot for certain classes of persons notified by the Election
Commission.
4. Facility to Opt to Vote Through Proxy: Service voters belonging to the Armed Forces and certain forces can opt to vote
through proxy.
5. Declaration of Criminal Antecedents, Assets, etc., by Candidates: Candidates required to furnish information on criminal
history, assets, liabilities, and educational qualifications.
6. Changes in Rajya Sabha Elections: Removed domicile requirement for Rajya Sabha candidates and introduced open ballot
system to curb cross-voting.
7. Exemption of Travelling Expenditure: Traveling expenditure of campaigning leaders exempted from being included in
election expenses of the candidate.
8. Free Supply of Electoral Rolls, etc.: Government to supply copies of electoral rolls and other material to candidates of
recognised parties for Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.
9. Parties Entitled to Accept Contribution: Political parties allowed to accept contributions from individuals or companies, with
reporting requirements for contributions over ₹20,000.
10. Allocation of Time on Electronic Media: Election Commission to allocate equitable time on cable television and electronic
media during elections.
11. Introduction of Braille Signage Features in EVMs: Braille signage features introduced in EVMs to facilitate visually impaired
voters to cast their votes independently.

ELECTORAL REFORMS SINCE 2010:

1. Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT): Introduced VVPAT machines to provide a visual verification of the vote cast using
EVMs.
2. NOTA (None of the Above) Option: Implemented NOTA option on EVMs to allow voters to reject all candidates if they
choose to.
3. Increased Expenditure Limits: Raised the expenditure limits for Lok Sabha and Assembly elections to keep up with inflation.
4. Use of Social Media: Guidelines issued for use of social media for election campaigning, including monitoring of content and
expenditure.
5. Model Code of Conduct: Strengthened the Model Code of Conduct to ensure fair and ethical election practices.
6. Pre-certification of Political Advertisements: Introduced pre-certification of political advertisements on electronic media to
ensure compliance with the Model Code of Conduct.
7. Election Expenditure Monitoring: Enhanced the mechanism for monitoring election expenditure of candidates and political
parties.
8. Electoral Bonds: Introduced electoral bonds for transparent political funding.
9. Online Voter Registration and Verification: Enabled online voter registration and verification processes for greater
convenience.
10. Voter Helpline: Launched a voter helpline for voter education and information.
11. Transparency in Electoral Rolls: Ensured transparency in the preparation and maintenance of electoral rolls.
12. Women's Participation: Encouraged greater participation of women in the electoral process through various initiatives.

ELECTORAL REFORMS SINCE 2010:

1. Restrictions Imposed on Exit Polls: Prohibited conducting and publishing of exit polls during elections to Lok Sabha and
State Legislative Assemblies.
2. Time-Limit for Submitting a Case for Disqualification: Simplified the procedure for disqualification of a person found guilty
of corrupt practices, with a three-month time-limit for submission of the case.
3. All Officials Included in Corrupt Practice: Included all officials appointed or deputed by the Election Commission in
connection with elections within the scope of corrupt practice.
4. Increase in Security Deposit: Raised the amount of security deposit for candidates contesting elections to Lok Sabha and
state legislative assemblies.
5. Appellate Authority within the District: Appointed an appellate authority within the district against orders of Electoral
Registration Officers, instead of the Chief Electoral Officer of the state.
6. Voting Rights to Citizens of India Living Abroad: Conferred voting rights to citizens of India residing outside India due to
various reasons.
7. Online Enrolment in the Electoral Roll: Introduced online filing of applications for enrolment in the electoral roll.
8. Introduction of NOTA Option: Provided for the "None of the Above" (NOTA) option on ballot papers and EVMs for voters
who choose not to vote for any candidate.
9. Introduction of VVPAT: Introduced Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail attached to EVMs for voters to verify that their votes
are cast as intended.
10. Persons in Jail or Police Custody Can Contest Elections: Allowed persons in jail or police custody to contest elections.
11. Immediate Disqualification of Convicted MPs and MLAs: Immediate disqualification of chargesheeted Members of
Parliament and MLAs on conviction for offences.
12. Ceiling on Election Expenditure: Increased the maximum ceiling on election expenditure by candidates for Lok Sabha and
state assembly seats.
13. Photos of Candidates on EVMs and Ballot Papers: Ballot papers and EVMs to carry the picture of the candidate with his or
her name and party symbol.
14. Ceiling on Cash Donations Lowered: Reduced the limit for anonymous cash donations by any individual to a political party.
15. Cap on Corporate Contributions Lifted: Removed the limit on corporate contributions from a company's net profit for
political donations.
16. Introduction of Electoral Bonds: Introduced the Electoral Bond Scheme as an alternative to cash donations to political
parties.
17. Foreign Funding Allowed: Political parties permitted to receive funds from foreign companies under amended Foreign
Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010.

Voting Behaviour
 Behavior of voters in democratic elections.
 Reflects voter choices, preferences, ideologies, and concerns.

Scholarly Views:
 Plano and Riggs: Study of how and why people vote.
 Gordon Marshall: Focus on determinants of voting decisions.
 Oinam Kulabidhu: Reflects voter choices on societal issues.
 Stephen Wasby: Analyzes psychological and institutional influences.

Psephology:
 Branch of political science studying voting behavior.
 Originates from the Greek word "Psephos," referring to voting stones.

Significance of Voting Behavior:

 Helps understand political socialization process.
 Examines the internalization of democracy among elites and masses.
 Highlights the impact of the ballot box on politics.
 Indicates continuity or change in electoral politics.
 Measures the modernity or traditional aspects of political development.

N.G.S. Kini's Perspectives:

 Voting behaviour legitimizes democratic rule.
 It signifies participation in the political process.
 It involves decision-making.
 Reflects a specific political culture.
 Represents the direct relation of citizens to the government.

Determinants of Voting Behaviour:

Caste Influence:
 Politicization of caste is a major factor in Indian voting behavior.
 Parties strategize based on caste considerations.
 Local caste dynamics often determine candidate support.

Religious Sentiments:
 Political parties exploit religious sentiments.
 Existence of communal parties underscores religious influence.
 Despite secularism, religion remains influential.

Language Factor:
 Linguistic considerations impact voting.
 Parties appeal to linguistic identities.
 Reorganization of states based on language reflects its significance.

Regionalism:
 Regional identities influence voting.
 Regional parties emerge based on regional sentiments.
 Some parties call for election boycotts.

Leader's Personality:
 Charismatic leaders influence voting behaviour.
 Personalities like Nehru, Indira Gandhi, and Modi sway voters.
 Regional leaders also impact local elections.

Financial Influence:
 Money plays a role in influencing votes.
 Despite election expenditure limits, money, goods, or favors are exchanged for votes.
 Money's influence is less in wave elections.

Performance of Ruling Party:

 Voters judge ruling party's performance based on manifesto promises.
 Anti-incumbency can lead to voting against the ruling party.

Party Identification:
 Personal and emotional ties to parties affect voting.
 Strong party identification was more common in the past.

Ideological Affiliation:
 Voters committed to certain ideologies support parties with similar ideologies.
 Communism, capitalism, democracy, etc., influence voting decisions.

Other Factors:
 Political events like wars or scandals.
 Economic conditions such as inflation or unemployment.
 Factionalism, age, sex, education, habitation, class, family background, candidate orientation, media influence, etc., also
play a role.

Role Of Media In Elections And Voting Behaviour:

Information Dissemination:
 Media plays a crucial role in providing election-related information to voters.
 It informs voters about election schedules, candidates, and polling locations.
 Media also highlights changes in polling arrangements and election violations, promoting honesty and transparency.

Enforcement of MCC and Laws:

 Media acts as a watchdog, exposing violations of the Model Code of Conduct (MCC).
 It educates voters on ethical voting practices and highlights instances of malpractice.
 Election Commission follows up on violations reported by the media.

Compliance with Election Laws:

 Media is present at all election stages and must adhere to relevant election laws.
 Laws like Section 126 (prohibiting election matter display) and Section 126A (prohibiting exit polls) are followed during
election periods.

Voter Education and Participation:

 Media can contribute significantly to voter education.
 It helps voters understand registration, polling procedures, and candidate information.
 Voter education builds democratic values and enhances participation, especially among youth and marginalized groups.

Responsibility of Government Media:

 Public Service Broadcasters are expected to be neutral and objective in their election coverage.
 Prasar Bharati provides free broadcast time to political parties to ensure fair election coverage.
 Government media, including PIB and DAVP, play a crucial role in spreading voter awareness and educating the public about
voting rights.

Coalition Government
Definition: A coalition is an alliance of political parties forming a government based on a common agenda.
Occurrence: Happens when no single party secures a majority in parliament.
Nature: Involves cooperation among parties, often requiring compromises on individual policies.
Origins: Arises from the multi-party system in democracies.
Purpose: Ensures governance when no party has a clear majority, pooling resources and ideologies.
Examples: Seen in countries like India, where smaller parties can influence policy-making.

Features:
 Purpose: Coalitions are formed for material or psychic rewards.
 Partnership: Involves at least two political parties.
 Conjunction of Interests: Based on a temporary alignment of specific interests.
 Dynamic Nature: Coalitions evolve as players and groups dissolve and form new alliances.
 Compromise: Key element of coalition politics, overriding rigid dogma.
 Minimum Programme: Operates on a minimum agreed agenda, not ideal for all partners.
 Pragmatism Over Ideology: Focuses on practicality rather than strict adherence to ideology.
 Seizing Power: The aim is to gain political power, often formed before or after elections for governance.

Formation of Coalition Government:

 1952-1967: Congress party secured majority in first four Lok Sabha elections.
 1969: Minority government of Indira Gandhi with outside support of CPI, DMK, and others after Congress split.
 1971: Congress party won and formed single-party government.
 1977: Congress defeated; era of coalition governments at the Centre began.

Merits of Coalition Government:

1. Accommodation of diverse interests.
2. Representation of diverse cultures, languages, castes, religions, and ethnic groups.
3. Consensus-based decision-making.
4. Strengthening of the federal fabric.
5. Reduction of despotic rule.

Demerits of Coalition Government:

1. Prone to instability.
2. Limits on the Prime Minister's leadership.
3. Undermining of the role of the cabinet.
4. Risk of smaller constituents becoming "King-makers."
5. Influence of regional factors on national decision-making.
6. Large size of the Council of Ministers.
7. Escaping responsibility for administrative failures.
 Anti-Defection Law
Introduced by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985 to disqualify members defecting from one political party to another.
Amended by the 91st Amendment Act of 2003 to remove an exception provision regarding defection in case of a split.

Provisions of the Act:

 The Anti-Defection Law, contained in the Tenth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, disqualifies members of Parliament and
state legislatures under certain conditions:
 Disqualification: Members are disqualified if they voluntarily give up party membership, vote against party directives
without permission, or if independent members join a party after election.
 Exceptions: Disqualification doesn't apply if members leave due to a party merger or if they become presiding officers and
give up or rejoin a party after their term.
 Deciding Authority: The presiding officer of the House decides on disqualification, with decisions subject to judicial review
for mala fides or perversity.
 Rule-Making Power: The presiding officer can make rules to implement the Tenth Schedule, with contraventions treated as
breaches of privilege, and can only act on complaints from members, providing a chance for the accused to respond before
deciding.

Advantages:
 Greater stability in politics by curbing party-switching.
 Facilitates democratic realignment through party mergers.
 Reduces corruption and non-developmental expenditure on elections.
 Recognizes political parties constitutionally.

Criticism:
 Does not differentiate between dissent and defection, curbing legislators' rights.
 Irrational distinction between individual and group defections.
 Fails to provide for expulsion of a legislator for activities outside the legislature.
 Illogical distinction between independent and nominated members.
 Decision-making authority vested in the presiding officer criticized for lack of impartiality and legal expertise.

Reasons for Enactment of 91st Amendment Act (2003):

 Criticism of Tenth Schedule (Anti-defection Law) for allowing bulk defections and destabilizing governments.
 Recommendations by various committees (e.g., Dinesh Goswami Committee, Law Commission of India, NCRWC) to omit the
provision of exemption from disqualification in case of splits.
 NCRWC's recommendation to penalize defectors by debarring them from holding public office for the remaining term.
 NCRWC's observation on the need to limit the size of Councils of Ministers to 10% of the total strength of the legislature.

Provisions of 91st Amendment Act (2003):

 Total number of ministers in the Central Council of Ministers limited to 15% of Lok Sabha's total strength.
 Disqualified MPs cannot be appointed as ministers.
 Total number of ministers in a state limited to 15% of Legislative Assembly's total strength, but not less than 12.
 Disqualified MLAs cannot be appointed as ministers.
 Disqualified legislators cannot hold any remunerative political post.
 Exemption from disqualification in case of split by one-third members of legislature party deleted.

Pressure Groups
 Organized groups actively promoting and defending common interests, exerting pressure on government for policy change.
 Also known as Interest groups or vested groups.
Activities: Focus on specific issues, not seeking political power; use legal methods like lobbying, correspondence, and publicity.

Techniques:
1. Electioneering: Support candidates favorable to their interests.
2. Lobbying: Persuade officials to adopt policies beneficial to them.
3. Propagandizing: Influence public opinion to indirectly affect government decisions.

Pressure Groups in India:

Business Groups:
 Represent industrial and commercial interests.
 Include FICCI, ASSOCHAM, and AIMO.
Trade Unions:
 Voice demands of industrial workers.
 Examples: AITUC, INTUC, CITU.

Agrarian Groups:
 Represent farmers and agricultural labourers.
 Include BKU, AIKS, and Hind Kisan Panchayat.

Professional Associations:
 Represent doctors, lawyers, journalists, and teachers.
 Examples: IMA, BCI, IFWJ.

Student Organisations:
 Represent student interests.
 Examples: ABVP, AISF, NSUI, SFI.

Religious Organisations:
 Represent religious communities.
 Include RSS, VHP, Jamaat-e-Islami.

Caste Groups:
 Represent caste-based interests.
 Examples: Nadar Caste Association, Marwari Association.

Tribal Organisations:
 Active in tribal areas, demand reforms or secession.
 Include NSCN, Tribal National Volunteers.

Linguistic Groups:
 Represent linguistic communities.
 Examples: Tamil Sangh, Andhra Maha Sabha.

Ideology Based Groups:

 Pursue specific ideologies or causes.
 Examples: Narmada Bachao Andolan, Chipko Movement.

Anomic Groups:
 Include groups involved in riots, demonstrations, etc.
 Examples: All-India Sikh Student’s Federation, Naxalite Groups.

National Integration
Meaning:
 Avoidance of divisive movements.
 Development of attitudes favoring national interests over parochial ones.
 Socio-psychological and educational process fostering unity and common citizenship.
 Consciousness and awakening of unity among people.

Obstacles to National Integration:

1. Regionalism
 Sub-nationalism and sub-territorial loyalty.
 Manifests in demands for secession, separate statehood, and inter-state disputes.
 Examples: Khalistan, Telangana, Bodoland.

2. Communalism
 Love for one’s religious community over national interest.
 Rooted in British-era communal representation.
 Manifests in political parties and pressure groups based on religion.
 Examples: Muslim League, RSS, VHP.

3. Casteism
 Love for one’s own caste-group over national interest.
 Politicization of caste leading to formation of caste-based parties and pressure groups.
 Manifests in caste conflicts and disputes over reservation policies.

4. Linguism
 Love for one’s language and hostility towards other languages.
 Resulted in reorganization of states based on language.
 Led to anti-Hindi agitations and adoption of the three-language formula.
 Examples: Anti-Hindi agitations in South India and West Bengal.

NATIONAL INTEGRATION COUNCIL (NIC):

Formation and Purpose:
 Formed in 1961 to examine and recommend solutions for national integration issues.
 Comprised the Prime Minister as chairman, central home minister, chief ministers of states, and other members.

Revivals:
 Revived in 1968, 1980, 1986, and 1990 with increased membership and broadened agendas.
 Addressed issues like communal harmony, regional unrest, and new education systems.

Activities:
 Passed resolutions condemning divisive tendencies and promoting unity.
 Set up committees to report on regionalism, communalism, and linguism.
 Focused on combating terrorism, maintaining communal harmony, and preserving national integrity.

Recent Activities:
 Reconstituted in 2005 and 2010 under different governments.
 Discussed issues like communal violence, minority education, and equitable development.
 Condemned violence, promoted harmony, and safeguarded minority rights in its meetings.

NATIONAL FOUNDATION FOR COMMUNAL HARMONY (NFCH):

Establishment and Objective:
 Established in 1992 under the Union Home Ministry to promote communal harmony and national integration.
 Aims to create a violence-free India where all citizens, especially children and youth, live in peace.

Vision: India free from communal and all other forms of violence, promoting peace and harmony.
Mission: Promoting communal harmony, national integration, and unity in diversity through social action, awareness programs,
and victim support.

Activities:
 Provides financial assistance for the care, education, and training of child victims of violence.
 Organizes various activities with educational institutions, NGOs, and others to promote harmony.
 Conducts studies and grants scholarships for research on communal harmony.
 Recognizes and awards contributions to communal harmony and national integration.
 Collaborates with governments, NGOs, and businesses to achieve its objectives.
 Publishes information and educational materials on communal harmony and related topics.

Foreign Policy
Regulates India’s relations with other states to promote national interests.
Determined by factors like geography, history, social structure, economic position, and public opinion.

Principles:
 Promotion of World Peace: Advocates international peace, security, and respect for international law and treaties.
 Anti-Colonialism: Opposes colonialism, imperialism, and neo-colonialism, supporting liberation movements.
 Anti-Racialism: Opposes racial discrimination, supporting equality and social justice.
 Non-Alignment: Refuses to align with any power bloc, maintaining independent foreign policy.
 Panchsheel: Advocates five principles of international conduct, including non-aggression and peaceful co-existence.
 Afro-Asian Bias: Shows special concern for Afro-Asian nations, supporting their unity and development.
 Links with Commonwealth: Maintains membership in the Commonwealth, benefiting from economic and political ties.
 Support to the UNO: Supports UN activities and peacekeeping missions, advocating for UN reform.
 Disarmament: Opposes arms race, advocates for nuclear disarmament, and uses UN platform for disarmament efforts.
Activities:
 Provides financial aid to child victims of violence.
 Organizes activities to promote communal harmony and national integration.
 Conducts studies and grants scholarships on communal harmony.
 Awards contributions to communal harmony and national integration.
 Collaborates with governments, NGOs, and businesses to achieve objectives.
 Publishes information and educational materials on communal harmony.

Objectives of Indian Foreign Policy:

 Protect Core National Interests: Ensure support and understanding in the international community to protect India’s core
national interests.
 Preserve Decision-Making Autonomy: Maintain autonomy in decision-making and contribute to a stable global order.
 Combat Terrorism: Strengthen international efforts against terrorism, a global threat.
 Promote Economic Growth: Foster an international environment conducive to India's economic growth, including trade,
technology access, and energy security.
 Engage with Major Powers: Build strategic ties with major powers like the USA, EU, Japan, Russia, and China.
 Strengthen Neighbourly Relations: Enhance cooperation with neighbours, addressing mutual concerns.
 Develop SAARC: Work towards a peaceful and economically integrated South Asian region.
 End Cross-Border Terrorism: Eliminate cross-border terrorism, particularly from Pakistan.
 Enhance ‘Act East’ Policy: Strengthen relations and cooperation with ASEAN countries under the 'Act East' Policy.
 Engage with Gulf Countries: Strengthen ties with Gulf countries, crucial for energy security and Indian diaspora.
 Support Regional Cooperation: Support regional organizations like BIMSTEC, Mekong-Ganga Cooperation, and IOR-ARC.
 Engage with Global Groupings: Collaborate with groups like the EU and G-20 to further India’s interests.
 Reform UN Security Council: Advocate for reform of the UNSC and promote multi-polarity.
 Promote Equitable Relations: Advocate for equitable relations between developed and developing nations.
 Nuclear Disarmament: Work towards global nuclear disarmament within a defined timeframe.
 Engage with Diaspora: Strengthen ties with the Indian diaspora and recognize their role in India’s international relations.

GUJRAL DOCTRINE OF INDIA:

 Unilateral Concessions: India, as the largest country in South Asia, should offer unilateral concessions to its smaller
neighbours.
 Non-Reciprocity: The doctrine is based on the principle of non-reciprocity, advocating for India's accommodating approach
towards its smaller neighbours.
 Friendly Relations: Emphasizes the importance of maintaining friendly and cordial relations with neighbouring countries.

Five Principles:
 No Reciprocity: India should not expect reciprocity from countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka,
but should act in good faith.
 Non-Use of Territory: Countries should not allow their territories to be used against the interests of other South Asian
nations.
 Non-Interference: No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
 Respect for Sovereignty: All countries should respect each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
 Peaceful Dispute Resolution: Disputes between South Asian countries should be settled through peaceful bilateral
negotiations.

Purpose: The doctrine aims to maintain total peace with immediate neighbors to counter the influence of hostile neighbors in
the north and west, namely Pakistan and China.

NUCLEAR DOCTRINE OF INDIA (2003):

 Credible Minimum Deterrent: India aims to build and maintain a credible minimum nuclear deterrent.
 No First Use: Policy states nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation to a nuclear attack on Indian territory or forces.
 Massive Retaliation: In case of a nuclear first strike, India will retaliate massively to inflict unacceptable damage.
 Civilian Authority: Nuclear retaliation can only be authorized by civilian political leadership through the Nuclear Command
Authority.
 Non-use Against Non-nuclear States: India pledges not to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states.
 Response to Biological/Chemical Attacks: Retaining the option to retaliate with nuclear weapons in response to a major
attack with biological or chemical weapons.
 Export Controls: Continuance of strict controls on export of nuclear and missile-related materials and technologies.
 Disarmament Goal: Continued commitment to global, verifiable, and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament.

Nuclear Command Authority:

 Political Council: Chaired by the Prime Minister, the sole body authorized to use nuclear weapons.
 Executive Council: Chaired by the National Security Advisor, provides inputs and executes directives from the Political
Council.

Operational Review:
 The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) reviews progress in operationalizing the nuclear doctrine.
 CCS reviews command and control structures, state of readiness, targeting strategy, and operating procedures for nuclear
strikes.
 CCS approves appointment of Commander-in-Chief, Strategic Forces Command, and alternate chains of command for
nuclear strikes.

CONNECT CENTRAL ASIA POLICY OF INDIA:

India's "Connect Central Asia" Policy, launched in 2012, aims to strengthen and expand relations with Central Asian countries,
including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The policy encompasses various dimensions:

 Political Relations: Focus on high-level visits and close interactions in bilateral and multilateral fora.
 Strategic and Security Cooperation: Enhancing military training, joint research, counter-terrorism coordination, and
consultations on Afghanistan.
 Multilateral Engagement: Utilizing existing fora like the SCO, Eurasian Economic Community, and Custom Union for joint
efforts and proposing Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreements.
 Energy and Natural Resources: Seeking long-term partnerships in energy and resource sectors, including agriculture.
 Medical Cooperation: Offering cooperation in setting up civil hospitals/clinics in Central Asia.
 Education: Assisting in establishing a Central Asian University in Bishkek and promoting education cooperation.
 E-Network: Establishing a Central Asian e-network for tele-education and tele-medicine.
 Construction Sector: Showcasing India's capabilities in construction and collaborating in infrastructure development.
 Land Connectivity: Reactivating the International North-South Transport Corridor and improving connectivity.
 Banking Infrastructure: Encouraging Indian banks to expand presence in the region.
 Air Connectivity: Enhancing air connectivity to boost tourism and trade.
 People-to-People Connections: Emphasizing exchanges between youth, scholars, academics, and civil society to deepen
cultural understanding.

India's "Connect Central Asia" policy aligns with its broader Eurasian engagement strategy and aims to strengthen ties with
China, Pakistan, and Russia while leveraging regional forums like the SCO to enhance linkages with Central Asia.

AEP:
 India's "Act East Policy," launched in 2014, enhances engagement with the Asia-Pacific region with these key features:
 Extended Focus: Originally economic, now includes political, strategic, and cultural dimensions.
 Strategic Partnerships: Elevates relations to strategic partnerships with Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Japan, South Korea,
Australia, Singapore, and ASEAN.
 Regional Engagement: Active participation in BIMSTEC, ACD, MGC, IORA, ASEAN, ARF, and EAS.
 Economic Cooperation: Emphasis on infrastructure, manufacturing, trade, skills, urban renewal, and Make in India.
 Connectivity: Focus on enhancing connectivity between North East India and ASEAN.
 Priority to North East India: Development focus for North East India, including Arunachal Pradesh.
 Cultural Links: Revitalizing Buddhist and Hindu links for new contacts and connectivity.
 Transport Infrastructure: Developing strategy for linking ASEAN with North East India.
 Economic Engagement: Stepped-up economic engagement with ASEAN for regional integration.
 Strategic Cooperation: Increased cooperation on security interests, combating terrorism, promoting peace, and enhancing
maritime security.

India's Act East Policy aims to promote economic cooperation, cultural ties, and strategic relationships in the Asia-Pacific region,
with a focus on connectivity and regional integration.