natural-resource-management

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NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Education (Moi University)
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BOT 425: CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND

ETHOLOGY
Description, Credit units: 3
Pre-requisite: None
Purpose of the Course

To study concepts of climate, geomorphology and land classification relative to resources
management.
Study the various wildlife interactions in various environment, and the ethnological thinking and
approach with a view of understanding the causation, function, and ontogeny and evolution of
behaviour in animals.
Course Content
Concepts of climate, geomorphology and land classification relative to resource
management. Techniques for air photo analysis;. Conservation of genetic resource and
aquatic environments. Roles of parks and reserves. Concepts of resources management.
Wildlife studies (ecology): Population analysis. Determination of age, abundance, growth,
natality, mortality yield and utilization. Principles of harvesting control and management,
ecology of predation and herbivory, population regulation and cycle's. Wildlife diseases
and parasitology. Wildlife in deserts and forest environments. Similes ecosystem modes.
Ethology: An introduction of ethological thinking and approach aimed at understanding
of the causation, function, ontogeny and evolution of behaviour. Perception and behavioral
processes. Instinctive and learnt behaviour, social behaviour, activity behaviour of
domestication and management. Primate and carnivore behaviour social behaviour of
some selected animal species
Objectives
• Introduce basic concepts of conservation, management of natural resources and ethology
• Role of climate, geomorphology and land classification in relation to resource
management.
• Discuss the conservation of genetic resources in various environment.
• Discuss various processes of population analysis
• Understand the principles of harvesting, control and management of resources in various
environments.
• Discuss the ethological thinking and approach aimed at understanding of causation
function and ontogeny.
Expected Learning Outcomes

Describe the concepts of climate, geomorphology and land classification relative to resource
management.
• Explain the conservation of genetic resources in various environment.
• Describe the process of population analysis
• Explain the principles of harvesting, control and management of resources in various
environments.
• Describe the ethological thinking and approach aimed at understanding of causation
function and ontogeny.
Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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Teaching and Learning Methods

Lectures, tutorials, directed reading and assignments.
Instructional Material / Equipment

Texts, Manuals, charts, and Video cassettes.
Mode of Assessment
Type Weighting (%)
Continuous assessment tests 30%
Final examination 70 %
Total 100%
Course Text / References

Edward O. Wilson 1975 Sociobiology the new synthesis
Kourrad Lovenz 1981 The foundations of ethology
Daniel D. Chivas University of Denver & John P. Reganold, Washington state University 2009
Natural Resources conversation: Management for a sustainable future
Richard L. Knight & Courtney white 2008. Conservation for a new Generation Redefining
natural Resources
Charles Zerner 2000 People Plants & Justice : The politics of natural conservation
Steven M. Wise 2002 drawing line: Science and the case for Animals rights

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BOT 425: CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND

ETHOLOGY
Definition
A resource is any factor which can be used to satisfy human wants (any source of raw
materials).
Water, air sun shine, land soil, forests, wildlife, fishes, minerals and power resources all are
useful to man. All basic needs of food, shelter and clothing are supplied by natural resources on
earth. The stocks of nature, useful to mankind are called natural resources.
Natural resources are the components of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

• Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land,
water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of
life for both present and future generations (stewardship).
• Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and
natural landscapes interact.
• It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity
conservation, and the future sustainability of industries
• It recognizes that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity
of our landscapes, and their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in
maintaining this health and productivity.
• Natural resource management is also congruent with the concept of sustainable
development.
• Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical
understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those
resources.
• Environmental management is also similar to natural resource management .
Natural resources provide clean water, food, habitat, protection from extreme events, and
opportunities for recreation and tourism. Climate change affects many of the services that natural
resources provide. For example, changes in ocean temperature and chemistry are affecting

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shellfish aquaculture. Climate-related disruptions to agriculture have increased and are projected
to become more severe. Fire, drought, and other factors are making many forests more
vulnerable. Water quality and supply are stressed in some regions.
TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES:-

On the basis of abundance and availability natural resources can be broadly classified into
a) Inexhaustible. These are present in plenty and cannot be exhausted by man’s consumption
e,g. air, sand, clay, water, solar radiation etc. Although air will never become limiting, its quality
can be affected due to continuous increase in human population.
b) Exhaustible. The stock of these resources in nature is limited. Exhaustible resources are
further divided into:
(i) Renewable (ii) Non-renewable.
I) A renewable natural resource is one that can regrow, or whose supplies can be replenished
through natural processes. Some examples of renewable resource include plants, animals,
insects, or wind forests, wild life etc.. But being renewable does not mean that these resources
automatically last forever. If the renewable resources in a particular area are overexploited for a
long period of time, it is entirely possible that they may become endangered or even disappear
altogether. The resources reappear by the quick replacement, recycling and reproduction in a
particular time.
II) A non-renewable natural resource is one that can be used up, one that will not be
replenished by nature. Examples of these include oil, coal, minerals, or rocks. The use of these
resources should be carefully monitored and managed according to their availability. The effects
that their exploitation has on all the other resources and the environment as a whole should be
carefully followed.
Managing natural resources

We need to be very aware of how we use the natural resources in our environment. We should
use resources in a way that does not dangerously reduce their supply and we should preserve the
balance between the different resources and organism in the environment.
Maintaining healthy ecosystems. All living and non-living things interact with each
other and co-exist in a balance. Disturbing this balance by overexploiting natural
resources usually has broad effects on everything in the entire ecosystem. We are not
immune to these effects. To live long and healthy lives we must work hard to maintain
this balance.
Building sustainable livelihoods. This involves activities that generate food and/or
income while maintaining the productivity of the natural resource base. E.g Farmers rely
on the entire ecosystem (water, soil, nutrients, plants, animals and everything else in it)
for their livelihood. How successful they are in providing for their families largely
depends on how well they manage these resources. Sustainable livelihoods are good
management practices that help farmers safeguard the environments while securing
sufficient food and income for the entire family.

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Climate change and natural resources
How does climate change affects natural resources (e.g., plants, wildlife, forests, wetlands,
parks).
Climate change
Climate change affects many natural resources:
Plants and animals
As the climate changes, some species will adapt by:
• migrating to new locations

• changing their breeding seasons
• seeking new food sources
Less adaptable species may even disappear from their current habitats.
Biodiversity
the way certain species interact with one another and their environment may change
the geographic range of plants and wildlife is predicted to move north as the temperature
increases. Moose, gray jays, and polar bear populations are expected to shift north
species at risk and isolated habitats may be the most sensitive to changes
less ice cover and changes to lake freeze-up and break-up times may affect the food
supply for aquatic species and may also affect fish spawning
changes in water and air temperature may make conditions more favorable for diseases
and invasive species, which puts pressure on native species
Forests
there may be more insect and disease outbreaks

increased tree stress may affect forest growth
drier forests will lead to more intense and frequent forest fires
local tree species will be less suited to local conditions. Climate conditions may change
faster than local trees can migrate, which may case cause them to die off in some areas
healthy forests store carbon; damaged and unhealthy forests will be less effective at this
healthy forests can withstand – and reduce – the impacts of climate change
Water
Changing temperatures and precipitation cause extreme events that affect water resources (e.g.,
floods, droughts)

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Milder, shorter winters lead to:
earlier snowmelt
less ice cover on lakes
changing rainfall patterns
changes in water’s movement between air, soil, plants and bodies of water
there may be less water available for renewable energy production and waterways
increasing water temperatures may result in lower water quality as more micro-organisms
are found in lakes
warm-water species may spread into new northern habitats

more extreme weather may result in more frequent flooding, erosion, shoreline damage,
infrastructure failures and decreased water quality due to increased runoff and debris
Fish
• most aquatic species’ growth and reproduction are strongly influenced by water
temperatures
• at-risk fish species may disappear completely
• changes in the composition and availability of phytoplankton and zooplankton

(organisms in the water that are an important food source for many fish) may favour
some fish species over others
• changes to water quality, water levels and ice cover may affect the type and number of
fish in lakes and rivers
• lake conditions are expected to be more favourable for invasive species (e.g., zebra
mussels, round goby)
• fish diseases such like viral hemorrhagic septicemia may become more common
Wildlife
• some wildlife species will be forced to move further north to a more favourable habitat
• species in southern areas will live in a smaller area due to increased parasites and
competition
hybridization between different animal species (e.g., northern and southern flying
squirrels) is already being observed due to climate change
• while some animals will adapt, species that require a narrow range of temperature and
precipitation conditions are most likely to decline or die out completely

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climate change may affect:
wildlife reproduction
relationships between predators and prey
survival
rates of disease in wildlife species
the availability of food and habitat
For example, if migratory songbirds arrive at their breeding grounds earlier, the food they need
for successful reproduction may be unavailable.
Wetlands
wetlands help reduce the effects of climate change by capturing and storing carbon
climate change alters wetlands and the native species living there
changes in precipitation and temperature may change wetland water systems, causing
flooding and droughts
when there is a decrease in precipitation and increased evaporation due to warmer air,
wetlands may dry up or disappear
it is likely that as wetlands dry up, plants living in the area will shift and marshes may
become more swamp-like as woody plants move into marsh areas
Parks and protected areas
protected areas are established to conserve representative features, ecosystems and

species
as ecosystems move and change in response to climate change, the fixed boundaries of
protected areas may no longer conserve the features they were created to protect
Patterns of recreational use may change:
summer activities such as camping and swimming may be affected by poor water quality
and heat events
spring and fall recreational use may become more popular
as the winter season shortens and snow cover becomes less reliable, opportunities for
winter activities may decline

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Geomorphology
Definition
Geomorphology is the study of landforms and landscapes on Earth and other planets, and the
processes that shape them. This discipline is primarily concerned with the erosion and deposition
of rock and sediments by wind and water, but also includes the creation of topography through
tectonics.
Geomorphologic Processes
Today, the study of geomorphology is broken down into the study of various geomorphologic
processes. Most of these processes are considered to be interconnected and are easily observed
and measured with modern technology. In addition, the individual processes are considered to be
either erosional, depositional, or both. An erosional process involves the wearing down of the
earth’s surface by wind, water, and/or ice. A depositional process is the laying down of material
that has been eroded by wind, water, and/or ice.
The geomorphologic processes are as follows:
Fluvial
Fluvial geomorphologic processes are those related to rivers and streams. The flowing water
found here is important in shaping the landscape in two ways. First, the power of the water
moving across a landscape cuts and erodes its channel. As it does this, the river shapes its
landscape by growing in size, meandering across the landscape, and sometimes merging with
other rivers forming a network of braided rivers. The paths rivers take depend on the topology of
the area and the underlying geology or rock structure found where it's moving.
In addition, as the river carves its landscape it carries the sediment it erodes as it flows. This
gives it more power to erode as there is more friction in the moving water, but it also deposits
this material when it floods or flows out of mountains onto an open plain in the case of an
alluvial fan (image).
Mass Movement
The mass movement process, also sometimes called mass wasting, occurs when soil and rock
moves down a slope under the force of gravity. The movement of the material is called creeping,
slides, flows, topples, and falls. Each of these is dependent on the speed of movement and
composition of the material moving. This process is both erosional and depositional.
Glacial
Glaciers are one of the most significant agents of landscape change simply because of their sheer
size and power as they move across an area.

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They are erosional forces because their ice carves the ground beneath them and on the sides in
the case of a valley glacier which results in a U-shaped valley. Glaciers are also depositional
because their movement pushes rocks and other debris into new areas. The sediment created by
the grinding down of rocks by glaciers is called glacial rock flour. As glaciers melt, they also
drop their debris creating features like eskers and moraines.
Weathering
Weathering is an erosional process that involves the chemical break down of rock (such as
limestone) and the mechanical wearing down of rock by a plant’s roots growing and pushing
through it, ice expanding in its cracks, and abrasion from sediment pushed by wind and water.
Weathering can for example result in rock falls and eroded rock like those found in Arches
National Park, Utah.
Land classification relative to resources management.
Ecological land classification is a cartographical delineation or regionalisation of distinct

ecological areas, identified by their geology, topography, soils, vegetation, climate conditions,
living species, habitats, water resources, and sometimes also anthropic factors. These factors
control and influence biotic composition and ecological processes.
Coastal Lands
Coastal lands describe the interface or transition areas between land and sea.
Coastal areas are home to species and habitats that provide many benefits to society and
natural ecosystems.
coastal and ocean activities, such as marine transportation of goods, offshore energy
drilling, resource extraction, fish cultivation, recreation, and tourism are integral to the
nation’s economy.
Coasts are sensitive to sea level rise, changes in the frequency and intensity of storms,
increases in precipitation, and warmer ocean temperatures.
In addition, rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) are causing the
oceans to absorb more of the gas and become more acidic.
This rising acidity could have significant impacts on coastal and marine ecosystems.
Forests land
Forests are areas of land covered with trees or other woody vegetation.
Forests occur within urban areas, at the interface between urban and rural areas, and in

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rural areas.
Urban forests and open spaces contribute to clean air, cooling buildings, aesthetics, and
recreation in parks.
Development in the wildland-urban interface is increasing because of the appeal of
owning homes near or in the woods.
Across this spectrum, forests provide recreational opportunities, cultural resources, and
social values such as aesthetics.
These forests provide many benefits and services, including recreation, clean air and
water, wildlife habitat, carbon storage, and a variety of forest products.
Climate influences the structure and function of forest ecosystems and plays an essential
role in forest health.
Climate changes may exacerbate existing stressors to forests, such as pest outbreaks,
fires, drought, and human development.
Forest systems are sensitive to changes in temperature, precipitation, and snow-melt, as
well as expanded ranges of fire, insects and disease outbreaks.
Climate changes directly and indirectly affect the growth and productivity of forests—
directly due to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and climate, and indirectly through
complex interactions in forest ecosystems.
Climate also affects the frequency and severity of many forest disturbances.
Changing temperatures and water regimes, earlier snow-melt, and increased resource
demands due to human development can impose negative pressures on these systems.
In conjunction with the projected impacts of climate change, forests face ongoing impacts
from land development, suppression of natural periodic forest fires, and air pollution.
Although it is difficult to separate the effects of these different factors, the combined
impact is already leading to changes in our forests. As these changes are likely to
continue in the decades ahead, some of the valuable goods and services provided by
forests may be compromised.
Grasslands, Shrublands, Savannas, and Deserts
Grasslands, also known as prairies, steppes, or savannas, exhibit naturally dominant grass
vegetation, typically in areas where there is not enough rainfall to support the growth of a forest
but not so little as to form a desert.
Deserts are biomes characterized by small amounts of moisture – typically less than 250mm of
annual precipitation.
Characteristics of Grasslands, Shrublands, Savannas, and Deserts
Landscapes with vegetation predominantly consisting of grasses and/or shrubs are often
characterized as grasslands, savannas, and shrublands.
These biomes can include steppes, tallgrass, and shortgrass prairies.
Typically grasslands contain only grasses, such as swordgrass, whereas savannas support
both grasses and widely dispersed trees; trees in these landscapes do not form a canopy as
they do in forests.
While the temperature of these land types can range from semi-arid to semi-humid, these

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systems often share characteristics of fertile, nutrient rich soils, with a warm to hot season
in the summer and a cold to freezing season in the winter.
These bioregions face unique management challenges due to impacts from climate
change.
In arid and semi-arid shrublands and deserts, invasive grass species with higher
flammability, like cheatgrass, will spread and increase fire frequency and range.
Increased temperatures can affect insect development time and may result in significant
increases in generations per year/per habitat and expose new environments to
colonization.
Agricultural Lands
Generally synonymous with farmland or cropland, agricultural land is typically devoted to the
systematic propagation of livestock and production of crops—to produce food and associated
goods.
Climate change and its impacts present new adaptation challenges for farmers as well as land
trusts and conservation groups dedicated to preserving these working landscapes.
Agricultural Lands can be:
• Arable land (cropland): refer to land producing crops requiring annual replanting or
fallowland or pasture used for such crops within any five-year period
• Permanent cropland: land producing crops which do not require annual replanting.
• Permanent pastures: natural or artificial grasslands and shrublands able to be used for
grazing livestock.
Recreational land
Recreational land is used for human pleasure. This mostly includes parks, museums, sports
grounds, and the sites of other activities that aren't essential to life but are pleasurable. Cities
often specifically plan these things to make sure their cities are attractive to people - both visitors
and residents.
Transport land
Transport land is used for roads, railways, subways, or airports: anything that transports people
or goods. These are like the circulatory system of the modern world, and necessary for all the
other land uses to operate effectively.
Roles of parks and reserves

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The national park system of Kenya is maintained by the Kenya Wildlife Service. There are two
main types of terrestrial protected areas in Kenya: national parks, and national reserves; there are
also marine parks and marine reserves.
What are the Benefits of National Parks and reserves?
National Parks Help Protect Wildlife
Unfortunately many animal species today face extinction, mainly because their natural habitats
are being steadily destroyed. National parks safeguard these habitats, and provide a safe space
for wildlife to breed and survive. Without national parks certain animal species are at greater risk
of becoming extinct – a landscape needs to be protected in order to provide habitat for wildlife.
Animal sanctuaries give a specific place where animals are kept in captivity in order to preserve
the species.
National Parks Help Protect Landscapes
Animals are not the only things that are at risk of disappearing. Landforms like mountains,
rainforests, gorges and dunes are at risk of disappearing if they are not protected from the actions
of humans and also the natural action of the environment. Many landforms are at risk from
pollution, and when they are controlled under national park status they have a better chance of
survival. Landforms in national parks are protected from development, destruction, and
pollution.
Parks and Sanctuaries Preserve History
Historical structures built on national park land are preserved in order to give us a better idea of
how people lived in the past, and how their cultures worked. There are many different structures
that can be preserved which allow people to learn from the past and continue building for the
future.
Helping Preserve Cultures and Tribes
In many national parks around the world people live generally apart from main civilization, and
their culture and members are largely protected thanks to the status of the national park. By
setting up protected areas, tribes and indigenous peoples who would otherwise struggle in the
face of development are protected from these actions. National parks not only protect animals
and wildlife, they can also sometimes protect people too.
Giving People the Chance for Healthy Activity
National parks and to some extent wildlife sanctuaries also exist to provide members of the
public with the space for healthy exercise and recreation in the open air. It is important to
conserve places where the natural environment is intact, so that people can slow down, enjoy
nature, and get some exercise by walking, running, or riding bikes. Many national parks have

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established trail systems that offer extensive routes for exploration on foot. People benefit from
cleaner air to breathe and the chance to relax and combat the stress of busy lives.
National Parks hold a wealth of knowledge
Learning does not begin and end in the classroom; however, national parks do happen to double
as the nation’s largest classrooms.
The national park system provides valuable contributions to education system. In addition to
teaching students more about the environment, the parks offer field experiences, classroom
materials and opportunities for professional development for students of all ages and
backgrounds.
The park service also offers distance learning opportunities that allow students of all ages to
explore their country without the need to leave the classroom. The service runs programs that
introduce students to the wider world around them. Students can use these distance learning
opportunities to go whale watching or join a park ranger on a virtual boat trip in Glacier Bay,
among others.
Students can also take part in question and answer sessions with park rangers right from their
classroom. These sessions can include questions on flora, fauna and even the history of the parks.
Teachers can also use the national park system as a way to teach students.
Economic Value
National Parks provide a major boost to Kenya’s economy. Regional communities in particular
benefit from tourists who visit national parks each year, through job creation and money spent on
accommodation, fuel and food, entertainment and retail experiences that are unique to these
individual spaces.

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Wildlife studies
Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all plants,
fungi, and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans.
Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, forests, rain forests, plains, grasslands and
other areas including the most developed urban areas, all have distinct forms of wildlife. While
the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by human factors, most
scientists agree that much wildlife is affected by human activities
Importance of wildlife
The importance of wildlife can be categorized as ecological importance, economic importance,

investigatory importance, conservation of biological diversities etc.
1. Ecological importance
Wildlife plays an important role in balancing the environment. Wild life provides a stability to
different natural processes of nature. Killing of carnivores leads to an increase in the number of
herbivores which in turn affect the forest vegetation, thus due to lack of food in the forest they
come out from the forest to agriculture land and destroy our crops. Therefore, once the
equilibrium is disturbed it leads to many problems.
2. Economic importance
The wild life can be used to earn money. Wild plant products like food, medicine, timber, fibres,
etc. are of economic value and the wild animal products such as meat, medicines, hide, ivory,
lac, silk, etc. are of tremendous economic value.
3. Investigatory importance
Some wild organisms are used for scientific experiments such as to test effect of medicine.
Generally monkey, chimpanzee, etc. are used for scientific experiments.
4. Conservation of biological diversities
By conserving wildlife, diversity in the environment can be conserved. According to some

scientists an ecosystem with more diversity is more stable.
5. As a gene bank
Group of genes of a population of any particular area is called as gene bank. To produce disease
resistant variety diversity in gene bank is necessary.
6. Recreation

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A visit to the parks and sanctuaries is an enjoyable proposition for children as well as adult.
Thus, wildlife is best means of recreation.
7. Cultural importance
The wildlife has rooted effects on religion. For example, the wildlife of India has rooted effects
on religion, art, sculpture and literature. Many mythological stories and children's stories are
based on wildlife.
8. Importance in agriculture
Wild organisms are very important for modern agriculture. Importance of wildlife in agriculture
field are as follows:
a) Production of new hybrid variety using wild plants.
b) Production of better hybrid variety of animals used for agriculture using wild animals.
c) New species of plants and animals can be produced by them.
Wildlife conservation
Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitat.
The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure that nature will be around for future generations to
enjoy and also to recognize the importance of wildlife and wilderness for humans and other
species alike. Many nations have government agencies and NGO's dedicated to wildlife
conservation, which help to implement policies designed to protect wildlife. Numerous
independent non-profit organizations also promote various wildlife conservation causes.
Wildlife conservation has become an increasingly important practice due to the negative effects
of human activity on wildlife. An endangered species is defined as a population of a living
species that is in the danger of becoming extinct because the species has a very low or falling
population, or because they are threatened by the varying environmental or prepositional
parameters.
Wildlife Conservation is divided in 4 parts.
1. Education—learning how to conserve wildlife and its resources.

2. Research—using science to better understand the needs and requirements of wildlife and
its habitat.
3. Law Enforcement—ensures that all laws related to wildlife are followed.
4. Wildlife Management—manipulation of wildlife to achieve a positive goal.

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Major dangers to wildlife
Fewer natural wildlife habitat areas remain each year. Moreover, the habitat that remains has
often been degraded to bear little resemblance to the wild areas which existed in the past. Habitat
loss due to destruction, fragmentation and degradation of habitat is the primary threat to the
survival of wildlife.
Climate change: Global warming is making hot days hotter, rainfall and flooding heavier,
hurricanes stronger and droughts more severe. This intensification of weather and climate
extremes will be the most visible impact of global warming in our everyday lives. It is also
causing dangerous changes to the landscape of our world, adding stress to wildlife species and
their habitat. Since many types of plants and animals have specific habitat requirements, climate
change could cause disastrous loss of wildlife species. A slight drop or rise in average rainfall
will translate into large seasonal changes. Hibernating mammals, reptiles, amphibians and insects
are harmed and disturbed. Plants and wildlife are sensitive to moisture change so, they will be
harmed by any change in moisture level. Natural phenomena like floods, earthquakes, volcanoes,
lightning, forest fires.
Unregulated Hunting and poaching: Unregulated hunting and poaching causes a major threat
to wildlife. Along with this, mismanagement of forest department and forest guards triggers this
problem.
Pollution: Pollutants released into the environment are ingested by a wide variety of organisms.
Pesticides and toxic chemical being widely used, making the environment toxic to certain plants,
insects, and rodents.
Over exploitation: Over exploitation is the over use of wildlife and plant species by people for
food, clothing, pets, medicine, sport and many other purposes. People have always depended on
wildlife and plants for food, clothing, medicine, shelter and many other needs. But today we are
taking more than the natural world can supply. The danger is that if we take too many individuals
of a species from their natural environment, the species may no longer be able to survive. The
loss of one species can affect many other species in an ecosystem. The hunting, trapping,
collecting and fishing of wildlife at unsustainable levels is not something new. The passenger
pigeon was hunted to extinction, early in the last century, and over-hunting nearly caused the
extinction of the American bison and several species of whales.
Deforestation: Humans are continually expanding and developing, leading to an invasion of

wildlife habitats. As humans continue to grow, they clear forested land to create more space.
This stresses wildlife populations as there are fewer homes and food sources to survive off of.
Population: The increasing population of human beings is the major threat to wildlife. More
people on the globe means more consumption of food, water and fuel, therefore more waste is

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generated. Major threats to wildlife are directly related to increasing population of human beings.
Low population of humans results in less disturbance to wildlife.
Population
Features of Population
Features of Population include:
1. Natality (Birth rate)
2. Mortality (Death rate)
3. Age Structure
4. Population growth curve
5. Population dispersion.
2. Natality (Birth Rate):
Production of new individuals of any organism is known as natality. In human population,

natality means birth rate in unit time. But natality in ecology includes the new individuals born,
hatched, germinated etc.
Natality may be (a) maximum natality; or (b) ecological natality
Maximum natality:
This is known as fecundity or absolute potential natality. It is the maximum production of new
individu-als under ideal conditions. There are no ecologic limiting factors except physiological
factors. Maximum natality is a constant far given population.
Ecological natality:
This is known as realized natality. This relates to population increase under actual, existing and
specific conditions. This is also known as fertility rate.
3. Mortality (Death Rate):
Mortality may be defined as the number of individuals those die in a population in a given period
of time. It relates to the death of individuals.
Mortality may be (a) minimum mortality, and (b) ecological or realized mortality.

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Minimum mortality:
It is also known as specific or potential mortality. Under ideal or non-limiting conditions, the
minimum loss is expressed as minimum mortality.
Ecological mortality:
Under given environmental conditions, the actual loss of the individuals is known as ecological
mortal-ity. Mortality is expressed as the number of individuals dying in a period:
Mortality = Total number of death per unit time /Average popu-lation
4. Age Structure:
In a population, there are individuals of different age groups. The relative proportion of
individuals pertaining to different age groups of population is called age structure of age
distribution. Bodenheimer (1938) has identified three ecological age groups in a population
which may be outlined below:
(i) Pre-productive (Juveniles): Up to age 14 years in case of human beings.
(ii) Reproductive: Up to age 15-55 yrs.
(iii) Post-reproductive: Above 55 yrs.
Considering in terms of population density, it is seen that the ^reproductive age group is
expanding, the reproductive age group is stationary and the post reproductive group is
diminishing. The above facts are well marked in the form of age pyramids.
In all these pyramids, the pre reproductive are shown at the base, the reproductive at the middle
and post reproductive at the top.
There are three types of age pyramids:
(a) Expanding age pyramid:
Since expanding population has more individuals of pre-reproductive age, the age pyramid is
trian-gular having an expanded base. (Fig. 13.1a)
(b) Stationary age pyramid:
Since the relative proportion of individuals of different age groups is approximately the same,
the stationary age pyramid is almost bell shaped. (Fig. 13.1b)

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(c) Diminishing age pyramid:
Since post-productive are domi-nating, the diminishing age pyramid is urn-shaped. (Fig. 13.1c)
8. Population Growth Curve:
An increase of decrease in population numbers over a unit period of time is known as growth
curve. Growth curves can be plotted by taking time in the X-axis and the number of organism on
the Y-axis. There are two types of growth curves:
(a) S-shaped or sigmoid curve, (b) J-Shaped or growth curve
(a) Sigmoid curve: The growth of population usually follows S shaped curve in which population
increases slowly at first and grows rapidly in the next stage and lastly the growth rate slows
down until an equilibrium in reached.
Human population and those of Drosophila or rabbit in labo-ratory conditions show S-shaped
growth.

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S-shaped curve can be divided into the following phases:
Positive acceleration phase or lag phase:
Initially, population growth may be slow, as there is a shortage of reproducing individuals which
may be widely dispersed
Exponential Growth Phase or Logarithmic phase:
There is a rapid increase in population size / growth as the natality rate exceeds the mortality rate
This is because there is abundant resources (e.g. food, shelter and water) and limited
environmental resistance (disease and predation uncommon)
Transitional Phase
As the population continues to grow, eventually competition increases as availability of

resources are reduced
Natality starts to fall and mortality starts to rise, leading to a slower rate of population increase
Plateau (stationary) Phase
Eventually the increasing mortality rate equals the natality rate and population size becomes
constant
The population has reached the carrying capacity (K) of the environment
Limited resources, predation and disease all contribute to keeping the population size balanced
While the population size at this point may not be static, it will oscillate around the carrying
capacity to remain relatively even (no net growth)
9. Population Dispersion:
The movement of individuals in or out of the habitat is known as population dispersion.
Population dispersion may be of the following types:
(i) Emigration:
It may be defined as one way outward move-ment of individuals in order to lower overcrowding
of the popula-tion of an area. It is regared as an adaptive behaviour that regu-lates the population
in a particular habitat and avoids its exploi-tation. It also provides opportunities for inter
breeding with other populations leading to genetic diversity and adaptability.
(ii) Immigration:

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It may be defined as one way inward move-ment. It is opposite to emigration. It causes over
population fol-lowed by high mortality among immigrants. It reduces reproduc-tive capacity of
the individuals.
(iii) Migration:
It is the periodic departure and return of the Population migratory movements and these are
usually control-led by circadian, lunar and tidal rhythms as well as seasonal vi-brations. Some
possible reasons for migration are requirement for food, shelter or reproduction. It utilizes
unexploited habitats and resources. It also protects the individuals from intraspecific
competition. However it may cause mortality during dispersion.
APPROACHES TO NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
The process towards natural resources management requires several approaches including:-
i. Economic approach
ii. Legal approach
iii. Institutional approach
iv. Administrative approach
v. Pedagogic approach
vi. Ecosystem approach
i. Economic Approach
- This is one of the approaches used in natural resources management and it is the
most common among others. It is all about the use of the following issues:
a) Applying Taxation so as to reduce the use of such a resource; example tax

imposition to; charcoal making, fishing, small scale mining etc.
b) The use of Polluter pays Principle (PPP)
- This requires one to pay the real cost of pollution that he / she is causing to the
environment due to resources exploitation.
- The polluter pays principle is the commonly accepted practice that those who
produce pollution should bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health or the
environment.

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Example: A factory that produces a potentially poisonous substance as byproducts of its

activities is usually held responsible for its safe disposal.
c) Applying user fees Principle
- This requires one to pay the user fees that have been calculated and set according
to the prevailing standards.
- The user is required to pay the fees for the use of a particular resource in a
specified time. This reduces high pressure over resources exploitation.
d) Benefit sharing Principle
- This involves preventing people from using some reserved areas like forests,
national parks, game reserves etc, and at the end of the day you share the benefits obtained from
such reservation.
e) The use of Permit System
- This needs the user to get the permit from the recognized institution/ ministry
before using a certain resource.
- This means that the resources concerned are restricted towards a random use/
exploitation unless the user gets the valid permit from the recognized authority.
f) Conservation System
- This is all about convincing people to do away with the use of a certain resource in
a specified time under the name of conservation for future benefits.
ii. Administrative Approach
- This is all about the use of ministry/ ministries and other organs in environmental resources
protection and Natural resources management.
For example: in Tanzania, this involves the use of the Ministry of Environment which is in the
office of the vice- President. It also touches; Ministry of energy and minerals/natural resources,
Ministry of water and irrigation, ministry of livestock development and fisheries, National
environmental management council (NEMC) which established as an institution/ organ for
environmental management in Tanzania, etc
- In this approach, therefore, there is the need to establish the Ministry / ministries in which all
environmental / natural resources management issues are delt upon. Different organs can also be

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established to facilitate the monitoring and implementation of environmental guidelines and

natural resources management.
iii. Pedagogic approach
Pedagogy simply means the science or art of teaching/ providing education using the specified
methods/ procedures. It is concerning with environmental education provision and environmental
awareness creation to the people.
- It entails the use of SEMINARS and WWORKSHOPS to discuss the environmental resources
management. Also through: Classroom teaching/ curriculum, Conference, Public meetings etc
iv. Legal Approach
- This is all about the use of LAWS and BY-LAWS to guide natural resources use thereby
conserving them (natural resources).
- It involves the use of Laws made and accepted to guide the natural resources exploitation.
v. Institutional Approach
- This is all about the natural resources management regimes. It is about
v Accessibility
v Utilization
v Ownership
-The Natural resources management regimes include;
a. Common property
b. Public / state property
c. Private property
d. Open access property
vi. Ecosystem Approach
- It is also known as Ecological management it refer to the holistic view of the environmental
components and the inter- relationships among them (components)
-It is one of the new ways/ approaches of managing natural resources that takes into account the
entire ecosystem (Ecosystem; A community of living organisms; plants, animals, and microbes;
in conjunction with non living organisms interacting/linked to each other in the environment)

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-It balances recreational use, economic development and conservation of natural resources in a
way that all the needs are met in a sustainable manner.
-It integrates the scientific knowledge of ecological relationships within a complex socio-
economic and Political frameworks towards the general goal of protecting the native ecosystems
integrate over the longtime.
-It is the integration of ecological, economic, and social concerns towards the management of
biological and physical systems in order to safeguard the long term ecological sustainability,
natural diversity and production. i.e. It deals with 3 concerns namely:
a) Ecological concerns
b) Economic concerns
c) Social concerns
a. Ecological Concerns
-Ecology refers to the relationship of the environmental organism and their environment
including human beings.
This means that when planning for the better natural resources management so as to satisfy the
ecological concerns, these is a need to consider human beings, environment and other Organisms
You have to take into account that an interaction of several components within the bio- physical
environment can tell much on the management or sustainability of the mentioned components.
For example:
· Interaction between human beings and the environment can lead to either Positive
or Negative impacts to the natural resources found in the environment.
Therefore, there is a need for scientific ecological knowledge on the relationship human beings/
living organisms and the environment before planning for natural resources management.
b. Economic Concerns
This means that the production and management of material wealth like farming, industry and
other activities should balance with the ecological overview/ aspect of the environment.
Simply, it means that “ the rate of economic exploitation of resources, should balance with the
natural resources available in the environment”
c. Social Concerns

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This is all about the people living together in communities, human history (lifestyles), population
trends, past and future activities (e.g. Agricultural trends), the Natural resources trends, conflicts
between NR. User’s tec.
Therefore, for better natural resources management we look critically at the mentioned aspects of
social concerns.
Both social and economic concerns are mostly not in favor of the ecological concerns because:
they degrade the environment(economic activities and social / aspect)
They deplete the Natural resources (Renewable and Non Renewable Resources).
The ecosystem approach requires the natural resource management to be observed beyond the
observable factors at the present time.
It is a more away from the approach of serving the endangered species at the time when they are
at brink of crisis to conservation and management of ecosystems at all times.
Predation
Predation refers to an interaction between two organisms, predator and prey, where there is a
flow of energy from one to another. The prey usually suffers a loss of energy and fitness, with a
commensurate gain in energy for the predator.
Types of Predation
There are four major types of predation:
1. Carnivory
Carnivorous predators kill and eat their prey. The common perception of carnivory involves a
large animal, such as a lion or a tiger, hunting smaller animals like rabbits or deer. However,
carnivorous predation is widespread in the animal world and carnivores can come in a variety of
sizes – from sea otters hunting sea stars to blue whales consuming zooplankton, each carnivore is
adapted to its mode of feeding.
2. Herbivory
Herbivory is the consumption of plant material by animals, and herbivores are animals adapted
to eat plants. As in predator-prey interactions, this interaction drives adaptations in both the
herbivore and the plant species it eats. For example, to reduce the damage done by herbivores,
plants have evolved defenses, including thorns and chemicals. Scientists have identified
thousands of plant chemical defense compounds, including familiar compounds such as nicotine
and cocaine (Coley & Barone 1996).

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To maximize nutrient intake, many herbivores have evolved adaptations that allow them to
determine which plants contain fewer defensive compounds and more high-quality nutrients.
Some insects, such as butterflies, have chemical sensors on their feet that allow them to taste the
plant before they consume any part of it. Mammalian herbivores often use their keen sense of
smell to detect bitter compounds, and they preferentially eat younger leaves that contain fewer
chemicals.
3. Parasitism
Parasitism is a form of predation where the host supplies essential nutrients for the sustained
survival and reproduction of the parasite. In many successful parasitic interactions, the host
suffers a loss of energy, falls sick or loses access to nutrients. However, unlike carnivory, the
host is not always killed. In most cases, the parasite is much smaller than the host.
4. Mutualism
Mutualism involves the interaction between two organisms where the host provides the nutrition
and space for the growth and reproduction of another species. However, the host is not harmed
and the interaction is mutually beneficial.
Prey and Predator adaptation
Click here
Predator-Prey Population Cycles

Predator and prey populations exhibit fluctuations described as the predator “tracking” the prey.
Predation may be an important cause of density-dependent mortality for some prey.
Prey populations rapidly increase. This is followed by an increase in the predator population: As
predators eat the prey, their population goes down because there is less to eat and the predator
population also goes down.
With fewer predators, the prey population can increase again—the cycle repeats; for example,
the snowshoe hare and lynx have a 10-year cycle.
The classic example is the snowshoe hare and lynx populations. Note that the lynx population
(green) peaks slightly behind the hare population (blue), which is the lynx’s primary food source.
The hare cycle is mainly driven by excess predation by the lynx, but other factors may also be
important.

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WILDLIFE DISEASES AND PARASITOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Diseases of wildlife can cause significant illness and death to individual animals and can
significantly affect wildlife populations. Wildlife species can also serve as natural hosts for
certain diseases that affect humans (zoonoses). The disease agents or parasites that cause these
zoonotic diseases can be contracted from wildlife directly by bites or contamination, or indirectly
through the bite of arthropod vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, and mites that have
previously fed on an infected animal. These zoonotic diseases are primarily diseases acquired
within a specific locality, and secondarily, diseases of occupation and avocation. Biologists, field
assistants, hunters, and other individuals who work directly with wildlife have an increased risk
of acquiring these diseases directly from animal hosts or their ectoparasites. Plague, tularemia,
and leptospirosis have been acquired in the handling and skinning of rodents, rabbits, and
carnivores. Humans have usually acquired diseases like Colorado tick fever, Rocky Mountain
spotted fever, and Lyme disease because they have spent time in optimal habitats of disease
vectors and hosts. Therefore, some general precautions should be taken to reduce risks of
exposure and prevent infection.
General precautions when approaching or handling a wild animal.
i. Wear protective clothing, particularly disposable rubber or plastic gloves, when

dissecting or skinning wild animals.
ii. Scrub the work area, knives, other tools, and reusable gloves with soap or detergent
followed by disinfection with diluted household bleach.

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iii. Avoid eating and drinking while handling or skinning animals and wash hands
thoroughly when finished.
iv. Safely dispose of carcasses and tissues as well as any contaminated disposable items like
plastic gloves.
v. Cook meat from wild game thoroughly before eating.
vi. Contact a physician if you become sick following exposure to a wild animal or its
ectoparasites. Inform the physician of your possible exposure to a zoonotic disease.
vii. Wear protective masks to reduce or prevent the inhalation of fungal spores.
viii. Protection from vector-borne diseases in high-risk areas involves personal measures such
as using mosquito or tick repellents, wearing special clothing, or simply tucking pant
cuffs into socks to increase the chance of finding crawling ticks before they attach.
ix. Additional preventive methods include checking your clothing and body and your pets
for ticks and removing the ticks promptly after returning from infested sites. If possible,
avoid tick-in-fested areas or locations with intense mosquito activity during the
transmission season.
x. Reduce outdoor exposure to mosquitoes especially in early evening hours to diminish the
risk of infection with mosquito-borne diseases.\
xi. Equally important preventive measures are knowledge of the diseases present in the
general area and the specific habitats and times of year that present the greatest risk of
exposure. Knowledge of and recognition of the early symptoms of the diseases and the
conditions of exposure are essential in preventing severe illness.
WILDLIFE DISEASES OF PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERN
Directly Transmitted Diseases
Rabies
Rabies is an acute disease, caused by a virus (rhabdovirus), that can infect all warm-blooded
animals, and is usually fatal.
Certain carnivorous mammals and bats are the usual animal hosts. Rabies occurs throughout
most of the world; only Australia and Antarctica are free of it. Most human cases have been
contracted from rabies-infected dogs.
Clinical Signs. Rabies is considered almost 100% fatal once clinical signs develop. The disease
progresses rapidly following the appearance of clinical signs, and the animal dies within a few
days. Although abnormal behavior is not diagnostic for rabies (other diseases, like distemper,
cause similar behavioral changes), atypical behavior and signs develop following brain infection,
and rabies should be suspected whenever wild animals display unusual behavior. E.g
a) Infected animals usually display either “furious” or “dumb” rabies, although some
animals progress through both stages.
b) convulsions and paralysis.
c) friendliness or loss of fear, appearance in the daytime for some typically nocturnal

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species (skunks, bats), unprovoked attacks on anything that moves (including inanimate
objects), bewilderment, and aimless wandering.
d) Unusual barking, crying, and frothing at the mouth are additional signs, which are the
result of paralysis of the throat muscles.
e) In domestic animals, rabies should be suspected if there is any change in normal habits,
such as sudden change in disposition, failure to eat or drink, running into objects, or
paralysis.
Transmission. Rabies virus is transmitted primarily via the saliva during the bite of a rabid
animal. However, other methods of transmission are possible. Accidental exposure of wounds or
cuts to the saliva or tissues of infected animals can occur. The virus is also present in various
body organs of infected animals, especially the brain and salivary glands, which poses a health
hazard to persons who are field dressing or performing necropsies on these animals. In addition,
aerosol exposure has occurred, although rarely, in caves containing very large populations of
infected bats. Transmission between animals also occurs by ingestion of infected tissues and by
transplacental passage to offspring.
Handling of Suspect Animals and Diagnosis. Use caution when approaching a suspected rabid
animal since many are still aggressive and can bite even if paralyzed. If the animal is still alive, it
should be killed humanely without damaging the head. To confirm whether an animal is infected
with rabies, the animal must be submitted to the local health department or state diagnostic
laboratory for testing.
Avoid exposure to any sick or dead animals that are suspected to have rabies. Handle any dead
animal with gloves or with a plastic bag that can be turned inside-out to cover and contain the
animal. Avoid direct skin contact with the animal. For large animals such as skunks and
raccoons, remove the head cautiously and seal it in a plastic bag, avoiding contact or aerosol
exposure. Seal the whole animal or head inside an additional plastic bag (double) and keep it
cool at all times. Do not freeze the specimen unless a delay of several days is anticipated before
it is examined for rabies. Disinfect gloves or knives that were in contact with the animal with a
strong detergent or bleach or dispose of them.
Prevention and Treatment. The best treatment for rabies is prevention. Individuals at high risk
of exposure to rabies, such as wildlife biologists, game wardens, animal control officers, animal
handlers, and veterinarians should be vaccinated before potential exposure. Safe and highly
effective vaccines are available through a physician or the local health department.
First aid should immediately be provided to a person who has been bitten by or had contact with
a potentially rabid animal. Scrub the exposed site, including bite wounds, with soap and water or

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water alone and flush thoroughly. Then apply a strong first aid solution (iodine) or cream. First
aid treatment is the most effective method of preventing infection by the rabies virus but should
not preclude medical attention from a physician, hospital emergency room, or the local health
department. Contact your physician or health department as soon as possible to determine dosage
of rabies vaccine and whether antirabies serum is required. Inform the health care professionals
about the rabid animal and the circumstances of the exposure (species of animal involved and its
behavior, if the attack or bite from the animal was provoked, and what type of first aid was
administered).
Trichinosis
Trichinosis is a disease caused by a nematode parasite, Trichinella spiralis.
Trichinosis is contracted by eating infected meat which contains the encysted parasites. The
parasites may remain infectious in meat which is raw or poorly cooked.
Trichinosis may result in diahrrea, sudden edema of the upper eyelids, photophobia, muscle
soreness and pain, skin lesions, thirst, sweating, chills, and weakness. Other respiratory and
neurological symptoms may appear if treatment is delayed.
Evidence indicates that nearly all mammals are susceptible to infections with this parasite, which
encysts in the muscle of the host and is then transmitted through consumption of infected flesh.
As would be expected, the disease is most common in wild carnivores and scavengers.
Prevention
Carcasses of carnivores and other meat-eating species should not be discarded in the
fields or woods, but should be made unavailable by burying or other means.
These carcasses also should not be fed to swine, dogs, or other domestic animals.
Open garbage dumps should be replaced by the landfill type or other methods of disposal
where wildlife will not have access to meat scraps.
If open garbage dumps cannot be eliminated, rodent control programs should be initiated
and the areas fenced to prevent scavenging by larger animals such as foxes.
If carnivorous or omnivorous wildlife such as bears, bobcats, opossums, raccoons, or
feral pigs are consumed by humans, the meat should be properly prepared by cooking,
freezing, or curing to destroy any viable trichinae. Cooking to an internal temperature of
137oF is deemed sufficient for pork, while freezing at 5oF for 20 days, -10oF for 10
days, or 20oF for 6 days will kill trichinae.
Mosquito-borne Encephalitis
Encephalitis is a disease caused by mosquito-borne viruses (arboviruses) that affect the central
nervous system. Infections range from unapparent to mild, nonspecific illnesses (fever,

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headache, musculoskeletal pain, and malaise) to occasionally severe illness of the central
nervous system resulting in permanent neurologic damage and possibly death.
Encephalitis viruses naturally infect a variety of birds and mammals and are transmitted between
animals by mosquito vectors. Occasionally, infected mosquitoes will feed on human during
blood meal.
Prevention and treatment
• No treatment or commercial vaccine is available for humans, but vaccines for horses are
readily available.
• The best preventive measures are personal protection against mosquito bites, especially
avoiding exposure to mosquitoes during early evening hours, and the use of repellents.
Mosquito populations can be reduced in an area by eliminating breeding sites for vector
species. Killing adult mosquitoes by applications of insecticides has been most effective
in preventing epidemics.
Tick-borne Diseases
Colorado Tick Fever
Colorado tick fever (CTF) is an acute and rather benign disease caused by a virus (coltivirus) that
is transmitted to humans by ticks. Symptoms are usually limited to high fever, headache, muscle
aches, and lethargy, but the symptoms are frequently biphasic and recurring.
CTF is transmitted to humans during the spring and early summer by the bite of the adult stage
of the Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni) or by D. occidentalis in California.
The virus is maintained in nature through transmission by immature stages of ticks to various
species of small mammals, particularly chipmunks, ground squirrels, and deer mice during the
spring and summer months. The virus survives the winter in infected tick nymphs and adults.
The habitats that support the rodent hosts and tick vectors of the virus in the disease endemic
region contain rocky surfaces with moderate shrub cover and scattered pines.
Avoid tick-infested habitats during spring and early summer and use personal protection against
ticks. No vaccines or treatment are available.
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (Tick-borne Typhus)
Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a moderate to severe illness caused by a rickettsia
(Rickettsia rickettsii). The disease is distinguished by a sudden onset of high fever, severe
headache, muscle pain, and a red rash starting on the extremities about 3 to 6 days after onset of
symptoms and extending to the palms of hands and soles of feet and then to the rest of the body.
Delirium, coma, and death occur in about 1% to 2% of cases (15% to 20% in untreated cases).
The disease is transmitted to humans by several hard tick (Ixodidae) species; D. andersoni in the

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Rocky Mountain region, D. variabilis in the east and southeast, and Amblyomma americanum in
the south-central states.
The natural hosts for the rickettsia are a variety of wild rodents, although rabbits and wild and
domestic carnivores are involved in some cases.
Prevention: Avoid tick-infested areas and use personal measures to protect against tick bites. No
vaccine is presently licensed for public use, but antibiotic treatment is effective and should be
initiated without waiting for laboratory confirmation of clinical diagnosis.
Lyme Disease
Causative agent
Lyme disease is caused by a spirochete bacterium (Borrelia burgdorferi)
Clinical signs
• flu-like illness with headache
• slight fever
• muscle or joint pain
• neck stiffness
• swollen glands
• jaw discomfort
• inflammation of the eye membranes.
• A diagnostic rash, erythema migrans (EM), occurs in 65% to 75% of the cases. The
rapidly expanding red rash starts at the tick bite site and expands to a nearly circular
lesion of about 1 to 8 inches (2 to 20 cm). It often has a bulls-eye appearance with central
clearing and/or darkening around the edge.
• Additional smaller skin lesions may appear at other sites of the body and may last for
days or weeks.
• Later symptoms, including heart, nervous system, and joint manifestations, may develop
in untreated individuals.
• The joint pain and swelling usually occur one or more months after infection, may
involve one or more joints, and may recur in different joints; the knee joint is most
frequently affected. Domestic animals may be affected as well.
Transmission
Lyme disease is caused by a spirochete bacterium (Borrelia burgdorferi) that is transmitted to
humans by hard ticks. Acquisition of Lyme disease by humans peaks during the summer months
when the tick nymphs are feeding on hosts. Because of its small size, the attached nymph
frequently goes unnoticed and is not removed. The transmission cycle of Lyme disease begins

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when larvae acquire spirochetes while feeding on infected white-footed mice, chipmunks, other
rodents, and birds.
Prevention and treatment

• Patients treated with appropriate antibiotics during the early stages of the disease usually
have rapid and complete recovery.
• Even patients treated during later stages generally respond well and recover.
• No vaccine is available except for domestic dogs.
• Avoid locations with ticks during seasonal activity periods
• Use personal measures to protect against ticks
• become knowledgeable about the symptoms of Lyme disease
• seek medical care and treatment if infected.
Other wildlife diseases include:
• Tularemia
• Relapsing Fever
• Babesiosis is a protozoan disease with gradual onset of fever, sweating, loss of appetite,
fatigue, general muscle ache, and possibly prolonged anemia.
• Plague
• Murine Typhus Fever
• Rat-bite Fever- caused by the bacteria Streptobacillus moniliformis, which is found on
the teeth and gums of rats. It is transferred from rats to humans by the bite of the rat.
• Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease)
• Salmonellosis
• Rickettsial pox
• Histoplasmosis- a respiratory disease in humans caused by inhaling spores from the
fungus Histoplasma capsulatum.
• Ornithosis (Chlamydia psittaci, psittacosis)-The disease may also be contracted from
Pigeons, parakeets, farm poultry, or waterfowl.
• Cryptococcosis is a fungal disease spread by pigeons and starlings that results in chronic,
usually fatal, meningitis.
• Various species of birds may also play a part in the transmission of encephalitis,
Newcastle disease, aspergillosis, toxoplasmosis, pseudotuberculosis, avian tuberculosis,
and coccidiosis.

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Ethology
Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on
behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait
Types of behaviour
Behaviour is defined as the response of an animal to a stimulus. Behaviour can either be:
a) Innate/ instinctive behaviours

b) Learned/ conditioned behaviours
Innate/ instinctive Behavior
Behaviors that are closely controlled by genes with little or no environmental influence are called
innate behaviors. These are behaviors that occur naturally in all members of a species whenever
they are exposed to a certain stimulus. Innate behaviors do not have to be learned or practiced.
They are also called instinctive behaviors. An instinct is the ability of an animal to perform a
behavior the first time it is exposed to the proper stimulus.
For example, a dog will drool the first time—and every time—it is exposed to food.
-A newborn pup sucking milk from its mother is an example of an innate behaviour.
Significance of Innate Behavior
a) It enables newborn animals to effectively perform certain behaviors vital to survival e.g
suckling in mammals
b) Feeding behavior: E.g Honeybees communicate by dancing in the direction of a food

source without formal instruction.
c) Evading predators, without having to learn these behaviors by conditioning,

observation, or trial and error. E.g Sea turtles, newly hatched on a beach, will
automatically move toward the ocean.
d) Innate behaviors enable animals to care for their offspring hence increasing chances of
survival.
e) Many more young would perish without innate behaviors present from birth. E.g A
marsupial climbs into its mother's pouch upon being born.
f) Reproduction behaviors i.e innate behaviors enable animals find their mates. Example:
The courtship of the Blue-footed Booby consists of the male flaunting his blue feet and
dancing to impress the female. During the dance, the male will spread his wings and
stamp his feet on the ground.

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Many animals and birds don’t mate for life. They have several different sexual partners in
their lifetime or during one breeding season. Often there is one dominant ‘alpha male’
that mates with all of the sexually-mature females in his group. The alpha male is usually
the largest or strongest male. This behaviour is seen in lions and also sea-lions.
Some animals are monogamous - they mate with one partner for life. This behaviour is
seen in puffins and albatrosses. It is very unusual in mammals.
Learned/ conditioned behaviours
There are four types:
• operant,
• habituation,
• imprinting and
• classical.
Operant conditioning
This type of learned behaviour occurs by rewarding or punishing an animal. Teaching a dog to
jump through a hoop by giving it treats is operant conditioning. This type of conditioning can be
used to train:
• sniffer dogs to find illegal drugs or bombs

• police horses to remain calm in crowds or riots
• dolphins (at sea life centres) to jump through hoops
Habituation
Habituation is where an animal becomes steadily used to a stimulus or situation. It is sometimes

known as a simple learning or desensitisation process.
An example of habituation would be the action of prairie dogs which have lived alongside
humans for some time. They have become familiar with the scents of humans in their territory
and no longer make alarm calls when a scent is found.
Imprinting
Imprinting is the tendency of young animals to follow the first moving object they see. This is
usually the mother. Imprinting usually occurs during a short, but critical, period of a young
animal’s life.
Classical conditioning

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This type of learned behaviour occurs without rewarding or punishing. Many dogs will run
towards the door to begin their walk when their owner shakes their lead. This is classical
conditioning.
A Russian scientist called Ivan Pavlov completed a famous experiment into classic conditioning.
He observed that his dog produced lots of saliva when he showed it food. Every time he fed his
dog, he rang a bell for a short while afterwards. Eventually, just ringing the bell alone was
enough to make his dog salivate. It had been conditioned into salivating when it heard the bell -
and not just when it saw food.
Social Behavior in animals
Social behavior is defined as interactions among individuals, normally within the same species,
that are usually beneficial to one or more of the individuals. It is believed that social behavior
evolved because it was beneficial to those who engaged in it, which means that these individuals
were more likely to survive and reproduce. Social behavior serves many purposes and is
exhibited by an extraordinary wide variety of animals, including invertebrates, fish, birds, and
mammals. Thus, social behavior is not only displayed by animals possessing well-developed
brains and nervous systems.
Benefits of Social Behavior
Social behavior seems to provide many benefits to those who practice it.
Feeding: Studies have shown that many animals are more successful in finding food if they
search as a group. This is especially true if food resources are clumped together only in certain
places. If more individuals are cooperating in the search, there is a greater chance one of them
will find the clump of food. In some cases, foraging in a group makes it easier to capture a prey.
Dolphins are known to surround a school of fish and to take turns darting into the center to eat
the fish that are trapped in the middle. Many carnivores will band together when they try to
capture large prey. For examples, wolves will hunt together when hunting moose, and lions will
hunt together when hunting large prey such as wildebeests. When these animals are hunting
much smaller prey, they will often hunt singly.
Protection: Many animals live in social groups partly for protection. Although one baboon
might not be able to fight off a leopard, a troop of baboons often is able to do so. In addition,
with more individuals cooperating together, some can serve as sentries looking for danger while
the other group members are eating or sleeping. Prairie dogs and large flocks of crows normally
have some individuals acting as sentries, which makes it nearly impossible to sneak up on a
prairie dog town or a flock of crows.

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Many prey species, such as schools of fish and flocks of shorebirds, travel in groups in which
their movements are highly coordinated. The entire group moves quickly, darting one way and
then another as an entire group, as if they were all somehow physically connected with one
another. It is believed this behavior creates confusion for the predator. Predators generally need
to pick out a single individual in a group that they will focus on and try to capture. A rapidly
moving and turning school of fish, flock of birds, or herd of antelope is believed to make it very
difficult for the predator to remain focused on a single individual. However, if one individual is
unable to keep up with the group, the predator will then be able to focus on it and usually will
succeed in catching it.
Travel: Some animals form social groups to make travel easier. Canada geese and other bird
species typically fly in a V formation. Just like bicyclists who ride behind one another in order to
reduce wind resistance, the geese fly in formation to reduce the wind they must encounter. In this
situation, the lead bird has the most tiring job, which is why several birds usually take turns
leading the V. Some animals congregate in close proximity to one another in cold weather in an
effort to stay warm. Small birds are sometimes known to huddle so closely they form a single
large ball of birds.
Breeding: Sometimes social behavior is exhibited by groups of males or females during the
breeding season. In some cases, males may band together and try to chase the dominant male
away so they have a better chance of mating success. In other instances, males are known to
cooperate in making their courtship displays. Turkeys often perform their courtship display in
pairs, even though only one of the turkeys ends up doing most of the mating. Why would the
unsuccessful male agree to help? The two male turkeys are usually brothers. Since brothers share
about 50 percent of the same genes, even if only one brother mates, many of the genes of the
unsuccessful brother are passed on too.
In some species, the females form social groups during the breeding season. In certain
circumstances, females will look after one another's offspring while the other mother goes out to
find food. In other species, such as lemurs, females may form social groups as a kind of defense.
Males of some lemur species will try to kill the offspring of females that mated with another
male. By banding together, the females are sometimes able to ward off the attacking male.
Many animals form social groups only during certain times of the year. Many bird species flock
together in foraging groups in the winter. However, these same birds that sought one another out
in the winter set up breeding territories in the spring and will go to great lengths to keep the same
birds out of their territory. Thus, for many species, social behavior is a flexible form of animal
behavior, one that can be adopted or abandoned depending on the conditions of the environment
and the time of year.

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Insect Societies
Some of the most well-developed social behavior is exhibited by insects such as ants, termites,
bees, and wasps. Many of these species live in colonies with thousands or even millions of
individuals. One benefit of social behavior for these insects is that different individuals specialize
in certain activities. For example, some are the workers who build the colony and go out looking
for food that they bring back. Other individuals are the soldiers of the colony. Their job is to
continually patrol the colony perimeter and to protect the colony from possible attacks from
other colonies. In many ant and bee colonies, all worker and soldier ants are females. Males are
usually present in the colony, but do not contribute much. Finally, there is the queen ant or bee.
The queen's only job for her entire life is to lay eggs that the workers will care for.
There are substantial benefits to forming social groups and there are also some definite costs to
living closely with others of the same species. First, one competes most with others that are most
like oneself, and thus a member of a social group always has to share or compete with others for
resources. Second, because of the numbers and close proximity of individuals in many social
groups, disease may spread through social groups relatively rapidly.
Primate social behaviour
Most primates show the following social behaviours.
1. Dominance
Primates, as (mostly) group living animals tend to form what are known as "dominance
hierarchies". Animals higher in the hierarchy tend to displace lower ranked individuals from
resources (mates, space, food). They tend to have higher reproductive success (either by mating
more often, or by having more resources to invest in their offspring). The hierarchy is not fixed
and depends on a number of changing factors (age, sex, aggression, intelligence perhaps), and
may also depend on the support of others.
The rank is learned through play, agonistic interactions and affiliative interactions (and rather
tautological, that's exactly how it's measured too). This maintenance of social position, and social
knowledge of ones rank is one of the postulated theories for why humans have been forced to
evolve large brains.
2. Grooming
It can be used to strengthen links: subordinate animals tend to groom more dominate ones; males
groom females for sexual access. Or for more practical purposes: mothers grooming infants to
keep their fur clean? It is certainly the cement that keeps the primate social structure together.
3. Communication

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This includes scents; body postures; gestures; vocalisations. Some of these appear to be
autonomic responses indicating emotional states: fear, excitement, confidence, anger. Others
seem to have a more specific purpose: loud ranging calls in Indri, howler monkeys and gibbons;
quiet contact calls in lemurs to keep the group together; fear calls in lost infants, or on spotting
predators. From our human perspective, we often find it easier to associate sounds with specific
meaning, but among NHPs, gestures and actions are often used. Presentation and mounting
behaviour is often used to diffuse potentially aggressive situations. Yawns exposing teeth are
often threats, as is direct eye contact. Apparently this can cause problems when looking at
baboons with binoculars: the front lenses look like bigger than normal eyes and this is seen as the
observer being very aggressive.
Facial expression is important too. It's very obvious in chimps: their expression often appear all
to human-like; but other primates also use stereotyped eyelid flashes or lip slaps.
In addition, there has recently been a great deal of success teaching chimps human language.
This was initially American sign language, but has now been extended through the use of
modified computer keyboards to really very high levels of sophistication (especially Kanzi, a
pygmy chimp).
4. Reproduction
In all primates, except for humans (and perhaps chimps), the females are seasonally, or cyclically
receptive. This is usually associated with visual changes such as perianal swelling, so that is
clear when the females are in heat. Pair bonding of any sort is rare among primates, though
gibbons seem to be lifelong monogamists, and some new world monkey groups, such as
marmosets, have only one reproductively active pair in any group. Chimps, especially pygmy
chimps, have been seen to have consortships of several weeks where copulation is frequent, but
there is still no good evidence for paternal care of the infants.
5. Mothers and infants

This is the basic social group for many primates. It has been observed that this mother infant
bonding is needed to allow the infant to be able to interact properly as an adult, and, if female, to
be able to cope with offspring. This is one of the big problems with zoo animals where an
individual has been hand reared by keepers. In some primates, this mother infant closeness
continues after infancy. The females remaining in the group as a "matriline" and the males
dispersing to other groups. The combined power of one of these female bonded matrilines is
enough for the group of females to be more dominant than the alpha male, even though he is
much bigger than an individual member.
6. Aggressive and affiliative behaviour

As mentioned before, many behaviours exist to keep the group structure running smoothly for
the members of the group. There are occasions though when these behaviours (especially
aggression) are directed outside the group. Baboons gang up to repel attacks by hyenas, and

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chimps have been known to systematically gang up on and destroy neighbouring groups of
chimps.
One interesting argument here, is that the development of bipedalism has been seen by some to
be driven by a root as an aggressive, dominance display behaviour. This is the gorilla standing
bipedally and banging his chest, or a male chimp bipedally charging a subordinate. Most people
would probably consider this to be an effect of a bipedal ability, rather than the cause.
7. Cultural behaviour
This is learned behaviour that is passed from generation to generation. You will hear a lot about
this in humans, but it has been observed in primates too. One prime example is a group of
Japanese macaques, where one individual accidentally learned that the sweet potatoes that they
were being fed tasted better if the sand was washed off (this is not a normal food for these
animals). This behaviour has now spread through the whole group, and is being passed on to
infants. It is now part of their culture. Tool use abilities are often thought to be acquired and
passed on in this way too - for example, termite fishing in chimps.
8. Primate cognitive abilities

I've mentioned a lot about behaviours without mentioning much about cognition. This is the
amount of thought that went into a behaviour. There is a world of difference between an animal
hitting a nut with a rock and cracking it by accident, and an animal thinking to itself: "I can't bite
into this nut. I know, I need something to use as a hammer to crack it." However, it can be very
difficult coming up with experiments to differentiate these two.
We can easily test mental skills such as recall and discrimination: e.g.. Wisconsin general test
apparatus and various training experiments. But it's much harder to work out the degree of
thought required. This is still a big problem in evaluating the status of great apes. Just how nearly
"sentient" are they?
Another feature that has come to light recently is "Machievellian Intelligence". Work especially
with baboons seems to indicate that there is a lot of deliberate social deception going on: sneaky
mating; passing the blame onto others; using infants for defence. This seems very complicated
behaviourally, but again, it can (just about) be explained in a fairly minimally cognitive way.
Altruism of various sorts is also found in certain primates. The animals team up to gain various
goals, whether it's hunting in chimps, or mate access in baboons. This would also seem to require
a degree of cognition.
The signing chimp, Washoe, and the computer aided communication of Kanzi also indicate a
high level of intelligence. An interesting fact is that these language trained chimps do much
better in the standardised intelligence tests too, indicating that we probably underestimate
primate intelligence (primates are not all that interested in the colour of pencils, they want to
know which of their friends are sleeping with each other - sound familiar?)

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This is a thorny problem, with deep moral and political ramifications.
Social behaviour of some selected animal species
Lion Social Behavior
Group living
A typical pride of lions consists of about six related females, their dependent offspring, and a
“coalition” of 2–3 resident males that joined the pride from elsewhere. The pride is a
“fission-fusion” society and pridemates are seldom found together, except for mothers that
have pooled their offspring into a “crèche.”
Most daughters are recruited into their mothers’ pride although about a third disperse to
form new prides; pride size ranges from 1–21 females, and mid-sized prides enjoy the highest
reproductive rates, and females in the same pride breed at similar rates. Young males always
leave home in search of unrelated mates. Coalition size varies from 1–10 males, and coalitions
of 4–10 males consist entirely of males born in the same pride, whereas pairs and trios often
include unrelated individuals. Although larger male coalitions enjoy higher per capita
reproductive success, reproduction is only equally shared in small coalitions.
Lions are most affectionate to their like-sexed companions. Females spend their lives in their
mothers’ pride or with their sisters in a new pride; males may only spend a few years in a
given pride but remain with their coalition partners throughout their lives. Read more about
group living.
Infanticide
When a new male coalition first takes over a pride, the cubs represent a major impediment to
their reproduction. Mothers of surviving cubs will not mate again until their offspring are at
least 18 months of age but will mate within days if their cubs are lost. Thus, incoming males are
unwilling to be stepfathers and kill all the young cubs in their new pride; infanticide accounts
for a quarter of all cub deaths. Although subadults often escape from infanticidal males, they
become outcasts and must fend for themselves and suffer the risks of starvation and attacks
from neighboring prides. Mothers will occasionally accompany evicted subadults until they
reach independence.

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Mothers directly defend their offspring against attacks by outside males, and females also
reduce the risks of infanticide by inciting competition between rival males such that they only
conceive again after the largest available coalition has become resident in their pride.
Female lions will kill the cubs of rival prides, but they never kill the cubs of their pridemates.
The “egalitarianism” of female lions is strikingly different from the despotic behavior of
wolves, wild dogs and many other species where dominant females prevent subordinates from
breeding.
Communal cub rearing
A male takeover resets the reproductive clocks of all the females in a pride such that
pridemates often give birth synchronously. Mothers of similarly aged cubs form a “crèche”
and remain together for 1–2 years. Crèche-mates often nurse each other’s cubs, though they
give priority to their own offspring followed by the offspring of their closest relatives. Mothers
of singleton cubs produce the same amount of milk as mothers of large litters, and single-cub
mothers are the least discriminating in their nursing.
The primary advantage of forming a crèche is that a group of females is better able to protect
their young against infanticide. Males are 1.5 times larger than females, so a male can easily
overpower a lone mother, whereas a crèche with at least two mothers can successfully protect
at least some of their cubs against an extra-pride male. However, the crèche can only withstand
a brief male incursion, so the females must also rely on protection from their resident males,
who patrol the pride territory and fiercely repel outside males.
Territoriality
Lions are highly territorial and occupy the same area for generations. Females actively defend
their territories against other females, while resident males protect prides from rival coalitions.
Territory size depends on prey abundance, as well as access to water and denning sites.
The lion’s roar is a territorial display that can be heard from at least five kms away. Lions are
able to count the number of individuals in a roaring group and will challenge the invaders if
they safely outnumber them.
Although foraging groups of lions often suffer reduced food intake from having to share their
kills with pridemates, larger prides have a strong advantage in competition against neighboring
groups. Larger prides are able to expand the size and quality of their territories and thereby
gain greater reproductive success. The heterogeneity of savanna habitat appears to be the root
cause of group territoriality in lions: territory quality largely depends on proximity to river

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confluences, which serve as funnels that force prey into a small area and also hold persistent
waterholes and dense vegetation.
Cat behavior
Cat behaviour includes body language, elimination habits, aggression, play, communication,
hunting, grooming, urine marking, and face rubbing in domestic cats. It varies among
individuals, colonies, and breeds.
Communication and sociability can vary greatly among individual cats. In a family with many
cats, the interactions can change depending on which individuals are present and how
restricted the territory and resources are. One or more individuals may become aggressive:
fighting may occur with the attack resulting in scratches and deep bite wounds.
A cat's eating patterns in domestic settings can be unsettling for owners. Some cats ask for food
dozens of times a day, including at night, with rubbing, pacing, and meowing.
Communication
Kittens need vocalization early on in order to develop communication properly. The change in
intensity of vocalization will change depending on how loud their feedback is. Some examples
of different vocalizations are described below.
• Purring or a soft buzz, can mean that the cat is content or possibly that they are sick.
• Meows are a frequently used greeting. Meows occur when a mother is interacting with
her young.
• Hissing or spitting indicate the cat is angry or defensive.
• Yowls can mean that the cat is in distress or feeling aggressive.
• Chattering occurs when they are hunting or being restrained from hunting.
Grooming
Oral grooming for domestic and feral cats is a common behavior; recent studies on domestic
cats show that they spend about 8% of resting time grooming themselves. Grooming is
extremely important not only to clean themselves but also to ensure ectoparasite control. Fleas
tend to be the most common ectoparasite of cats and some studies allude to indirect evidence
that grooming in cats is effective in removing fleas. Cats not only use their tongue for grooming
to control ectoparasites but scratch grooming as well may aid in dislodging fleas from the head
and neck.

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Body language
Cats greeting by rubbing against each other; the upright "question mark shape" tails also
indicate happiness or friendship
Cats rely strongly on body language to communicate. A cat may rub against an object, lick a
person, and purr. Much of a cat's body language is through its tail, ears, head position, and back
posture. Cats flick their tails in an oscillating, snake-like motion, or abruptly from side to side,
often just before pouncing on an object or animal in what looks like "play" hunting behavior. If
spoken to, a cat may flutter its tail in response, which may be the only indication of the
interaction, though movement of its ears or head toward the source of the sound may be a
better indication of the cat's awareness that a sound was made in their direction.[4]
Scent rubbing and spraying
These behaviors are thought to be a way of marking territory. Facial marking behavior is used to
mark their territory as "safe". The cat rubs its cheeks on prominent objects in the preferred
territory, depositing a chemical pheromone produced in glands in the cheeks. This is known as a
contentment pheromone. Synthetic versions of the feline facial pheromone are available
commercially.
Cats have anal sacs or scent glands. Scent is deposited on the feces as it is eliminated. Unlike
intact male cats, female and neutered male cats usually do not spray urine. Spraying is
accomplished by backing up against a vertical surface and spraying a jet of urine on that
surface. Unlike a dog's penis, a cat's penis points backward. Males neutered in adulthood may
still spray after neutering. Urinating on horizontal surfaces in the home, outside the litter box
may indicate dissatisfaction with the box, due to a variety of factors such as substrate texture,
cleanliness and privacy. It can also be a sign of urinary tract problems. Male cats on poor diets
are susceptible to crystal formation in the urine which can block the urethra and create a
medical emergency.
Body postures
A cat's posture communicates its emotions. It is best to observe cats' natural behavior when
they are by themselves, with humans, and with other animals. Their postures can be friendly or
aggressive, depending upon the situation. Some of the most basic and familiar cat postures
include the following:
• Relaxed posture – The cat is seen lying on the side or sitting. Its breathing is slow to
normal, with legs bent, or hind legs laid out or extended. The tail is loosely wrapped,
extended, or held up. It also hangs down loosely when the cat is standing.
• Stretching posture – another posture indicating cat is relaxed.

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• Yawning posture – either by itself, or in conjunction with a stretch: another posture of a

relaxed cat.
• Alert posture – The cat is lying on its belly, or it may be sitting. Its back is almost
horizontal when standing and moving. Its breathing is normal, with its legs bent or
extended (when standing). Its tail is curved back or straight upwards, and there may be
twitching while the tail is positioned downwards.
• Tense posture – The cat is lying on its belly, with the back of its body lower than its
upper body (slinking) when standing or moving back. Its legs, including the hind legs are
bent, and its front legs are extended when standing. Its tail is close to the body, tensed or
curled downwards; there can be twitching when the cat is standing up.
• Anxious/ovulating posture – The cat is lying on its belly. The back of the body is more
visibly lower than the front part when the cat is standing or moving. Its breathing may be
fast, and its legs are tucked under its body. The tail is close to the body and may be curled
forward (or close to the body when standing), with the tip of the tail moving up and down
(or side to side).
• Fearful posture – The cat is lying on its belly or crouching directly on top of its paws.
Its entire body may be shaking and very near the ground when standing up. Breathing is
also fast, with its legs bent near the surface, and its tail curled and very close to its body
when standing on all fours.
• Terrified posture – The cat is crouched directly on top of its paws, with visible shaking
seen in some parts of the body. Its tail is close to the body, and it can be standing up,
together with its hair at the back. The legs are very stiff or even bent to increase their
size. Typically, cats avoid contact when they feel threatened, although they can resort to
varying degrees of aggression when they feel cornered, or when escape is impossible.
Dog behaviors
Here is a list of common dog behaviors and what they mean.
Panting
Because dogs sweat through the pads on their feet, most of their body heat is expelled through
their mouth when they pant. It's their primary means of regulating body temperature. Dogs
also pant to cope with pain.
Dog barking
In nature, dogs bark to raise an alarm at the first signs of possible danger or to herald a new
arrival. Barking is an important means of canine communication.
Dog chewing
Just as a growing child, your dog will want to chew on toys and other objects to relieve the pain
of a new set of teeth coming in. If your dog is full grown, you may also come home to find your

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couch cushions or favorite pair of shoes ripped to shreds, but it is not because they enjoy the
taste. Your dog could be exhibiting signs of separation anxiety or anxiety in general.
Digging
Digging is an instinct behavior in dogs. It is especially strong in terrier breeds. Dogs in natural
packs will dig to hide food or to uncover food such as small rodents. A den dug in the cool earth
can also provide shelter from the heat.
Jumping up
Though it may seem like play behavior, or an enthusiastic greeting, jumping up is a sign that
your dog is attempting to assert her dominance over you. By encouraging jumping up with
affection, you are reinforcing the behavior.
Dog biting
A dog will bite a person as a way of communicating their current state of mind. The dog could
be reacting in aggression, fear or nervousness. There are, however, ways to prevent a dog bite
from ever happening if you stay in tune to the dog’s body language.
Separation anxiety
Dogs live and travel in packs, so it's natural for them to feel anxious when they are separated
from their pack-mates. Try taking your dog on a nice, long walk before leaving her alone in the
house. Leaving her in resting mode can calm her anxiety.
Once you understand these behaviors, you'll be better equipped to recognize when your pack's
needs are not being met! When your dog's needs go unfulfilled, unwanted behaviors begin to
emerge.
Fish Behavior
Some most common fish behaviours are explained as follows:
Hiding
When fish are introduced to new aquarium, most fishes show hiding as their natural and most
common behaviour.
Fighting

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Many fish are show agression as their natural behaviour and always defend their territorial
space till death. Some fish are not compatible to fit and house in the same aquarium and
therefore they are almost seen fighting with other fishes.
Swimming Erratically
Fish generally swims erratically while playing or exercising but a consistent act of play or
exercise will mean a stage where your fish can be unhealthy because of bad quality water.
Testing water quality will discover cause of fish behaviour of swimming erratically.
Listlessness
Tired and lethargic fish can be due to many factors. Most common reason is improper water
temperature. If water is too hot or too cold, your fish will be very inactive. Other causes may
be overfeeding or improper water quality.
Sitting On The Bottom
Fish behaves normally when they are seen spending lots of time at the bottom of the tank and
also often sleep at the bottom of their water tank.
Gasping For Air
Fish may seen gasping for air at top of the aquarium and it can be due to improper water
quality or due to insufficient dissolved oxygen in the water. Testing your water and considering
an aerator for your water tank will solve the problem.
Reproductive Behaviour
Gonadal hormones are responsible for the regulation of reproductive behaviour of male and
female teleosts. The beginning of reproductive behaviour depends upon the occurrence of
ovulation and spermiation.
Teleosts display varied patterns of reproductive behaviour. One species form temporary pairs
and release gametes freely into the water while other species prepare a nest site and defend its
territory and also go through pair formation and mating ceremonies.
These activities are followed by care of the eggs and young involving one or both sexes. There
are phases in the breeding cycle which describes beahaviors of fishes: prespawning, spawning,
and postspawning behaviours of males and females fishes:
• Prespawning behaviour of males includes nest building and territorial defense, activities
that precedes the release of gametes by hours or days. These behaviours persist after

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castration.
• Prespawning behaviour of females: In most vertebrate species female fish plays passive
role in mating process. Because of this, hormonal regulation of female behaviour has
received far less attention than that of the male. Female undergoes regular cycles in
sexual receptivity and displays maximum responsiveness to male courtship in the few
days following parturition. The female also produces a pheromone which attracts and
excites males.
• Spawning behaviour of males and females: during breeding season they spawn daily
for several days or even weeks, the female depositing relatively few eggs at a time.
Oxytocin has no effect on spawning in either male or female goldfish.
• Postspawning behaviour of males and females: In the great majority of teleost species
spawning is followed by a break-up of the temporary pair, and neither partner pays any
further attention to the eggs while in other species spawning is followed by a period in
which one or both sexes guard the eggs and young.
CONCLUSION:
LET US CONSERVE AND MANAGE NATURAL RESOURCES FOR

FUTURE BENEFITS
…………………………………………….THE END……………………………………………
……………………………………………..THANKS………………………………………….....

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NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Education (Moi University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

BOT 425: CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND

Purpose of the Course

Expected Learning Outcomes

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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Teaching and Learning Methods

Instructional Material / Equipment

Course Text / References

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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BOT 425: CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND

Natural resources are the components of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

natural landscapes interact.

• It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity

conservation, and the future sustainability of industries

maintaining this health and productivity.

• Natural resource management is also congruent with the concept of sustainable

• Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical

understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those

• Environmental management is also similar to natural resource management .

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES:-

Managing natural resources

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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Climate change and natural resources

Climate change affects many natural resources:

Plants and animals

As the climate changes, some species will adapt by:

• migrating to new locations

there may be more insect and disease outbreaks

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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Milder, shorter winters lead to:

warm-water species may spread into new northern habitats

• at-risk fish species may disappear completely

• changes in the composition and availability of phytoplankton and zooplankton

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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climate change may affect:

relationships between predators and prey

rates of disease in wildlife species

the availability of food and habitat

Parks and protected areas

protected areas are established to conserve representative features, ecosystems and

Patterns of recreational use may change:

spring and fall recreational use may become more popular

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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The geomorphologic processes are as follows:

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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Land classification relative to resources management.

Ecological land classification is a cartographical delineation or regionalisation of distinct

Course lecturer: Mr. Sigei J.

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