Action research

Action research is a systematic inquiry approach used by practitioners to solve real-world problems or
improve their practices collaboratively. It involves a cyclic process of planning, acting, observing, and
reflecting. Here’s a breakdown:

Definition:

Action research is a self-reflective, iterative process where practitioners, typically educators or

professionals, identify a problem, plan and implement a solution, observe the results, and reflect on the
outcomes to inform further action.

Sources:

Practitioner’s Experience: Action research draws heavily on the firsthand experiences and insights of the
practitioners involved.

Literature Review: Researchers review existing literature related to the problem to incorporate relevant
theories and frameworks.

Collaboration: Involves collaboration with colleagues, peers, or community members to gather diverse
perspectives.

Purpose:

Problem Solving: To address and solve specific problems or challenges within a practical context.

Professional Development: Enhances practitioners’ skills, knowledge, and understanding through the
research process.

Continuous Improvement: Aims to improve practices and processes over time based on ongoing
reflection and feedback.

Process:

Identifying the Problem: Define the issue or challenge that needs attention within the practitioner’s
context.

Planning: Develop a plan of action, incorporating relevant theories and strategies.

Action: Implement the planned intervention or changes in practice.

Observation: Collect data during and after the action to assess the impact and outcomes.
Reflection: Analyze the data, reflect on the results, and draw conclusions.

Revision: Adjust strategies or approaches based on insights gained, and plan for the next cycle.

In essence, action research is a dynamic and iterative process that fosters practical problem-solving while
contributing to the professional development of those involved.

Historical research
Historical research is the systematic investigation and analysis of past events, societies, and individuals to
gain a deeper understanding of history. It involves the critical examination of primary and secondary
sources, employing various methods to reconstruct and interpret historical narratives.

Sources:

Primary Sources: Original documents, artifacts, or eyewitness accounts from the time under study.
Examples include letters, diaries, official records, and photographs.

Secondary Sources: Interpretations and analyses of primary sources by historians. Books, articles, and
documentaries fall into this category.

Purpose:

Understanding the Past: Historical research aims to comprehend events, cultures, and societies from the
past to provide context and meaning to the present.

Causation and Change: Investigating the causes and effects of historical events helps identify patterns,
changes, and continuities over time.

Informed Decision-Making: Insights gained from historical research can inform contemporary decision-
making by offering lessons from the past.

Preservation of Knowledge: Historical research contributes to preserving and documenting human

experiences for future generations.

Process:

Define Research Question: Clearly articulate the research question or topic to guide the investigation.

Literature Review: Examine existing scholarship to understand what has been researched and identify
gaps or areas for further exploration.
Source Selection: Collect relevant primary and secondary sources, considering their credibility and
reliability.

Analysis and Interpretation: Evaluate sources critically, extracting information, and interpreting their
significance in the context of the research question.

Synthesis: Organize findings into a coherent narrative, identifying key themes and patterns.

Historiography: Consider the historical context in which the research is conducted, acknowledging
different perspectives and interpretations.

Documentation: Provide proper citations and references to give credit to sources and allow others to
verify the research.

In essence, historical research is a meticulous and analytical process that seeks to unravel the
complexities of the past through a rigorous examination of diverse sources and thoughtful
interpretation.

Experimental research

Experimental research is a scientific method used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between

variables. It involves manipulating one or more independent variables and observing their effects on
dependent variables while controlling for other factors.

Key Components:

Independent Variable (IV): The factor manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured to observe the effects of the independent variable.

Control Group: A group not exposed to the experimental treatment, used for comparison.

Experimental Group: The group exposed to the independent variable or treatment.

Sources:

Literature Review: Understanding existing research informs experimental design.

Observation: Identifying phenomena prompting experimental investigation.

Hypothesis Formation: Developing testable predictions based on existing knowledge.

Purpose:
Causation: Determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Control: Manipulate variables to study their effects under controlled conditions.

Replicability: Aim for results that can be replicated to establish reliability.

Process:

Formulation of Hypothesis: Clearly state the expected relationship between variables.

Selection of Participants: Randomly assign participants to control and experimental groups.

Manipulation of Variables: Introduce the independent variable to the experimental group.

Data Collection: Systematically record observations and measurements of dependent variables.

Statistical Analysis: Analyze data using statistical methods to draw conclusions.

Conclusion: Interpret results and draw implications for the hypothesis.

Experimental research contributes to scientific knowledge by providing empirical evidence supporting or

refuting hypotheses, contributing to the advancement of understanding in various fields.

Self-report research
Self-report research is a method in which individuals provide information about their own thoughts,
feelings, behaviors, or experiences. This data is typically collected through surveys, questionnaires,
interviews, or diaries.

Sources:

Surveys and Questionnaires: Participants respond to a set of standardized questions.

Interviews: Researchers directly ask individuals about their experiences or opinions.

Diaries or Journals: Participants record their thoughts and activities over a specified period.

Purpose:

Insight into Subjective Experiences: It allows researchers to explore the subjective aspects of individuals’
experiences that may not be observable.

Data on Attitudes and Beliefs: Effective for gathering information on attitudes, beliefs, and opinions.
Behavioral Patterns: Helps in understanding behavioral patterns and tendencies.

Process:

Designing the Instrument: Develop a survey, questionnaire, or interview protocol tailored to the research
goals.

Participant Recruitment: Select a sample that represents the population of interest.

Data Collection: Administer the self-report instrument to participants and collect responses.

Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data using statistical or qualitative methods.

Interpretation and Conclusions: Draw conclusions based on the analyzed data, considering potential
biases or limitations.

It's crucial to note that self-report research relies on the honesty and accuracy of participants, and
researchers must carefully consider potential biases and limitations associated with self-reported data.

Casual comparative
Casual comparative research, also known as ex post facto research, is a type of non-experimental design
that investigates the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. Unlike
experimental research, the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable but observes its
effects after the fact.

Definition:

Casual comparative research aims to explore cause-and-effect relationships by examining existing

differences between groups that have been exposed to different levels of an independent variable. It
seeks to identify associations rather than establish direct causation.

Sources:

Existing Data: Researchers often use pre-existing data sets, surveys, or records to analyze and compare
groups.

Archival Records: Historical data and records provide valuable information for retrospective analysis.

Observations: Observational studies are common, where researchers observe and compare naturally
occurring differences.
Purpose:

Identifying Trends: Casual comparative research helps identify patterns and trends between variables
without direct manipulation.

Exploratory Analysis: It provides insights into relationships between variables, guiding further research or
hypothesis development.

Retrospective Understanding: This approach is valuable for investigating phenomena that cannot be
ethically or practically manipulated in an experimental setting.

Process:

Formulate Hypotheses: Develop hypotheses based on existing knowledge or theories.

Select Groups: Identify groups with differing levels of the independent variable.

Data Collection: Gather data through observations, surveys, or existing records.

Data Analysis: Use statistical methods to analyze and compare the groups.

Draw Conclusions: Interpret findings and draw conclusions regarding the relationship between variables.

In summary, casual comparative research explores relationships between variables by observing

naturally occurring differences, making it a valuable method for understanding associations in situations
where experimental manipulation is impractical or unethical.