UNIT-II

MACHINES

Construction of a DC Machine:

A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional

changes and vice versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC
motor can be broadly termed as a DC machine.

A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy.
A dc motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy.

The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC

machine.

A DC machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor.

 Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described below.

1. Magnetic frame (or) Yoke

2. Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
3. Field Coils
4. Armature core
5. Armature Winding
6. Commutator
7. Brushes

1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of

cast iron or steel. It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole
assembly but also carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts
or welding. They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them.
Pole shoes serve two purposes.
(i) They support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field coils: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound
and placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in
such a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South
poles.
4. Armature
is core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It
cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding. The armature is
built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current
losses.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests
in armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other
and also from the armature core. Armature winding can be wound by one
of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
6. Commutator: The function of a commutator, in case of dc generator,
alternating current in the armature winding is converted into direct
current. whereas, in case of a dc motor, direct current is converted into
 alternating current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists
of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other.

7. Brushes: The purpose of brushes in a dc Machine is to ensure electrical

connections between the rotating commutator and stationary circuit. The
brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The purpose of
brushes in the case of DC Generator is to lead the current
load to external
circuit from rotating armature. The purpose of brushes in the case of DC Motor
is to lead the current to rotating armature.

Working Principle of A DC Generator:

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, “whenever a

conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a
magnetic field), an emf gets induced in the conductor”. If the conductor is
provided with a closed path, the induced current will circulate within the path.
In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the
armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically
induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of induced
current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current

changes whenever the direction of motion of the conductor changes.
Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left
is moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of
motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the
direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at the
above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced
is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator, connections of
current
the armature conductors also get reversed when the current reversal occurs. And
therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.

Working Principle of a DC Motor:

A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The principle of working of a DC motor is that "whenever a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand
rule and it's magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

When armature windings are connected to a DC supply, current sets up

in the winding. Magnetic field may be provided by field winding
(electromagnetism) or by using permanent magnets. In this case, current
carrying armature conductors experience force due to the magnetic field,
according to the principle stated above.

Applications of DC Generator:
1. Used for general lighting
2. Used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output
voltage
3. Used for giving the excitation to the alternators
4. Used for small power supply
5. Used for testing purpose in the laboratories
Applications of DC Motor:
DC shunt motors:
1. DC shunt motors are used where constant speed is needed. So these
motors are commonly used in fixed speed applications
2. DC shunt motors is used in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans,
Blowers, Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.

DC series motors
3. DC series motors are used where high starting torque required. These
motors are only used where the variation of speed is possible. Series
motors are not suitable for constant speed applications.
 TRANSFORMER

What is a transformer?

A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical power from one

circuit to another circuit without changing frequency.
Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the
different stages of electrical network as generation, transmission, distribution
and utilization. This is possible with a static device called transformer.

Working Principle of Transformer:

law of The working principle of transformer is Faraday's

electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two winding
is responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

Fig.(a) Basic transformer

One of the two coils which one is connected to the alternating voltage is
called primary winding. The other winding which is connected to load is called
secondary winding.
The primary winding has N1 number of turns, while the secondary winding has N2
number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as shown in the Fig (b)

Fig .(b) Symbolic representation

When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates

an alternating current. This current produces an alternating flux (Φ) which
completes
in the its path through common magnetic core as shown dotted
Fig.(a). Thus an alternating flux links with the secondary winding. As the flux
is alternating, according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic induction,mutually
induced e.m.f. gets developed in the secondary winding. If now load is connected to
the secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it.

Construction of transformer:
There are two basic parts of a transformer
i) Magnetic Core ii) Winding (or) Coils.
Core is made up of silicon steel and it is laminated (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick).
Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get minimized.
These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like
varnish. All laminations are varnished. For this generally 'L' shaped or 'I'
shaped laminations are used which are shown in the Fig 1.
The various types of single phase transformers are,

1). Core type 2). Shell type and

1. Core Type Transformer:

It has a single magnetic circuit. The rectangular core having two limbs.
The core is surrounded by the winding. In this Cylindrical type coils are used.
Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is placed near
the core while high voltage winding placed over it. Core is made up of large
number of thin laminations.

Fig. 5 Core type transformer

Fig. 5 shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer.

2. Shell Type Transformer

It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed
on the central limb. The winding is surrounded by core. The coils used are generally
multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. Generally for very high voltage transformers, the
shell type construction is preferred.

The Fig. 6(a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 6(b)
shows the view of actual construction of the shell type transformer.
 Fig 6 Shell type transformer

Applications of a Transformer:
1. It is used to increase (or) decrease the alternating voltages in
electric power applications.
2. The transformer used for impedance matching.
3. The transformer used for isolate two circuits electrically.
4. The transformer used in rectifier.
5. It is used in voltage regulators, voltage stabilizers, power supplies etc.
 INDUCTION MOTOR

Construction: A typical motor consists of two parts namely stator and

rotor like other type of motors.
1. An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to
produce a rotating magnetic field,
2. An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the
rotating field.

Stator construction: The stator of an induction motor is laminated iron core with
slots. Coils are placed in the slots to form a three (or) single phase winding.

1. Stator Frame: It is the outer part of the three-phase induction motor. Its
main function is to support the stator core and stator winding. It acts as a
covering and provides protection and mechanical strength to all the inner parts
of the machine. The frame is either made up of die-cast or fabricated steel.
2. Stator Core: The main function of the stator core is to carry alternating flux.
In order to reduce the eddy current losses, the stator core is laminated..
3. Stator Winding: The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three phase

induction motor carries three phase windings. This three phase winding is
supplied by three phase ac supply.

Rotor construction:

Rotor is of twodifferent types.

1. Squirrel cage rotor

2. Wound rotor (or) Slip-ring
Rotor
Squirrel
the cage rotor: In
squirrel-cage
rotor rotor, the
winding consists
single of
bars
copper (or) aluminum
placed in the slots and short-
circuited by end-rings on both
sides of the rotor. Most of single
phase induction motors have
Squirrel-Cage rotor. One or 2 fans are attached to the shaft in the sides of rotor
to cool the circuit.

Wound Rotor: In the wound rotor, an insulated 3-phase winding similar to the
stator winding wound for the same number of poles as stator, is placed in the
rotor slots. The ends of the star-connected rotor winding are brought to three
slip rings on the shaft so that a connection can be made to it for starting (or)
speed control. It is usually for large 3 phase induction motors. Rotor has a
winding the same as stator and the end of each phase is connected to a slip
ring. Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and
require maintenance of the slip rings and brushes, so it is not so common in
industry applications.

Slip rings and brushes: Their sole purpose is to allow resistance to be placed in
series with the rotor windings while starting.
 Fig : Slip ring Rotor

Basic Working Principle of an Induction Motor (3-Ф Induction Motor):

In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well

as the rotor winding. But in an induction motor only the stator winding is fed
with an AC supply.

Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply.

This alternating flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is
called as "Rotating Magnetic Field" (RMF).
The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an
induced
law of emf in the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's
electromagnetic induction. The rotor conductors are short circuited, and hence
rotor current is produced due to induced emf. That is why such motors are
called as induction motors.

The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is such

that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.

As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity

between rotating stator flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with
the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of stator
flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor never succeeds in
catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working principle of
induction motor of either type, single phase or 3 phase.
Application of Induction Motor:
Squirrel cage Rotor:
Many Squirrel cage induction motors are available in the market to meet
the demand of the several industrial applications and various starting and
running condition requirement.
Wound rotor motors ( Slip-Ring type):

1. Wound rotor motors are suitable for loads requiring high starting torque
and where a lower starting current is required.
2. Used for the loads that require speed control.
3. The wound rotor induction motors are used in conveyors, cranes,
pumps, elevators and compressors.
4. The maximum torque is above 200 percent of the full load value The
efficiency is about 90 %.
 ALTERNATOR (Synchronous Machine)

Working Principle of Alternator :

The working principle of alternator depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction which says the “current is induced in the conductor
inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion between
that conductor and the magnetic field”.

Construction of Alternator: Construction wise, an alternator generally consists of field

poles placed on the rotor as shown in the figure. Once the rotor (or) the field poles are
made to rotate in the presence of armature conductors housed on the stator, an
alternating 3φ voltage is induced in the armature conductors thus resulting in the
generation of 3φ electrical power.
An alternator is basically a type of AC generator which is also known as synchronous
generator, for the simple reason that the field poles are made to
rotate at synchronous speed Ns = 120 f/P for effective power generation. Where,
'f signifies the alternating current frequency and the P represents the number of
poles.

(a) Salient pole (b) Cylindrical rotor (or) Non-Salient pole

There are mainly two types of rotor used in construction of alternator,

1. Salient pole
 2. Cylindrical rotor (or) Non-Salient pole

Salient pole type:

The term salient means projecting.

The salient pole type of rotor is
generally used for slow speed
machines having large diameters and
relatively small axial lengths.

Cylindrical Rotor Type:

The cylindrical pole type of rotor

is generally used for high speed
machines having small
diameters and relatively large
axial lengths.
AVRK
The cylindrical rotor type machine has uniform length in all directions, giving a
cylindrical shape to the rotor thus providing uniform flux cutting in all directions. The
rotor in this case consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of slots
along its outer periphery for housing the field coils.

Working of Synchronous Motor

The stator is wound for the similar number of poles as that of rotor, and
fed with three phase AC supply. The 3 phase AC supply produces rotating
magnetic field in stator. The rotor winding is fed with DC supply which
magnetizes the rotor.
 Consider a two pole synchronous machine as shown in figure below.

Now, the stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (lets say clockwise). If the
rotor position is such that, N pole of the rotor is near the N pole of the stator (as shown in
first schematic of above figure), then the poles of the stator and rotor will repel each
other, and the torque produced will be anticlockwise.

The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they rotate around very fast
and interchange their position. But at this very soon, rotor can not rotate with the same
angle (due to inertia), and the next position will be likely the second schematic in above
figure. In this case, poles of the stator will attract the poles of rotor, and the torque
produced will be clockwise. Hence, the rotor will undergo to a rapidly reversing torque,
and the motor will not start.

But, if the rotor is rotated upto the synchronous speed of the stator by
means of an external force (in the direction of revolving field of the stator), and
the rotor field is excited near the synchronous speed, the poles of stator will
keep attracting the opposite poles of the rotor (as the rotor is also, now,
rotating with it and the position of the poles will be similar throughout the
cycle). Now, the rotor will undergo unidirectional torque. The opposite poles of
the stator and rotor will get locked with each other, and the rotor will rotate at
the synchronous speed.
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Measurement: It is the act (or) result of quantitative comparison between a predefined standard
and an unknown quantity.
Instrument: It is a device (or) mechanism used to determine the present value of a quantity
under observation.

Operation of Indicating Instruments

For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, following three torques must act together
appropriately:
1. Deflecting torque
2. Controlling torque
3. Damping torque
1). Deflecting Torque:
It causes the moving system of the instrument to move from its position of rest.
Deflecting torque is produced by using any one of the following effects of electric current:
i. Magnetic effect
ii. Electromagnetic induction effect
iii. Heating effect
iv. Electrostatic effect
2). Controlling Torque:
• It limits the movement of moving systems. It also ensures that magnitude of deflection is
always the same for the given value of input quantity under measurement.
• Controlling torque acts in the opposite direction to that of the deflecting torque.
• At steady state,

Deflecting torque (TD) = Controlling torque (TC)

3). Damping Torque:
• Due to deflecting torque, pointer moves in one direction while due to controlling torque
pointer moves in opposite direction. Due to these opposite torques, the pointer may oscillate
in the forward and backward direction if the damping torque is not present.
• Damping torque brings the moving system to rest quickly in its final position.
• Damping torque acts only when the moving system is actually moving. If moving system is at
rest, damping torque is zero.

Moving Coil Instruments

• Moving coil instruments (ammeter and voltmeter) are of two types:

1. Permanent magnet moving coil type (PMMC) used only for D.C.

2. Dynamometer type can be used for AC as well DC.

1. PMMC Instruments:

 These instruments works on the electromagnetic effect of current.

A permanent magnet used to produce magnetic flux and coil that carries the current to be
measures moves in this field.

Working principle:

• When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.

It is given by expression, F = BIL

Where F = Force in Newton,

B = Flux density is tesla,

I = Current is ampere,

L = Length of conductor in meter.

The current I which is to be measured is passed through the moving coil and experiences a force
which is directly proportional to this current.Due to this force the coil moves and the pointer
attached to it will also move. The angle through which the pointer moves is proportional to
current I.

Construction of PMMC instrument:

A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame (spindle) positioned between the poles of a
U shaped permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys like AlNiCo.The coil is pivoted
on the jewelled bearing and thus the coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to the coil through
spiral springs which are two in numbers.The coil which carries a current, which is to be
measured, moves in a strong magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and a pointer is
attached to the spindle which shows the measured value.

Fig.: construction of PMMC instrument

 Deflecting Torque:
It can be proved that the expression for the deflecting torque is given by,
Td = G x I
where G = constant
I = Current through the moving coil
Controlling Torque:
The controlling torque is given by,
Tc = C. θ
where C = Control spring constant in N-m/rad
θ = Deflection of coil from zero position
For steady state, the controlling torque is equal to the deflection torque
∴ Tc = Td
i.e. Cθ = GI
∴ ∝ θ I
Thus deflection of the pointer is proportional to current passed through the coil.

Moving Iron (MI) instruments

Types of moving iron instruments:
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
1. Attraction type moving iron instrument:
• Construction of the attraction type moving iron instrument is as shown in the given figure. The moving
iron, i.e. the disc of soft iron, is eccentrically mounted. Coil is situated around the disc. When the coil is
excited it produces magnetic field.
• Due to magnetic field the moving iron moves from the weaker field outside the coil to the stronger field
inside the coil. Thus moving iron gets attracted inwards and thus the name attraction type.
•
The controlling torque is provided by the balance weights attached to the moving iron. Spring also can be
• used to provide controlling torque.
Damping is provided by air friction in which aluminum piston is attached to the moving system and
moves in a closed air damping chamber.

•
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

It is also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by balancing two legs of the
bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of unknown resistance.
The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one variable
resistor connected in the form of a bridge.

Construction of Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of which two arms consist of known resistances while
the other two arms consist of an unknown resistance and a variable resistance. The circuit also consists
of a galvanometer and an electromotive force source. The emf source is attached between
points a and b while the galvanometer is connected between points c and d. The current that flows
through the galvanometer depends on its potential difference.
Working Principle of Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances is
equal, and no current flows through the circuit.
Under normal conditions, the bridge is in an unbalanced condition where current flows through
the galvanometer. The bridge is said to be balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer.
This condition can be achieved by adjusting the known resistance and variable resistance.

Following is the formula used for the Wheatstone bridge:

𝑃𝑆
R =𝑄
Where,

 R is the unknown resistance


S is the standard arm of the bridge

P and Q is the ratio of the arm of the bridge.