Reg No: U1/19/BIO/1569

Name:BASHIR MUSTAPHA
Department: BIOLOGY
Course: APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY
Title: ZOO 4311
Assignment question Diapauses in insect as factor in their control
Diapause can be defined as the physiological state of dormancy or developmental arrest
where most life processes are shut down. It is initiated during unfavourable conditions
and is most commonly observed in insects, especially in arthropods. In animal dormancy,
diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of
adverse environmental conditions. It is a physiological state with very specific initiating
and inhibiting conditions. The mechanism is a means of surviving predictable,
unfavorable environmental conditions, such as temperature extremes, drought, or reduced
food availability. Diapause is observed in all the life stages of arthropods, especially
insects. Activity levels of diapausing stages can vary considerably among species.
Diapause may occur in a completely immobile stage, such as the pupae and eggs, or it
may occur in very active stages that undergo extensive migrations, such as the adult
monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus. In cases where the insect remains active, feeding is
reduced and reproductive development is slowed or halted. Embryonic diapause, a
somewhat similar phenomenon, occurs in over 130 species of mammals, possibly even in
humans,and in the embryos of many of the oviparous species of fish in the order
Cyprinodontiformes.Definitions of diapause have been framed in various ways from the
basic ideas of processes including delayed response to growth, interference with
development indirectly due to environmental factors and prolonged arrest of
development, growth or reproduction, etc Phases of insect diapause Diapause in insects is
a dynamic process consisting of several distinct phases. While diapause varies
considerably from one taxon of insects to another, these phases can be characterized by
particular sets of metabolic processes and responsiveness of the insect to certain
environmental stimuli. For example, Sepsis cynipsea flies primarily use temperature to
determine when to enter diapause. Diapause can occur during any stage of development
in arthropods, but each species exhibits diapause in specific phases of development.
Reduced oxygen consumption is typical as is reduced movement and feeding. In Polistes
exclamans, a social wasp, only the queen is said to be able to undergo diapause. Induction
The induction phase occurs at a genetically predetermined stage of life, and occurs well
in advance of the environmental stress.This sensitive stage may occur within the lifetime
of the diapausing individual, or in preceding generations, particularly in egg diapause.
During this phase, insects are responsive to external cues called token stimuli, which
trigger the switch from direct development pathways to diapause pathways. Token
stimuli can consist of changes in photoperiod, thermoperiod, or allelochemicals from
food plants. These stimuli are not in themselves favourable or unfavourable to
development, but they herald an impending change in environmental
conditionsconditions. Preparation The preparation phase usually follows the induction
phase, though insects may go directly from induction to initiation without a preparation
phase.During this phase, insects accumulate and store molecules such as lipids, proteins,
and carbohydrates. These molecules are used to maintain the insect throughout diapause
and to provide fuel for development following diapause termination. Composition of the
cuticle may be altered by changing hydrocarbon composition and by adding lipids to
reduce water loss, making the organism resistant to desiccation.Diapausing puparia of the
flesh fly, Sarcophaga crassipalpis, increase the amount of cuticular hydrocarbons lining
the puparium, effectively reducing the ability of water to cross the cuticle. Initiation
Photoperiod is the most important stimulus initiating diapause.The initiation phase begins
when morphological development ceases.In some cases, this change may be very distinct
and can involve moulting into a specific diapause stage, or be accompanied by color
change. Enzymatic changes may take place in preparation for cold hardening. For
example, only diapausing adults of the fire bug, Pyrrhocoris apterus, have the enzymatic
complement that allows them to accumulate polyhydric alcohols, molecules that help to
lower their freezing points and thus avoid freezing. Insects may also undergo behavioural
changes and begin to aggregate, migrate, or search for suitable overwintering sites.
Maintenance During the maintenance phase, insects experience lowered metabolism and
developmental arrest is maintained. Sensitivity to certain stimuli which act to prevent
termination of diapause, such as photoperiod and temperature, is increased. At this stage,
insects are unresponsive to changes in the environment that will eventually trigger the
end of diapause, but they grow more sensitive to these stimuli as time progresses.
Termination In insects that undergo obligate diapause, termination may occur
spontaneously, without any external stimuli. In facultative diapausers, token stimuli must
occur to terminate diapause. These stimuli may include chilling, freezing, or contact with
water, depending on the environmental conditions being avoided. These stimuli are
important in preventing the insect from terminating diapause too soon, for instance in
response to warm weather in late fall. In the Edith's checkerspot butterfly, individuals
must receive enough sunlight in order to terminate the diapause stage and become a fully
grown butterfly.[18] Termination may occur at the height of unfavourable conditions,
such as in the middle of winter. Over time, depth of diapause slowly decreases until
direct development can resume, if conditions are favourable. Post-diapause quiescence
Diapause frequently ends prior to the end of unfavourable conditions and is followed by a
state of quiescence from which the insect can arouse and begin direct development,
should conditions change to become more favourable. This allows the insect to continue
to withstand harsh conditions while being ready to take advantage of good conditions as
soon as possible. Types of Diapause Diapause can be either obligatory or facultative:
Insects with obligatory diapause will undergo this period of arrested development at the
predetermined point in their life cycle, regardless of the environmental conditions.
Diapause occurs in every generation. Obligatory diapause is most often associated with
univoltine insects, meaning insects that have one generation per year. Insects with
facultative diapause undergo a period of suspended development only when conditions
require it for survival. Facultative diapause is found in most insects and is associated with
bivoltine (two generations per year) or multivoltine insects (more than two generations
per year). Additionally, some insects undergo reproductive diapause, which is a
suspension of reproductive functions in adult insects. The best example of reproductive
diapause is the monarch butterfly in North America. The migrant generation of late
summer and fall goes into a state of reproductive diapause in preparation for the long
journey to Mexico. Environmental Factors Diapause in insects is induced or terminated in
response to environmental cues. These cues may include changes in the length of
daylight, temperature, food quality and availability, moisture, pH, and other factors. No
single cue solely determines the start or end of diapause. Their combined influence, along
with programmed genetic factors, controls diapause. Photoperiod: A photoperiod is the
alternating phases of light and dark in the day. Seasonal changes to the photoperiod (such
as shorter days as winter approaches) cue the start or end of diapause for many insects.
Photoperiod is the most important. Temperature: Along with photoperiod, changes in
temperature (such as an extreme cold spell) can influence the start or end of diapause.
The thermoperiod, alternating phases of cooler and warmer temperatures, also influences
diapause. Some insects require specific thermal cues to end the diapause phase. For
example, the woolly bear caterpillar must endure a period of chilling to trigger the end of
diapause and continuation of the life cycle. Food: As the growing season ends, the
diminishing quality of their food sources may help trigger a diapause phase in an insect
species. As potato plants and other hosts turn brown and dry, for example, Colorado
potato beetle adults enter a state of diapause.