ARMA/USRMS 06-1049

State and Origin of the Present-Day Stress Field in Sedimentary

Basins: New Results from the World Stress Map Project
Tingay, M. R. P.
World Stress Map Project, Heidelberg Academy of Sciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
Müller, B., Reinecker, J. and Heidbach, O.
World Stress Map Project, Heidelberg Academy of Sciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
Copyright 2005, ARMA, American Rock Mechanics Association

This paper was prepared for presentation at Golden Rocks 2006, The 41st U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (USRMS): "50 Years of Rock Mechanics - Landmarks and Future
Challenges.", held in Golden, Colorado, June 17-21, 2006.
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ABSTRACT: The present-day stress field provides fundamental insight into the forces driving plate tectonics and intra-plate
deformation. Furthermore, knowledge of the in situ state of stress is essential in petroleum and mining geomechanics applications
such as the stability of boreholes and tunnels, and improving production through natural and induced fractures. The World Stress
Map (WSM) Project has, for 20 years, compiled a public global database of present-day tectonic stress information to determine
and understand the state of stress in the Earth’s lithosphere. The WSM database has revealed that plate-scale stress fields are
controlled by forces exerted at plate boundaries (e.g. mid-ocean ridges, continental collision zones), commonly resulting in
regional stress orientations approximately parallel to plate motion. However, the state and origin of present-day stress fields at
smaller scales, such as within sedimentary basins, remain poorly understood in comparison. The WSM Project commenced its new
‘Present-day Stress in Sedimentary Basins’ initiative in 2004 to investigate the state of stress in sedimentary basins and the
controls on smaller scale stress fields. Detailed analysis of present-day stresses within sedimentary basins commonly reveals
significant and complex variations in the present-day stress orientation, both across basins and within fields. For example, borehole
breakouts in the North German Basin and the Baram Delta province of Brunei (northwest Borneo) indicate broad regional rotations
in the maximum horizontal stress orientation. The present-day maximum horizontal stress orientations in the Gulf of Thailand are
approximately north-south at the basin-scale (perpendicular to plate motion) and are perturbed locally to be approximately parallel
to fault strike. The Permian Basin of Texas and New Mexico displays widely varying stress orientations between fields, with some
neighbouring fields exhibiting perpendicular stress orientations. The WSM database now contains information from approximately
70 sedimentary basins, enabling a unique insight into controls on stresses in the oil patch. Basin- and field-scale stress fields result
from the complex combination of numerous factors acting at different scales, including far-field forces (e.g. plate boundary
forces), basin geometry (e.g. the shape of deltaic wedges), geological structures (e.g. diapirs, faults), mechanical contrasts (e.g.
evaporites, overpressured shales, detachment zones), topography and deglaciation.
stress orientations and plate motion directions
1. INTRODUCTION
suggests that the first-order intra-plate stress field is
The World Stress Map (WSM) Project has, over the the result of forces generated at plate boundaries,
last 20 years, compiled the foremost database of primarily mid-ocean ridge ‘push’, subducting slab
present-day stress information in order to determine ‘pull’, trench ‘suction’ and traction at the base of
and understand the state of stress in the lithosphere the lithosphere (Figure 1) [1, 4]. Examination of
[1, 2]. The WSM project has revealed fundamental more complex plates (such as the Indo-Australian
insights into the state and forces controlling large- Plate) and of stresses proximal to mountain ranges
scale stress fields (plate-scale, and regional scales and subduction zones has revealed that continental
with wave lengths of greater than 500 km). The first collision and large intra-plate forces such as
WSM Project release demonstrated that the isostatic compensation and lithospheric flexure have
maximum horizontal stress orientations in North an additional major impact on the large-scale
America, South America and Europe are, at the lithospheric stress field (Figure 1) [4, 5].
plate-scale, predominately oriented sub-parallel to
The last 20 years has also seen a dramatic increase
absolute plate motions [3, 4]. The correlation of
in the application of present-day stress information
to issues affecting petroleum exploration and
production. Induced hydraulic fractures have long
been known to open against the least principal in
situ stress and thus propagate parallel to the present-
day maximum horizontal stress [6]. However,
borehole breakouts, now the most common method
for determining stress orientations in the oil-patch,
were only so named and recognized as being stress-
induced in the late 1970s [7, 8]. Today, stress-
induced failure of the borehole is a known cause of
wellbore instability and related drilling problems
such as ‘stuck pipe’ [9, 10]. Thus, reduction of the
circumferential stress acting around the borehole,
either through raised mud weights or by altering the
borehole deviation direction, is now a common
strategy for improving wellbore stability [10, 11,
12].
Fig 1. Forces controlling the present-day tectonic stress field
at the ‘primary’ plate-scale (large blue arrows) and
‘secondary’ broad regional scales (small blue arrows; adapted
from [1]).
The present-day stress is also known to be a major
control on the hydraulic conductivity of structures
and, hence, on fluid flow in the subsurface.
Fractures that are most susceptible to tensile or
shear failure in the present-day stress tensor,
typically those striking within approximately
parallel or within 30° of the maximum principal
present-day stress orientation, are observed to
transmit the largest volumes of fluids [13, 14]. The
control of stress on subsurface fluid flow is further
exhibited in flooding operations and by the
occurrence of faults that have been breached or are
currently ‘leaking’ through reactivation [15, 16].
Fluid flow in flooding operations is enhanced in the
direction of the present-day maximum horizontal
stress and changes in pumping rates are also more
strongly correlated between well pairs that are
parallel to the maximum horizontal stress
orientation [16, 17]. Furthermore, non-sealing faults
are often observed to strike approximately parallel
to the regional maximum horizontal stress direction
and active faults, or faults that have been
reactivated post-charge, are often found to be
breached and not trap significant volumes of
hydrocarbons [15, 16, 18].
The control of the present-day stresses and, in
particular, the maximum horizontal stress
orientation, on petroleum exploration and
production highlights the importance and value of
understanding present-day stresses in sedimentary
basins. However, in stark contrast to the well
understood plate-scale stress field, stress patterns
analysed at smaller scales are often complex and
confusing, with stresses varying at scales ranging
from 10’s of kilometers (e.g. the scale of basins and
fields) to meters (e.g. near fractures, boreholes and
between sedimentary units) [19, 20, 21].
Furthermore, despite the numerous petroleum
industry applications of stress information, and the
petroleum industry comprising the largest group of
WSM users, the WSM database contains almost no
stress data in the world’s major petroleum provinces
(such as the middle east). Hence, in 2004 the WSM
launched the ‘Present-day Stress in Sedimentary
Basins’ initiative to enhance the WSM database in
petroleum provinces worldwide – to yield further
insight into smaller-scale stress patterns in the crust
and provide a more valuable, yet cost-free, resource
for the petroleum industry [21]. Herein, we provide
an overview of the WSM Project and database, and
review the current knowledge about the state and
origin of stresses in sedimentary basins, using initial
results and analysis from the WSM’s new ‘Present-
day Stress in Sedimentary Basins’ initiative.
2. THE WORLD STRESS MAP PROJECT
The WSM is a fundamental project for
understanding contemporary tectonics and
geodynamic processes. The WSM started as a
project of the International Lithosphere Program
from 1986-1992, during which time it was led by
Mary Lou Zoback and involved over 30 scientists
worldwide [4]. Since 1995 the WSM has been a
project of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and
Humanities. It is located at the University of
Karlsruhe and remains a collaborative effort of
scientists and engineers worldwide. The WSM is a
public-domain project that provides all of its data,
maps, software and additional services available
free of charge online (www.world-stress-map.org).
The primary aspect of the WSM Project is the
compilation and maintenance of the extensive,
quality-ranked stress database [2]. The WSM
Project is predominantly focused on determining the
orientation of the maximum horizontal stress
orientation in the crust, however, the database also
contains relative and absolute stress magnitudes and
additional information about each data point (such
as depth, date, reference of the original work). The
2005 release of the WSM database contains 15969
datasets interpreted from a range of methods within
the upper 40 km of the lithosphere [2]. The majority
of stress data in the WSM database comes from
earthquake focal mechanism solutions (77%) and
borehole breakouts (16%). However, in situ stress
measurements (such as overcoring and hydraulic
fracturing) and geological indicators (such as
quaternary fault slip analysis and volcanic vent
alignment) are also included in the database.
All stress indicators in the WSM database are
quality-ranked according to internationally
developed criteria in order to maintain database
reliability and facilitate comparison of stress data.
In addition, the source of every data point is
referenced so that the origin or interpreter of the
data point can be traced. The WSM quality ranking
system ranges from A-quality (highest; stress
orientation accurate to within ±15°) to E-quality
(lowest; no reliable stress orientation) and provides
an easy assessment of the precision, scale and
reliability of each stress indicator. For example, an
A-quality stress orientation estimated from borehole
breakouts requires the observation of at least ten
consistently oriented breakouts (with a standard
deviation < 12°) in a single borehole with a total
breakout length of over 300 meters. Furthermore,
the quality ranking of all stress indicators facilitates
the comparison of stress data determined from
different methods and depths. In general, A, B and
C quality stress indicators are considered reliable
for use in analysis of tectonics, and the 2005 WSM
database contains approximately 12000 A-C quality
datasets (Figure 2).

Fig 2. The World Stress Map consisting of over 12000 A-C quality contemporary stress indicators from a variety of stress
measurement techniques. NF: Normal faulting stress regime (red), SS: Strike-slip (green), TF: Thrust fault (blue), U: undefined
(black). Long axis of symbols indicates maximum horizontal stress orientation (see legend for more details on symbols).

3. THE WSM ‘PRESENT-DAY STRESS IN
SEDIMENTARY BASINS’ INITIATIVE
The value of the WSM database and the
applications of stress data in the oil-patch is
emphasised by the large number of petroleum
industry users of the project – who account for
approximately 50% of the more than 9000 maps
downloaded from the WSM website per year. The
WSM database contains approximately 3500 stress
datasets in approximately 70 sedimentary basins
worldwide (Figure 3). However, despite the large
amount of WSM data in sedimentary basins, the
world’s major petroleum provinces remain
surprisingly absent of breakout derived stress data
(such as the middle east, northern Africa and
Caspian Sea), whereas stress is well documented in
basins in western Europe, Australia, Asia and
onshore North America (Figure 3). The absence of
data in the world’s major petroleum provinces,
which would be expected to contain the highest
resolution datasets, is a major issue for both
academic users and the large number of petroleum
industry users of the WSM database. Hence, in
2004 the WSM launched its ‘Present-day Stress in
Sedimentary Basins’ initiative, which aims to
greatly increase the WSM database in petroleum
provinces through collaborative and mutually
beneficial projects between the WSM Project and
petroleum companies and universities worldwide
[21].
3.1. Academic and Industrial Rationale for the
Initiative
WSM stress orientation data in sedimentary basins
is predominately determined from observations of
borehole breakout on four- and six-arm caliper logs
and acoustic or electric image logs, or of drilling-
induced fractures (DIFs) observed on image logs.
Stress orientations determined from breakouts and
DIFs have a number of key scientific advantages
over other stress determination methods. Breakout
and DIF analysis provides a method for reliably
investigating present-day stress in aseismic regions
(typical for sedimentary basins). Breakout data are
also primarily obtained at depths 1-5 kilometres, an
intermediate depth range that is typically shallower
than earthquake hypocentres and below engineering
and geological measurements (obtained at or near
the surface and may be affected by topography).
Unlike ‘single point’ in situ methods (e.g. hydraulic
fracturing), breakout and DIF analysis provides
stress information over a range of depths and
lithologies. Furthermore, although breakout data
accounts for only 17% of the WSM database, they
provide the majority of highest (A- and B-) quality
data. However, the key rationale of borehole
breakout and DIF analysis and the ‘Present-day
Stress in Sedimentary Basins’ initiative is that
detailed data can be collected in numerous closely
spaced boreholes, facilitating the investigation of
smaller scale stress patterns, from the basin- to
reservoir-scale – and at scales most applicable for
the petroleum applications described in the
introduction.

Fig 3. Distribution of A-C quality stress indicators derived from petroleum industry logging data (breakouts and drilling-induced
tensile fractures) in the WSM database. Excellent datasets exist and are freely available in sedimentary basins in North America,
Europe and Australia. However, the state of present-day stress is largely unknown in most of the world’s major petroleum
provinces such as the Middle East, North Africa and Caspian. The WSM Project is currently engaged in a major collaborative
initiative with petroleum companies worldwide to determine and understand the present-day stress fields in these regions.
4. STRESS IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS:
EXAMPLES
The WSM database reveals a large diversity of
stress patterns observed in sedimentary basins.
Some regions exhibit consistent stress orientations
over large areas, which can normally be directly
linked to the primary far-field forces that control the
broad-scale stress field (Figure 1). For example,
borehole breakouts from approximately 200 wells in
the Alberta Basin, western Canada, reveal a highly
uniform NE-SW maximum horizontal stress
orientation (perpendicular to the trend of the Rocky
Mountains thrust belt) observed throughout an area
spanning several hundred kilometres (Figure 3)
[19]. Indeed, the potential for plate boundary forces
to be the primary control on stress fields in intra-
plate sedimentary basins is extremely well
displayed in Australia [5]. Data compiled in 13
onshore and offshore basins by the Australian Stress
Map Project reveals a wide range of regional stress
orientations, yet this complex regional stress pattern
can be fitted with high accuracy by 2D Finite
Element models of the forces acting at the Indo-
Australian Plate boundary (Figure 4) [5, 21].
The estimation of the large-scale stress fields
(>100 km wavelengths) from plate-scale finite
element modelling allows the estimation of the
regional stress orientations likely to exist in Fig 4. (a) Stress map of the Indo-Australian Plate and SE Asia.
Note the regional variation of stress orientations in Australian
basement rocks underlying sedimentary basins, and basins and the lack of correlation between stress orientations
thus, the expected stress field in the overlying and plate motion. (b) Summary of maximum horizontal stress
sedimentary sequences. However, in contrast to orientations in Australian regions (red) and modeled stress
western Canada and Australia, detailed stress data field (black) predicted from the forces generated at plate
in many other petroleum provinces indicates that boundaries and major intra-plate sources of stress. The good
model fit indicates that the highly varying stress orientations
basin-scale and field-scale stress patterns can be observed throughout Australian basins are primarily the result
quite complex, and very different to that expected of far-field sources of stress. Australian stress data and model
from primary sources of lithospheric stress. In this results from the Australian Stress Map Project [5, 22].
section we present the results of four recent WSM
stress analysis projects that illustrate the basin to 4.1. North German Basin
field-scale complexity of stresses in sedimentary The North German Basin is an onshore extension of
basins. Herein, we also provide brief discussions of the central North Sea. However, unlike the central
the factors influencing the stress field in the four North Sea, the main reservoir units in the North
study areas as a prelude to a detailed review of the German Basin lie below the Permian (Zechstein)
major controls on stress orientations in sedimentary evaporite sequences. The maximum horizontal
basins presented in the following section. stress is typically oriented NW-SE throughout most
of western Europe, an orientation suggested to
result from resistance associated with the Alpine
collision and ‘push’ from the mid-Atlantic ridge
[23, 24]. However, borehole breakouts observed in
four-arm caliper and image logs in approximately
85 wells reveal that a ‘fan-shaped’ stress pattern
occurs in the North German Basin (Figure 5) [25].
The maximum horizontal stress swings from NW-
SE in the western parts of the basin to N-S and NE-
SW in the eastern part of the basin. Hence, stress
orientations in the eastern part of the North German
Basin are almost perpendicular to the direction
predicted by far field modelling, and from regional
stress patterns derived from stress data in western
Europe [26, 27]. Furthermore, in addition to the
regional fan-shaped stress rotation, there are
additional local stress rotations observed near salt
diapirs and salt walls (Figure 5) [25, 28].
Fig. 5. Data from borehole breakouts in the North German
Basin indicate a regional ‘fan shaped’ stress pattern, with
maximum horizontal stress orientations trending from NW-SE
in the west to N-S and NE-SW in the east [25]. The regional
stress rotation is believed to be the result of a complex
interaction between far-field forces exerted by the Alpine
front, mid-Atlantic ridge and ‘pinning’ of the Trans-European
Suture Zone [29]. Stress orientations are also locally rotated in
the vicinity of salt diapirs, such as near the Söhlingen diapir
(in blue).
Despite the discrepancy between the stress
orientations in the eastern North German Basin and
those predicted from plate boundary forces, the
origin of the regional fan-shaped stress pattern is
still believed to result from far-field forces. In
addition to the primary stresses exerted by the
alpine collision and mid-Atlantic ridge spreading,
the stress pattern in the North German Basin is also
affected by stresses resulting from ‘pinning’ or
locking of the northerly section of the Tornquist-
Teisseyre Zone. The Tornquist-Teisseyre Zone is a
broad and complex zone of large crustal faults that
forms the largest section of the Trans European
Suture Zone, which extends from the Black Sea to
Scandinavia and is one of the major lithospheric
boundaries separating eastern and western Europe.
The Trans European Suture Zone is still active in
many regions, particularly in Scandinavia, and is
believed to possibly extend into the Norwegian Sea.
However, activity along the Trans European Suture
Zone notably ceases in Denmark and northern
Poland. The stress rotation across the North German
Basin can be accurately modeled from simple 2D
Finite element models that consider this ‘locked’
section of the Trans European Suture Zone in
addition to stresses exerted by the Alpine collision
and mid-Atlantic Ridge [29].
4.2. Baram Delta province, Brunei
The Baram Delta province of Brunei (northwest
Borneo) is a Tertiary delta (Early Miocene to
Present) deposited adjacent to the Late Cretaceous
to Late Miocene/Pliocene Northwest Borneo Active
Margin [30]. Borehole breakouts observed on four-
arm caliper and resistivity image logs in 19 wells
across onshore and offshore Brunei reveal two
distinct and orthogonal stress provinces [15]. The
maximum horizontal stress is oriented
approximately NW-SE (perpendicular to the
margin) in 15 ‘proximal’ wells, but NE-SW (margin
parallel) in four wells in the outer shelf (near the
shelf edge; Figure 6) [15].
Fig. 6. The Baram Delta province of Brunei exhibits two
orthogonal stress orientations, a ‘local’ margin-parallel (≈NE-
SW) stress field in the outer shelf (boxed region) caused by
the shape of the deltaic wedge (see Figure 4) and a margin-
normal (≈NW-SE) stress field in the inner shelf caused by far-
field stresses.
The two perpendicular stress regions observed in
the Baram Delta province are a direct result of its
complex tectonic setting. The convex-upwards
shape of a deltaic ‘wedge’ promotes extension on
the shelf that is oriented towards the delta toe
(Figure 7). Hence, Tertiary deltas, such as the
Mississippi Delta, commonly exhibit margin-
parallel maximum horizontal stress orientations and
extensional growth faults striking margin-parallel
(Figure 7) [31, 32]. The margin-parallel stress
orientation observed in the outer shelf regions of the
Baram Delta province is also a region of active
growth faulting. Hence, the margin-parallel outer
shelf stress orientation is a typical ‘deltaic’ stress
field. However, the Baram Delta province has been
deposited adjacent to (and on top of) a broad zone
of continental collision, resulting in widespread
NW-SE (margin-normal) compression and
inversion of structures in the inboard regions of the
delta [33, 34]. Hence, the stress rotation observed in
the Baram Delta province is the result of the
superposition of a localised and relatively shallow
(mechanically detached) margin-parallel ‘deltaic’
stress field (at the outer shelf) on top of a deeper
and regionally extensive or ‘basement-associated’
margin-normal maximum horizontal stress [34].
Fig 7. (a) Schematic relationship between present-day stress
and structures in passive-margin Tertiary deltas (modified
from [31]). The convex upward shape of the clastic wedge
promotes gravity-driven extension towards the delta toe,
resulting in margin-parallel maximum horizontal stress
orientations on the shelf and margin-normal thrusting in the
delta toe. (b) Breakouts in the onshore Gulf Coast of
southwest USA reveal a margin-parallel ‘deltaic’ stress field.
4.3. Pattani Basin, Gulf of Thailand
The Pattani Basin in the Gulf of Thailand is a N-S
elongate rift basin consisting of an Oligocene to
Early Miocene syn-rift and Middle Miocene to
Recent post-rift sequence [35]. The Pattani Basin
consists of a long belt of roughly N-S trending half
grabens that have been locally influenced by an
existing structural fabric in the basement, resulting
in numerous NW-SE and NE-SW ‘jogs’ and bends
[36, 37]. Borehole breakouts from four-arm caliper
logs in 43 wells in the Pattani Basin exhibit a
dominant N-S regional maximum horizontal stress
orientation (Figure 8). However, stress orientations
vary locally, with stresses primarily ranging from
NW-SE, through N-S to NE-SW (Figure 8).
Fig 8. (a) Borehole breakouts in the Gulf of Thailand reveal a
regional North-South maximum horizontal stress direction
(see inset rose diagram of the distribution of maximum
horizontal stress orientations indicated by all breakouts).
However, breakouts also reveal significant local variations in
stress orientation. (b) Stress orientations in the Platong-
Pladang trend appear to be rotated sub-parallel to
neighbouring extensional faults and to jogs in the halfgraben
structure (fault maps from [36, 37].
The dominant (regional) N-S maximum horizontal
stress orientation in the Pattani Basin is most likely
the result of stresses related to Himalayan escape
tectonics. Indeed, the Pattani Basin (and numerous
other rift basins onshore and offshore Thailand) is
believed to be, in essence, a pull-apart basin
resulting from east-west extension generated within
the overall NW-SE and NE-SW conjugate strike-
slip system that developed following the Eocene-
Recent India-Eurasia collision [38, 39]. Hence, the
N-S regional (broad-scale) stress field in the Gulf of
Thailand fits with large-scale tectonic models of SE
Asia [38]. However, the localised variation in
maximum horizontal stress orientations throughout
the Pattani Basin appears to reflect changes in the
pre-existing (and currently inactive) structures. In
particular, stress orientations along the Platong-
Pladang trend appear to be locally deflected so as to
remain sub-parallel with the strike of the post-rift
extensional faults (Figure 8) [37]. Hence, the pre-
existing and seismically inactive faults appear to
have a significant local influence on the present-day
stress orientation – deflecting the in situ stress by up
to 45° (discussed further in subsequent sections).
4.4. Permian Basin, Texas and New Mexico
The Permian Basin of west Texas and southeast
New Mexico is a foredeep basin that developed
during the Carboniferous (late Mississippian and
early Pennsylvanian) at the southern margin of the
North American plate, north of the present-day
Marathon-Ouachita thrust belt [40]. The Permian
Fig 9. (a) Borehole breakouts and drilling induced tensile
Basin is comprised of several major structural sub- fractures (in black) in the Permian Basin suggest extreme
divisions, including the Delaware Basin, Midland scatter of stress orientations (see Fig. 7(b). for map location).
Basin, Val Verde Basin and Central Basin Platform, A regionally consistent E-W maximum horizontal stress
which formed due to the reactivation of major orientation is observed in the Midland Basin and Eastern
Shelf. However, stresses vary sharply between fields in the
Proterozoic basement structures (Figure 9) [40, 41].
Northwest Shelf and appear to lie sub-parallel to structure in
However, prior to the formation of the Permian the Central Basin Platform and Wolfcamp Shelf Margin
Basin, the region hosted the shallow intra-cratonic (geological regions and fault data from [40, 41]).
Tobosa Basin. Hence, the Permian Basin contains
approximately 7 km of Carboniferous to Permian The origin of the highly complex Permian Basin
siliciclastic, carbonate and evaporite sediments on stress field remains unknown. The Permian Basin
top of 1-1.5 km of Ordovician to Devonian Tobosa lies adjacent to the Rocky Mountains, yet has been
Basin sediments [40, 41]. The majority of relatively tectonically stable since the Permian.
production comes from the shallowest Guadalupian There is evidence for Cenozoic uplift and erosion,
and Leonardian (Permian) reservoir sequences, and the deposition of approximately 100 metres of
although production extends down to Ordovician Quaternary sediments (erosion from the Rocky
reservoirs [41]. The Permian Basin contains thick Mountains) [40]. However, the region has very little
(approx 1 km) and extensive Late Permian present-day seismicity (minor low magnitude
evaporite sequences, including the Castile seismicity along the eastern border faults of the
anhydrites, Salado and Rustler formations, at Delaware Basin) and no known Quaternary faults,
shallow depths, which form a broad regional seal. despite the basin’s proximity to the Rocky
Mountains [44]. Hence, the scatter of the stress field
Early stress analysis in the Permian Basin from
is unlikely to be the result of present-day fault
hydraulic fracture tests suggested a East-West
activity. Furthermore, the geology of the basin does
maximum horizontal stress orientation [42, 43].
not indicate any regional basal detachment horizon,
However, image and four-arm caliper log data from
with the main evaporite formations being in the
110 wells reveal that maximum horizontal stress
uppermost sequences. The stress field is possibly
orientations in the Permian Basin are extremely
locally deflected by structure or geology in some
scattered (Figure 9). There is no consistent regional
places, such as in the broad faulted zone separating
stress orientation, although three dominant trends
the Central Basin Platform and Delaware Basin, and
are exhibited: East-West (consistent with earlier
within the Wolfcamp Shelf Margin trend (Figure 9).
studies), North-South and NW-SE. Stress
Furthermore, much of the stress orientation data
orientations are reasonably consistent within
comes from the main producing reservoir sequences
individual fields; however, stress orientations vary
immediately below the evaporite formations and,
markedly, and are sometimes perpendicular,
hence, it is possible that stresses are being locally
between neighbouring fields (Figure 9).
deflected due to the mechanical contrast between point, or within a small volume of rock, are not the
the evaporites and siliciclastics/carbonates [28, 45]. result of just one or two sources of stress, but result
However, no detailed structural or geological maps from the superposition and summation of all forces
are yet available to the authors and, thus, the factors acting at scales ranging from very large (e.g.
controlling the intriguing and highly complex stress tectonic plate) to microscopic (e.g. stress
pattern in the Permian Basin remain highly concentration at grain to grain contacts). Herein, we
speculative. review and summarise the main factors controlling
the state of stress from the basin- to field-scale in
sedimentary basins, beginning with the largest plate
5. CONTROLS ON STRESS ORIENTATION IN boundary forces and ranging progressively down to
SEDIMENTARY BASINS the smaller magnitude and localised (yet often
The complex stress fields revealed in the above highly significant) impact of geological structures.
examples illustrate that additional sources of stress 5.1. Far-field Forces
(non-plate boundary forces) may also have a major Stress fields observed over very wide regions (100s
impact on stress orientations in sedimentary basins to 1000s of kilometres) and to large depths in the
(Table 1). Furthermore, it is important to note that lithosphere (10s of kilometres) are the result of
scale also plays a critical role in understanding large ‘far field’ forces acting at the plate boundary
stress in the oil patch. Discussions of the origin of or major intra-plate features (Figure 1) [4, 46]. Plate
stress fields commonly refer to just one or two key boundary forces, such as mid-ocean ridge push,
forces that control the observed stress field. subducting slab pull and resistance at continental
However, stress measurements provide information collision zones, provide the ‘first-order’ or
on the in situ stress over a specific volume of rock ‘primary’ stress field in the intra-plate lithosphere
(ranging from cubic kilometres for earthquakes, to (Figure 1) [4, 5]. Major intra-plate features, such as
cubic centimetres or metres for breakouts, hydraulic mountain ranges, oceanic to continental lithosphere
fracturing and overcoring) and the stress tensor is transitions, major crustal fault zones and regions of
truly defined as the stresses acting upon a point in a lithospheric bending or large-scale deglaciation,
continuum. Hence, when examining the origin of give rise to major forces that cause the ‘second-
stress orientations, it is critical to note that the order’ or ‘secondary’ stress field [4, 46].
observed stress orientations and magnitudes at a
Table 1. Summary of the main features causing or influencing stress fields in sedimentary basins and the approximate scale at
which they affect the stress field.
Feature Examples Effect Scale
Mid-ocean ridges,
Plate Boundary ‘Primary’ control on stress Plate to regional: 100s-1000s of
continental collision zones,
Forces field km
subduction zones
Surface loads (mountains),
Major intraplate isostatic compensation, ‘Secondary’ control on stress
Regional: 100s of km
Forces continent-ocean transition, field
deglaciation
Mechanically detach
Detachment Evaporites, overpressured overlying sediments from Basin to local scale: 10s-100s
zones shales, low angle faults. primary/secondary of km
(‘basement’) stress field
Regional control on stress
Basin Geometry Tertiary deltas, field, particularly in detached Basin scale (100s of km)
basins
Rotation of stress field due
Faults, fractures, diapirs, folds to mechanical contrasts Local (meters to a few kms)
Geological between units
Structures Temporal change in stress
Local to regional depending on
Active faults scale of fault activity: 1 to 100s
associated with seismic cycle
km
Shallow regions only: near
Rotation of principal stresses
surface, within approximately
Topography Mountains, valleys due to Earth’s surface being
one ‘wavelength’ of
a free surface
topography
The primary and secondary sources of stress in the orientations derived from breakouts, DTFs and
lithosphere are, by far, the main forces controlling earthquakes indicate a regionally consistent East-
the intra-plate stress field – and, thus, the stress West maximum horizontal stress orientation in the
field in the basement rocks directly underlying northern North Sea that has been linked to far field
sedimentary basins. Hence, the stress fields in forces arising from mid-Atlantic ridge push and to
sedimentary basins are commonly observed to be isostatic rebound following deglaciation in
very similar to the primary or secondary Scandinavia (Figure 10) [47, 48]. However,
lithospheric stress fields, such as observed in breakouts and DIFs indicate that a highly variable
Australian sedimentary basins, the North German and complex stress field exists in the central North
Basin and Alberta Basin (Figures 4 and 5) [22, 29]. Sea (Figure 10). The zone of variable stress
Hence, the primary and secondary sources of stress orientations in the central North Sea is
typically provide the regional or ‘background’ stress approximately consistent with the Z2 horizon of the
field upon which stresses resulting from other, Zechstein evaporites, suggesting that the Zechstein
smaller, sources of stress are superimposed. evaporites are acting as a detachment zone that
effectively removes the influence of the primary
5.2. Basal Detachment
and secondary stress field (Figure 10) [49, 50].
The comparative influence of plate boundary forces
and ‘local’ intra-basin forces on the stress field in
sedimentary basins is a function of their relative
magnitudes and orientations. In general, the far-
field stresses have much greater magnitudes than
‘local’ stresses and dominate the stress field.
However, the influence of the stronger, far field
stresses (acting in the basement) can be partially or
totally removed from the stresses acting in the
overlying sedimentary sequences by deep
mechanical detachment zones. Hence, basins that
contain some form of basal detachment zone
typically exhibit complicated stress patterns due to
the dominance of smaller intra-basin sources of
stress, whereas basins that are mechanically
attached to the basement typically display
regionally consistent stress fields resulting from far-
field forces (Figure 10) [19].
Basal detachment zones occur due to the presence
of mechanically ‘weak’ or ductile (e.g. having a
high Poisson’s ratio) material that is unable to
effectively transmit shear stresses from the rocks
Fig 10. (a) Schematic diagram of stress orientations in regions
below the detachment into overlying sequences.
that are mechanically attached (on the left) or detached from
Basal detachment zones in sedimentary basins the basement (on the right; after [19]). Attached regions
typically include evaporite horizons, sequences of commonly exhibit consistent stress orientations (blue
highly overpressured shales and low angle fault symbols), generally in line with the primary or secondary
zones (particularly fault zones containing high stress field. Stresses in detached regions are controlled by
smaller-scale sources of stress and commonly exhibit highly
magnitude overpressures) [19]. Hence, detachment
varied stress orientations (red symbols). Sources of
zones may act regionally, when detachment detachment include evaporite layers, overpressured shales or
horizons are basin-wide (e.g. overpressured prodelta mechanically ‘weak’ faults. (b) Attached versus detached
shales), or only over small regions if the detachment basins in the North Sea. Consistent stress orientations are
surface is only locally present (e.g. faults, localised observed in the ‘attached’ northern North Sea, but scattered
orientations in the ‘detached’ central North Sea. The scattered
evaporites). The stress field in the central and
stress orientations in the central North Sea are in sequences
northern North Sea provides a clear example of the overlying the Z2 Zechstein evaporites, suggesting that the
impact of detachment zones on the stress field in Zechstein formation is acting as a regional detachment zone
sedimentary sequences (Figure 10). Stress (adapted from [49, 50]).
5.3. Basin Geometry orientation will be deflected sub-parallel to
Gravitational forces acting on basin geometry mechanically ‘weak’ structures (e.g. salt or
(herein the surface, sub-sea or basement overpressured shale diapirs, open fractures and
‘topography’) can cause a variation in stress weak fault zones), but be deflected perpendicular to
orientations due to either the earth’s surface acting mechanically ‘stiff’ structures (e.g. cemented faults
as a free surface and/or due to lateral density and fractures or igneous intrusives; Figure 11) [19,
contrasts (e.g. between adjacent rock units or 51].
between rock and air/water at the surface/seafloor)
[46]. The effect of gravitational forces on basin
geometry is particularly highlighted in detached
basins, such as in the Mississippi and Baram
Tertiary deltas (Figures 6 and 7). Tertiary deltas
often contain widespread mobile evaporite
sequences and/or thick overpressured (and mobile)
prodelta shale sequences that act as regional basal
detachment zones. The convex-upwards deltaic
‘wedge’, in combination with a basin-wide basal
detachment zone, promotes basinward-oriented
gravitational extension on the shelf, that results in a
margin-parallel maximum horizontal stress
orientation and associated margin-parallel striking
growth faults (Figure 7) [31, 32]. This convex-
upwards deltaic geometry also results in margin-
normal compression and associated folding and
thrust faulting at the delta toe, and thus is also
expected to result in a margin-normal maximum
horizontal stress orientations in the delta toe (Figure
7) [21].
5.4. Geological Structures
The complex and variable stress patterns observed
in the Pattani and Permian Basins and the localised
stress reorientations in the North German Basin
indicate that the present-day stress orientation can
be strongly influenced by existing geological
structures such as faults and salt diapirs. Indeed,
numerous authors have observed local stress
variations, of the order of a few metres to
kilometres near faults, fractures folds and diapirs
(Figure 11) [19, 20, 25, 31, 45]. The deflection of
the stress field near geological structures is most
commonly considered to result from structures
acting as a mechanical discontinuity (Figure 11)
[45]. For example, an ‘open’ or very ‘weak’ fracture Fig. 11. (a) Schematic plan view of the local rotation of
in the subsurface will act as a free surface and be maximum horizontal stress orientation in response to
unable to sustain shear stresses. As a result, the structures with contrasting mechanical properties (after [19]).
stress field must be locally re-oriented in the The maximum horizontal stress orientation is expected to
swing parallel to mechanically weak or ‘soft’ structures (top)
vicinity of the fracture so that one principal stress and perpendicular to mechanically stiff or ‘hard’ structures
acts perpendicular to the fracture. Similarly, stresses (middle). (b) Present-day stress orientations in Quad 15 of the
will be locally deflected or ‘refracted’ near the northern North Sea are parallel to the strike of nearby faults
boundary between mechanical contrasts. In general, and largely inconsistent with the regional stress orientation,
it is predicted that the maximum horizontal stress suggesting the maximum horizontal stress orientation is being
locally rotated by mechanically weak faults (after [20]).
The scale at which structures influence the stress
field will relate to the degree of the mechanical
contrast, the size of the structure and the orientation
of the structure relative to the far-field stresses.
Large mechanical contrasts result in greater
deflections of the principal stress axes and major
structures will have a broader impact on the stress
field. Small fractures or faults may influence the
stress field within just a few centimetres of the
structure, whereas the influence of larger structures,
such as folds, diapirs and major faults, may extend
tens of metres to several kilometres from the
structure. Furthermore, the stress orientation will
only be slightly deflected if one stress orientation is
approximately perpendicular to the surface of the
mechanical contrast.
In addition to the mechanical contrast of structures
locally affecting the stress field in sedimentary
basins, there exists the possibility of stress changes
associated with fault activity [52]. Fault slip
releases energy that can temporally affect the state
of stress within metres to tens or hundreds of
kilometres from the zone of rupture, depending on
the magnitude of the earthquake [52, 53]. The
impact of active faulting on the state of stress has
most commonly been investigated in terms of local
changes in stress magnitudes; however, it is
expected that localised temporal changes in stress
orientations may also occur following an earthquake
[52, 53]. To date, there are no published examples
of active faults locally affecting the state of stress in
the oil patch. However, the potential exists for the
stress field to be locally influenced by faulting in
seismically active basins, or by anthropogenically-
induced seismicity associated with reservoir
depletion or fluid injection.
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The WSM Project’s ‘Present-day stress in
sedimentary basins’ initiative, in collaboration with
numerous petroleum companies, is conducting a
long-term detailed investigation into the state and
origin of stress orientations in the oil patch. The
examples presented herein highlight the wide
variation of stress orientations observed in
sedimentary basins. Furthermore, despite the stress
orientations in sedimentary basins often primarily
being a function of far-field forces exerted at plate
boundaries or major intra-plate structures, there is
also strong evidence that intra-basin features, such
as detachment zones, basin geometry and geological
structures, can cause basin-wide to highly localised
rotations in the stress field. Hence, the initial results
presented herein reveal new insights into the
detailed stress field in sedimentary basins.
The complex stress fields and controls on stress
orientations investigated herein have major
ramifications for the application of stress data to
petroleum geomechanical applications, both within
the basins examined and in other sedimentary
basins worldwide. The orientation of induced
hydraulic fractures is typically parallel to the in situ
maximum horizontal stress orientation and fluid
flow is also enhanced in the maximum horizontal
stress direction [17]. In normal faulting stress
regimes, it is usually preferable to deviate
perpendicular to the maximum horizontal stress
orientation to improve wellbore stability [11]. Thus
it is valuable to determine and understand the
origins of stress orientations in the oil patch,
particularly in regions with complex stress fields, to
safely plan well trajectories and improve
hydrocarbon production. However, large gaps
remain in our knowledge about the state and origin
of stress orientations in the oil patch, particularly in
the world’s major petroleum provinces (Figure 3).
The ‘Present-day stress in sedimentary basins’
initiative is endeavouring to further enhance our
understanding of stresses in the oil patch [21], and
is currently conducting collaborative stress analysis
projects with petroleum companies in an additional
five regions worldwide, including Egypt and
Azerbaijan. By undertaking mutually beneficial
stress studies, the WSM Project and petroleum
industry are working together to build a highly
valuable public resource to aid scientists and
engineers worldwide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The World Stress Map project is a collaborative project that
would not be possible without the efforts of many scientists
worldwide. The full list of WSM contributors is too numerous
to be given herein, however the authors would like to
acknowledge several individuals and organizations that have
made major contributions to the WSM Project. The authors
are particularly grateful to Mark Zoback, Peter Connolly, Jose
Dirkzwager, Karl Fuchs, Richard Hillis, Scott Reynolds,
Helmut Kipphan and the WSM advisory board for their major
contributions and long-term support of the WSM Project. The
authors would also like to thank BP, RWE-Dea, Chevron,
Schlumberger, Statoil, IEOC, Karasu, PTT, Paradigm and the
Egyptian Gas Company, and in particular Peter Bentham, Bob
Cornell, Arnoud Defeyter, Earl Edmonds, Stephen Edwards,
Paul Grech, Toby Harrold, Christian Hermanrud, Paul
Hoenmans, Chris Morley and Rauf Nadirov, whom have
actively supported the ‘Present-day stress in Sedimentary
Basins’ initiative.
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