Rudnyh-mestorozhdeniy-i-razvedka-poleznyh-iskopoemyh-chast-2

ɆɂɇɂɋɌȿɊɋɌȼɈ ɈȻɊȺɁɈȼȺɇɂə ɂ ɇȺɍɄɂ ɊɈɋɋɂɃɋɄɈɃ ɎȿȾȿɊȺɐɂɂ
Ƚɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɟ ɨɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɬɟɥɶɧɨɟ ɭɱɪɟɠɞɟɧɢɟ ɜɵɫɲɟɝɨ ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɨɝɨ ɨɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɧɢɹ

«ɇȺɐɂɈɇȺɅɖɇɕɃ ɂɋɋɅȿȾɈȼȺɌȿɅɖɋɄɂɃ
ɌɈɆɋɄɂɃ ɉɈɅɂɌȿɏɇɂɑȿɋɄɂɃ ɍɇɂȼȿɊɋɂɌȿɌ»
________________________________________________________________________
Ɋ.ɇ. Ⱥɛɪɚɦɨɜɚ, Ʌ.Ɇ. Ȼɨɥɫɭɧɨɜɫɤɚɹ, Ⱥ.Ʉ. Ɇɚɡɭɪɨɜ
ȽȿɈɅɈȽɂə ɊɍȾɇɕɏ ɆȿɋɌɈɊɈɀȾȿɇɂɃ

ɂ ɊȺɁȼȿȾɄȺ ɉɈɅȿɁɇɕɏ ɂɋɄɈɉȺȿɆɕɏ
ɑɚɫɬɶ 2
Ƚɟɨɥɨɝɢɹ ɪɭɞɧɵɯ ɦɟɫɬɨɪɨɠɞɟɧɢɣ
ɍɱɟɛɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ
ɩɨ ɞɢɫɰɢɩɥɢɧɟ «ɉɪɨɮɟɫɫɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɵɣ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɢɣ ɹɡɵɤ»
ɞɥɹ ɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɨɜ ɫɬɚɪɲɢɯ ɤɭɪɫɨɜ ɢ ɦɚɝɢɫɬɪɚɧɬɨɜ ɬɟɯɧɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɜɭɡɨɜ
ɝɨɪɧɨ-ɝɟɨɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɫɩɟɰɢɚɥɶɧɨɫɬɟɣ
ɂɡɞɚɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɨ
Ɍɨɦɫɤɨɝɨ ɩɨɥɢɬɟɯɧɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɚ
2011
ɍȾɄ 553:811.111(075.8)
ȻȻɄ ɒ143.21-923
A16
Ⱥɛɪɚɦɨɜɚ Ɋ.ɇ.
Ⱥ16 Ƚɟɨɥɨɝɢɹ ɪɭɞɧɵɯ ɦɟɫɬɨɪɨɠɞɟɧɢɣ ɢ ɪɚɡɜɟɞɤɚ ɩɨɥɟɡɧɵɯ ɢɫɤɨ-
ɩɚɟɦɵɯ. ɑɚɫɬɶ 2. Ƚɟɨɥɨɝɢɹ ɪɭɞɧɵɯ ɦɟɫɬɨɪɨɠɞɟɧɢɣ. ɉɪɨɮɟɫɫɢɨ-
ɧɚɥɶɧɵɣ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɢɣ ɹɡɵɤ: ɭɱɟɛɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ ɤɨɦɩɥɟɤɫ /
Ɋ.ɇ. Ⱥɛɪɚɦɨɜɚ, Ʌ.Ɇ. Ȼɨɥɫɭɧɨɜɫɤɚɹ, Ⱥ.Ʉ. Ɇɚɡɭɪɨɜ; Ɍɨɦɫɤɢɣ ɩɨ-
ɥɢɬɟɯɧɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬ. – Ɍɨɦɫɤ: ɂɡɞ-ɜɨ Ɍɨɦɫɤɨɝɨ ɩɨɥɢ-
ɬɟɯɧɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɚ, 2011. – 166 ɫ.
ɉɨɫɨɛɢɟ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɱɚɫɬɶɸ ɭɱɟɛɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɤɨɦɩɥɟɤɫɚ, ɪɚɡɪɚɛɨ-

ɬɚɧɧɨɝɨ ɞɥɹ ɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɨɜ ɫɬɚɪɲɢɯ ɤɭɪɫɨɜ ɢ ɦɚɝɢɫɬɪɚɧɬɨɜ ɬɟɯɧɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɜɭɡɨɜ
ɝɨɪɧɨ-ɝɟɨɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɫɩɟɰɢɚɥɶɧɨɫɬɟɣ, ɩɪɨɫɥɭɲɚɜɲɢɯ ɤɭɪɫ «Ƚɟɨɥɨɝɢɹ ɢ ɦɟ-
ɬɨɞɵ ɪɚɡɜɟɞɤɢ ɩɨɥɟɡɧɵɯ ɢɫɤɨɩɚɟɦɵɯ» ɧɚ ɪɭɫɫɤɨɦ ɹɡɵɤɟ ɢ ɢɡɭɱɚɸɳɢɯ ɞɚɧ-
ɧɵɣ ɤɭɪɫ ɜ ɪɚɦɤɚɯ ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɨɝɨ ɢɧɨɫɬɪɚɧɧɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ.
Ʉɨɦɩɥɟɤɫ ɫɨɫɬɨɢɬ ɢɡ 3 ɱɚɫɬɟɣ, ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɳɢɯ ɚɭɬɟɧɬɢɱɧɵɟ ɦɚɬɟɪɢɚɥɵ ɩɨ
ɜɵɲɟ ɭɤɚɡɚɧɧɨɣ ɞɢɫɰɢɩɥɢɧɟ, ɚ ɬɚɤɠɟ ɭɩɪɚɠɧɟɧɢɹ, ɧɚɩɪɚɜɥɟɧɧɵɟ ɧɚ ɫɨɜɟɪ-
ɲɟɧɫɬɜɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɤɨɦɦɭɧɢɤɚɬɢɜɧɵɯ ɧɚɜɵɤɨɜ ɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɨɜ ɧɚ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɦ ɹɡɵɤɟ.
ɉɪɟɞɧɚɡɧɚɱɟɧɨ ɤɚɤ ɞɥɹ ɚɭɞɢɬɨɪɧɨɣ, ɬɚɤ ɢ ɞɥɹ ɫɚɦɨɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɧɨɣ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ.
ɍȾɄ 553:811.111(075.8)
ȻȻɄ ɒ143.21-923
Ɋɟɰɟɧɡɟɧɬɵ
Ⱦɨɤɬɨɪ ɮɢɥɨɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɧɚɭɤ, ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɨɪ
ɡɚɜɟɞɭɸɳɢɣ ɤɚɮɟɞɪɨɣ ɞɟɥɨɜɨɝɨ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ ɂɧɫɬɢɬɭɬɚ ɷɤɨɧɨɦɢɤɢ,
ɭɩɪɚɜɥɟɧɢɹ ɢ ɩɪɢɪɨɞɨɩɨɥɶɡɨɜɚɧɢɹ ɋɎɍ (ɝ. Ʉɪɚɫɧɨɹɪɫɤ)
ȿ.Ȼ. Ƚɪɢɲɚɟɜɚ
Ⱦɨɤɬɨɪ ɝɟɨɥɨɝɨ-ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɧɚɭɤ, ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɨɪ
ɡɚɜɟɞɭɸɳɢɣ ɤɚɮɟɞɪɨɣ ɞɢɧɚɦɢɱɟɫɤɨɣ ɝɟɨɥɨɝɢɢ ɌȽɍ
ȼ.ɉ. ɉɚɪɧɚɱɺɜ
Ⱦɨɤɬɨɪ ɝɟɨɥɨɝɨ-ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɧɚɭɤ, ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɨɪ, ɚɤɚɞɟɦɢɤ ɊȺɇ

Ⱥ.ɗ. Ʉɨɧɬɨɪɨɜɢɱ
© ȽɈɍ ȼɉɈ ɇɂ Ɍɉɍ, 2011

© Ⱥɛɪɚɦɨɜɚ Ɋ.ɇ., Ȼɨɥɫɭɧɨɜɫɤɚɹ Ʌ.Ɇ.,
Ɇɚɡɭɪɨɜ Ⱥ.Ʉ., 2011
© Ɉɮɨɪɦɥɟɧɢɟ. ɂɡɞɚɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɨ Ɍɨɦɫɤɨɝɨ
ɩɨɥɢɬɟɯɧɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɚ, 2011
ORE GEOLOGY AND MINERAL EXPLORATION
CONTENTS
Part II Ore Geology
Unit 1
Potential orebody factors ..................................................................................4
Unit2
Nature and morthology of the principal types of ore deposits............................17
Unit 3
Ore genesis.............................................................................................................. 40
Unit 4
Textures of ore and gangue minerals ................................................................63
Unit 5
Classification of ore deposits..........................................................................79
Unit 6
Assignment project .........................................................................................93
Source text ...................................................................................................102
Supplementary material ................................................................................125
ɗɥɟɦɟɧɬɵ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɚ.....................................................................................142
Supplementary reading .................................................................................147
Appendix 1....................................................................................................151
Appendix 2....................................................................................................157

UNIT 1
POTENTIAL OREBODY FACTORS
I. Switch on
Examine the terminology diagram and focus on the key words.

II. Pre-reading task
1. What are the factors in the evaluation of an ore body? Put a tick (¥)
against the factors that you think are important. Try to explain each
factor.
a. distribution of income
b. ore grade
c. type of mining operation
d. by-products
e. concentrate percentage
f. commodity prices
g. political considerations
h. mineralogical form
i. size and shape of deposit
j. ore character
k. undesirable substances
2. Word-building from a text. Scan the text to find all the examples of the
following lexical patterns. Examples are given.
N&N (noun and noun)
ore grade ore body
A & N (& N) (adjective and noun \ and noun)

economic deposit mineralogical form
PI & N(participle I and noun)

mining company
PII &N (participle II and noun)

overburden rock

All the words you have found are nouns. Pay attention to the translation of
these lexical patterns. Translate them according to the rule «ɉɪɚɜɢɥɚ
ɪɹɞɚ» (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.148).
Read the following text and compile your own terminology list. The basic
terms are headlined Also add these words to your list.
Potential orebody factors
1. _________-the concentration of a metal in an ore body is called its grade
(ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɟ ɪɭɞɵ) usually expressed as a percentage or in parts
per million (ppm) .The processes of determining these concentrations are
called assaying (ɨɩɪɨɛɵɜɚɧɢɟ). Various economic and sometimes political
considerations will determine the lowest grade of ore that can be produced
from an ore body and is termed as the cut-off grade (ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɟ
ɦɟɧɟɟ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɹ). Many samples have to be collected and
assayed to determine the boundaries of an ore body. Grades vary from ore
body to ore body. The lower the grade, the greater the tonnage of ore required
to provide an economic deposit. It is necessary to estimate the grade of the
ore as delivered to the mill (mineral dressing plant).
2. _________ - in some ores several metals are present and the sale of one
may help finance the mining of another. For example, silver and cadmium
can be by-products (ɩɨɩɭɬɧɵɣ ɩɪɨɞɭɤɬ) of the mining of lead-zinc ores.
3. _________ (ɰɟɧɵ ɧɚ ɫɵɪɶɟɜɵɟ ɬɨɜɚɪɵ) - the mineral economists of a
mining company must try to forecast the future demand (ɩɨɬɪɟɛɧɨɫɬɢ) for
and hence the price of the mine product (s), well in advance of mine
development.
4. ___________ - the properties of a mineral determine what existing
technology can extract and refine certain metals. The mineralogical nature of
the ore will also place limits on the maximum possible grade of the
concentrate (ɩɪɨɞɭɤɬ ɨɛɨɝɚɳɟɧɢɹ ɪɭɞɵ). For example, an ore containing
native copper can produce a concentrate containing 100% Cu, but, if the ore
mineral was chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), the principal source of copper, then the
best concentrate would contain only 34.5% Cu.
5. ____________ - large, low grade deposits that occur at or near the surface
can be worked by cheap open pit methods. Ore bodies of regular shape can
generally be mined more cheaply than those of irregular shape particularly

when they include barren zones. For an open pit mine the shape and attitude
of the ore body will also determine how much waste has to be removed
during mining- waste-to-ore (ɤɨɷɮɮɢɰɢɟɧɬ ɩɨɞɝɨɬɨɜɤɢ; ɭɞɟɥɶɧɵɣ ɨɛɴɟɦ
ɪɭɞɚ-ɩɨɪɨɞɚ) \ stripping ratio (ɤɨɷɮɮɢɰɢɟɧɬ ɜɫɤɪɵɲɢ). The waste will
often include not only overburden rock (ɩɨɤɪɵɜɚɸɳɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ) (waste rock
above the ore body) but waste rock (ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ) around and in the ore
body.
6. __________ - a loose unconsolidated (ɪɵɯɥɵɟ) beach sand deposit can be

mined cheaply by dredging and does not require crushing. Hard compact
(ɩɥɨɬɧɵɣ; ɨɞɧɨɪɨɞɧɵɣ) ore must be drilled, blasted and crushed.
7. ____________-there may be harmful substances in ore and gangue

minerals (ɠɢɥɶɧɵɣ \ ɛɟɡɪɭɞɧɵɣ ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ). For example, tennantite
(Cu12As4S13) in copper ores can introduce unwanted arsenic and sometimes
mercury into copper concentrates.
8. ____________- The recovery (ɢɡɜɥɟɱɟɧɢɟ) is the percentage of the total

metal or industrial mineral contained in the ore that is recovered in the
concentrate; a recovery of 90% means that 90% of the metal in the ore is
recovered in the concentrate and 10% is lost in the tailings (ɨɫɬɚɬɨɤ ɩɨɫɥɟ
ɨɛɨɝɚɳɟɧɢɹ\ ɯɜɨɫɬɵ). The grain distribution is critical in the use of a
number of different industrial rocks and minerals. Small mineral grains and
grains finely intergrown (ɜɪɚɫɬɚɬɶ) with other minerals are difficult or
impossible to recover in the processing plant, and recovery may be poor. For
example, recoveries from tin deposits are traditionally poor (ranging over 40-
80%), whereas recoveries from copper ores usually range from 80-90%.
Sometimes fine grain size and \ or complex intergrowths (ɜɪɚɫɬɚɧɢɟ) may
prevent a mining operation.
Grain shape also may be important. An indication of grain shape can be

obtained by measuring a large number of intercepts (ɩɟɪɟɫɟɱɟɧɢɹ) (lengths
of randomly chosen grain diameters) and analyzing these.
(The above information was adapted from Anthony M. Evans , Ore Geology and Industrial
Mineral \ An Introduction, pp. 17 – 21. Blackwell Publishing, 1993.)

III. Terminology development
1. What is IT in each of these sentences?
1. IT is the concentration of a metal in an ore body.
2. IT is the present of several metals in some ores.
3. IT is the price of a product to be marketed.
4. IT is the property of a mineral that governs the ease with which
existing technology can extract and refine certain metals.
5. IT is the present of harmful substances in ore and gangue minerals.
6. IT is the type of ore that affects the mining operations.
7. IT is the percentage of the total mineral contained in the recovered ore.
8. IT is the 10% lost ore
2. The following terms can be found in the text. Match these terms (1 – 9)
with the definitions (A-I). Write the appropriate numbers in the horizontal
box.
1. concentrate A. the unit amount of spoil or waste
that must be removed to gain access
to a similar unit amount of ore or
mineral material.
2.tailings B. a\\ classification of ore according
to recoverable amount of a valuable
metal.
3.gangue C. process of determining the specific
metallic content of an ore, alloy, or
other substance, especially one
containing precious metals.
4.stripping ratio D. the general name for an
accumulation of ore in any shape
5.by-product E. a product from a manufacturing
process that is not considered the
principal material
6. assaying F. to separate ore or metal from its
containing rock or earth.

7. grade G. valueless rock that must be
fractured and removed in order to
gain access to or upgrade ore.
8.ore body H. the valueless rock or aggregates of
minerals in an ore
9.waste rock I. the refuse material resulting from
the concentration of minerals.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
IV. Reading focus

1. Read the text again and choose the suitable title to each paragraph.
mineralogical form ore grade
ore character by-products undesirable
substancecommodity prices size and shape of deposits
grain size and shape
2. Skim the text. Which paragraphs contain the answers to these questions?
Write the paragraph numbers in the boxes.
1. What is the main task of a mineral economist?
2. What deposits can be worked by cheap methods?
3. When is an ore deposit economic?
4. What do mineral properties determine?
5. What does waste include?
6. What does a recovery of 90% mean?
7. What are the by-products of lead-zinc ores?
8. What undesirable substances can be found in copper ores?

9. How is the grade expressed?
10. What is Cu concentrate in chalcopyrite?
11. Why is the grain distribution critical in different industrial minerals?
12. Why do we need many samples?

3. Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN…………….. if thereis no information on this.
1. The percentage of the concentration of a metal in an ore body is expressed

in ppm
2. The higher the grade, the more the tonnage of ore required.
3. Many by-products can have an economic and financial importance.
4. Grade head is the ore delivered to the mill.
5. Nickel is recovered more readily from sulphide than from asilicate ores.
6. The shape of the ore body determines how much waste is removed.
7. The waste includes only barren rocks.
8. Tennantite can indicate unwanted arsenic even mercury.
V. Extended writing
You have downloaded the distance-learning day presentation about
topographic maps by Mrs. Cohen, lecturer.
1. Listen to this presentation and take notes. REMEMBER the following
rules:
x show only key information;
x use words, figures, symbols,etc;
x no sentences;

x organize in aline, list-structure, spider web, mindmap;
x make it easy to read;
x make easy to find information.
2. Check your notes by finding the correct answers in column B to the
questions in column A.
A. Question? B. Answer!
1. What is topography? i. land shape
2. How is elevation shown on a h. colors
topographic map?
3. What do red areas show? g. highest elevation
4. What do blue or purple areas f. deepest elevation
show?
5. Why are contour lines used? j. actual topographic maps
6. What do contour lines connect? d. equal elevation levels
7. What example does the lecturer c. two hills
describe?
8. What is a contour interval? b. difference in contour line
elevations
9. What are index contours? a. dark lines
10. What do topographic maps e. contour lines and index contours
include?
3. Discuss and compare your notes with another student. Add any
additional information if necessary. Write a summary according to the
N.O.W. approach. (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg. 134)
How to write a report? (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg. 134)
1. Discuss the following questions:
1. What is a report?
2. What does a report include?
3. What are the characertistic features of a report?

4. Compare a report in the Russian language and in the English language. the
differences and similarities?
2. Analyze and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the student
reports (2-3 reports), according to the following report structure:
1. Title page
2. Acknowledgements (ɛɥɚɝɨɞɚɪɧɨɫɬɶ, ɩɪɢɡɧɚɬɟɥɶɧɨɫɬɶ)
3. Contents page
4. Summary (executive summary, abstract)
5. Main body (findings)
6. Results
7. Conclusion (recommendations)
8. Appendices
9. References (ɫɩɢɫɨɤ ɰɢɬɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɨɣ ɥɢɬɟɪɚɬɭɪɵ)
10. Bibliography (ɛɢɛɥɢɨɝɪɚɮɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ ɫɩɢɫɨɤ)
VI. Discussion
1. Read the text «Geological maps» (SUPPLEMENTARY READING, pg.
153) and fulfill the after-reading tasks.
2. How to read a geological map.
2.1 Work in pairs. Study the features that are on any standard geological
map.(SUPPLEMENTARY READING, pg 153.)
2.2 Explain each section of the maps below.(all maps are from
www.nature.nps.gov (Fig. 1- map sections, pg.15)
2.3 Work in groups of two-three. Now read the map. Add all necessary
information on this imaginary map: colored areas, letter symbols,
contact lines, faults, folds, solid \ dashed or dotted lines, strike and dip.
Use the following sites:
www.nature.nps.gov
http:|| geology.about.com
www.dinojim.com
Additional information
x map scale- 1:1 000
x legend: 1) limestones; 2) mudstones; 3) sandstones; 4) basalts;
5) siltstones; 6) dolomites(Fig. 2- Map contour, pg. 16).

2.4 Prepare a short presentation of your map. Now exchange information
with the other groups in you class. Be prepared to answer any questions
your groupmates may have. (Refer to the Power Point Presentation
Technical and Professional Communication p. 69; PP «Creating
Effective Slides for Presentations» (Laura Grossenbacher))
2.5 Evaluate each student’s presentation using the following checklist.
1. Greeting the audience ____________________________________

2. Introducing oneself ______________________________________
3. Saying what you’re going to do ____________________________
4. Moving from one point to another __________________________
5. Reminding the audience of the main points___________________
6. Making the conclusion___________________________________
7. Thanking the audience ___________________________________
8. Inviting questions_______________________________________
VII. Assignment task

1. Research report topic- Investigated geological area (student summer
internship)
Step I Focus on a limited aspect
¾ Select a subject you can manage. Avoid subjects that are too technical,
learned, or specialized. Avoid topics that have only a very narrow
range of source materials.
Step II Find information
¾ Surf the Net.
For general or background information, check out useful URLs, general
information online, almanacs or encyclopedias online such as Britannica. Use
search engines and other search tools as a starting point.
¾ Check out other print materials available in the Library:
As you gather your resources, jot down full bibliographical information

(author, title, place of publication, publisher, date of publication, page
numbers, URLs, creation or modification dates on Web pages, and your date
of access) on your work sheet, printout, or enter the information on your
laptop or desktop computer for later retrieval. If printing from the Internet, it
is wise to set up the browser to print the URL and date of access for every

page. Remember that an article without bibliographical information is useless
since you cannot cite its source.

Fig. 1 Map features

Fig. 2 Map contour- Horizontal cross-section (every 10m)
Scale:1:1 000

TERMINOLOGY
assaying ɨɩɪɨɛɵɜɚɧɢɟ
by-product ɩɨɩɭɬɧɵɣ ɩɪɨɞɭɤɬ
commodity product ɰɟɧɵ ɧɚ ɫɵɪɶɟɜɵɟ ɬɨɜɚɪɵ
concentrate ɩɪɨɞɭɤɬ ɨɛɨɝɚɳɟɧɢɹ ɪɭɞɵ
cut-off grade ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɟ ɦɟɧɟɟ
ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɹ
demand ɩɨɬɪɟɛɧɨɫɬɢ
gangue mineral ɠɢɥɶɧɵɣ \ ɛɟɡɪɭɞɧɵɣ ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ
grade ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɟ ɪɭɞɵ
hard compact ɩɥɨɬɧɵɣ; ɨɞɧɨɪɨɞɧɵɣ
intercepts ɩɟɪɟɫɟɱɟɧɢɹ
intergrow(v) ɜɪɚɫɬɚɬɶ
intergrowth ɜɪɚɫɬɚɧɢɟ
loose unconsolidated ɪɵɯɥɵɟ
overburden rock ɩɨɤɪɵɜɚɸɳɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
recovery ɢɡɜɥɟɱɟɧɢɟ
stripping ratio ɤɨɷɮɮɢɰɢɟɧɬ ɜɫɤɪɵɲɢ
tailings ɨɫɬɚɬɨɤ ɩɨɫɥɟ ɨɛɨɝɚɳɟɧɢɹ\ ɯɜɨɫɬɵ
waste ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
waste rock ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
waste-to-ore ɤɨɷɮɮɢɰɢɟɧɬ ɩɨɞɝɨɬɨɜɤɢ;
ɭɞɟɥɶɧɵɣ ɨɛɴɟɦ ɪɭɞɚ-ɩɨɪɨɞɚ

UNIT 2
NATURE & MORPHOLOGYof the PRINCIPAL TYPES of
ORE DEPOSITS
I. Switch on

1. Identify the ore minerals. Mineral formulae and given items of use are a
hint for you. More than one answer is possible in some cases. Also tick (¥)
how this or that mineral is classified. One example is done for you.
Ore Mineral Primary Secondary Major uses
minerals formulae (hypogene) (supergene)
FeAsS herbicide, alloys,

wood preservative
Copper Cu ¥ copper production
C cutting and grinding
tools, jewellery
NaAlSi3O8 ceramics, glass
making
CaCO3 construction,
agriculture, chemical
and metallurgical
industries
MgCO3 animal feedstuffs,
special cements
Ag photography,
electrical and
electronic industries,
jewellery, sterling
ware
S fertilizers
Mg3Si4O10 filler in paints,
plastics, paper,
rubber, cosmetics
UO2 nuclear-powered
generators, special
steels, electric light
bulbs
Zn galvanizing iron and
steel, copper-based
alloys, alloy castings
Zr foundry sands,
nuclear reactors

2. Scan the text and find all examples of the following lexical patterns.
Translate these lexical patterns.
N & N (noun + noun)

A & N (adjective + noun)
PI & N (participle I + noun)
P II & N(participle II + noun)
N & P & N (noun + participle +noun)
Ad & P & N (adverb + participle + noun)
N & A & N ( noun + adjective + noun)
3. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the Passive Voice

(SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.149).
1. Discordant orebodies can be subdivided into those orebodies which have

an approximately regular shape…….
2. Veins were considered to have resulted mainly from the infilling of pre-
existing open spaces….
3. Ore minerals are peppered throughout the body of the host rock in the
same way as accessory minerals
4. The orebodies are characterized by the development of calc-silicate
minerals
5. They are affected by sedimentary deformation
6. Alluvial gold deposits are often marked by 'white runs' of vein quartz
pebbles.
7. These dissolved metals may be redeposited in that part of the orebody
The Nature and Morphology of the Principal Types of Ore Deposits
It is possible to classify orebodies in the same way as we divide up igneous
intrusions according to whether they are discordant (ɧɟɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɨ ɡɚɥɟɝɚɸɳɢɣ
\ ɧɟɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɚɹ ɢɧɬɪɭɡɢɹ) or concordant (ɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɨ ɧɚɩɥɚɫɬɨɜɚɧɧɵɣ) with the
lithological banding (ɩɨɥɨɫɱɚɬɨɫɬɶ\ ɪɭɞ) (often bedding) in the enclosing
rocks (ɜɦɟɳɚɸɳɢɟ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ). Discordant orebodies can be subdivided into
those orebodies which have an approximately regular shape and those which
are thoroughly irregular in their outlines.

The text is divided into 3 parts. Complete the after-reading tasks after each
part.
Part 1 Discordant orebodies
Regularly shaped bodies
A. Tabular (ɩɥɚɫɬɨɜɵɣ) orebodies
These bodies are extensive in two dimensions, but have a restricted
development in their third dimension. In this class there are veins (ɩɪɨɠɢɥɨɤ
\ ɠɢɥɚ – ɬɪɟɳɢɧɚ) (fissure-veins) and lodes (ɪɭɞɧɚɹ ɠɢɥɚ). Veins were
considered to have resulted mainly from the infilling of pre-existing open
spaces (ɨɬɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ ɜ ɩɭɫɬɨɬɚɯ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ), whilst the formation of lodes was
held to involve the extensive replacement (ɡɚɦɟɳɟɧɢɟ \ ɦɟɬɚɫɨɦɚɬɨɡ) of
pre-existing host rock (ɜɦɟɳɚɸɳɢɟ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ \ ɨɫɧɨɜɧɚɹ ɝɨɪɧɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ)
(Figure 1).
Fig. 1. Vein occupying a normal fault and exhibiting pinch-and –swell structure, giving
rise to ribbon ore shoots.
In some deposits hundreds of thin (< 2mm thick), parallel veins occur in
densities > 30 veins per meter; these are known as sheeted veins (ɜ ɜɢɞɟ
ɩɥɚɫɬɨɜ) and they probably form the most common type of primary tin
deposit in the world, but they are generally high tonnage
(ɩɪɨɢɡɜɨɞɢɬɟɥɶɧɨɫɬɶ ɜ ɬɨɧɧɚɯ)-low grade (ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɟ ɪɭɞɵ)
resources. The infilling (ɧɚɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɟ) of veins may consist of one mineral

but more usually it consists of an intergrowth (ɫɪɚɫɬɚɧɢɟ) of ore and gangue
minerals (ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ).
B. Tubular (ɬɪɭɛɱɚɬɵɣ) orebodies
These bodies are relatively short in two dimensions but extensive in the third.
When vertical or subvertical they are called pipes (chimneys) (ɭɞɥɢɧɟɧɧɨɟ
ɪɭɞɧɨɟ ɬɟɥɨ); when horizontal or subhorizontal – mantos (ɩɥɚɳɟɨɛɪɚɡɧɨɟ
ɪɭɞɧɨɟ ɬɟɥɨ). Most have quartz fillings (= infilling) and some are
mineralized with bismuth, molybdenum, tungsten and tin (Figure 2). Pipes
may be of various types and origins, but many are formed by the partial
dissolution (ɜɵɳɟɥɚɱɢɜɚɧɢɟ) of the host rock. Infillings of mineralized
breccia are particularly common.
Fig. 2. Diagram of the Vulcan tin pipe, Herberton, Queensl)and. The average grade
was 4.5% tin (after Mason, 1953)

Irregularly shaped bodies
C. Disseminated (ɜɤɪɚɩɥɟɧɧɨɟ) deposits
In these deposits, ore minerals are peppered (ɦɟɥɤɨɪɚɡɞɪɨɛɥɟɧɧɵɣ)

throughout the body of the host rock in the same way as accessory minerals
(ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ-ɫɩɭɬɧɢɤ) are disseminated through an igneous rocks. A good
example is diamonds in kimberlites; some orthomagmatic in nickel-copper
deposits. In some deposits, the disseminations ( ɜɤɥɸɱɟɧɢɟ \ ɜɤɪɚɩɥɟɧɢɟ)
may be wholly or mainly along closed-spaced veinlets (ɩɪɨɠɢɥɨɤ) cutting
the host rock and forming an interlacing network called a stockwork or the
economic minerals may be disseminated through the host rock and along
veinlets. They are irregular in form and may cut across geological
boundaries. The overall shapes of some are cylindrical and others are caplike.
Stockworks occur most commonly in acid to intermediate plutonic igneous
intrusions, but they may cut across the contact into the country rocks
(ɛɨɤɨɜɚɹ ɜɦɟɳɚɸɳɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ \ ɤɨɪɟɧɧɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ). Disseminated deposits
produce most of the world’s copper and molybdenum and they are also of
some importance in the production of tin, gold, silver, mercury and uranium.
D. Irregular replacement deposits
Many ore deposits have been formed by the replacement of preexisting

rocks at low to medium temperatures (< 400°C), e.g. magnesite deposits in
carbonate-rich sediments, pyrophyllite orebodies in altered pyroclastics and
siderite deposits in limestones. The orebodies are characterized by the
development of calc-silicate minerals such as diopside, wollastonite,
andradite garnet and actinolite. These deposits are extremely irregular in
shape (Figure 3); tongues (ɛɵɫɬɪɨ ɜɵɤɥɢɧɢɜɚɸɳɢɣɫɹ ɩɥɚɫɬ) of ore may
project along any available planar structure (ɩɥɨɫɤɨɫɬɧɚɹ ɬɟɤɫɬɭɪɚ)—
bedding, joints, faults, etc. and the distribution within the contact aureole
(ɤɨɧɬɚɤɬɨɜɚɹ ɡɨɧɚ) is often apparently.

Fig. 3. Skarn deposit at Iron Springs, Utah (after Gilluly et al. 1959)
The principal materials produced from skarn deposits are: iron, copper,
tungsten, graphite, zinc, lead, molybdenum, tin, uranium, garnet, talc and
wollastonite.
(adapted from Anthony M. Evans(1993) Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals – An
Introduction)
III. Focus tasks (1)

1. Match the Russian equivalent to the English term.
1. banding a. ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
2. lode b. ɤɨɧɬɚɤɬɨɜɚɹ ɡɨɧɚ
3. open-space c. ɫɪɚɫɬɚɧɢɟ
4. grade d. ɪɭɞɧɚɹ ɠɢɥɚ
5. gangue mineral e. ɧɚɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɟ
6. accessory mineral f. ɩɥɚɫɬɨɜɵɣ
7. aureole g. ɩɨɥɨɫɱɚɬɨɫɬɶ
8. tabular h. ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɟ ɪɭɞɵ
9. infilling i. ɨɬɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ ɜ ɩɭɫɬɨɬɚɯ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ
10. intergrowth j. ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ-ɫɩɭɬɧɢɤ

2. Form nouns from the following verbs and find the sentences in the text
with these new words.
verb \ noun -ment -tion (-ation\ -ant -age
-sion)
replace
dissolve
disseminate
ton
discord
concord
form
3. Text »Part 1» is divided into 4 sections which have been labeled A-D.
Below there is a list of sentences that summarize the information in each of
these sections. Match each of the sentences with the appropriate letter.
There may be one or more answers.
1. Veins can be found in deposits of different depths.
2. The infillings of veins may be different.
3. Two main processes are involved in the formation of veins and lodes.
4. The Russian term «ɜɦɟɳɚɸɳɢɟ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ» has different English
translation.
5. The principal materials produced in the deposits.
6. Examples of deposits are given.
7. The dimensions influence the shape of the orebodies.
Part 2 Concordant orebodies

Sedimentary host rocks
Concordant orebodies in sediments are very important producers of many
different metals, being particularly important for base metals and iron.
Usually these orebodies show a considerable development in two dimensions,
i.e. parallel to the bedding (Figure 5) and in a limited development
perpendicular to it (Figure 6) and these deposits are referred to as stratiform
(ɫɥɨɟɨɛɪɚɡɧɵɣ \ ɫɥɨɣɫɬɵɣ).

Fig. 4. Vertical section through the G zone at Silvermines, Co. Tipperary, Ireland.
The orebodies are shown in black (after Taylor & Andrew 1978)
Fig. 5. Cross section through the Mufulira orebodies, Zambia (after Fleischer et al 1976)

Limestone host
Limestones are very common host rocks for base metal sulphide deposits.
Ore is often developed in a small number of preferred beds or at certain
sedimentary interfaces (ɩɪɨɦɟɠɬɨɱɧɚɹ ɩɨɜɟɪɯɧɨɫɬɶ). These are often zones
in which the permeability has been increased by dolomitization or fracturing.
Argillaceous hosts
Shales (ɫɥɚɧɟɰ), mudstones (ɚɪɝɢɥɥɢɬ \ ɝɥɢɧɢɫɬɵɣ ɫɥɚɧɟɰ), argillites
(ɝɥɢɫɬɧɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ \ ɚɪɝɢɥɥɢɬ) and slates (ɚɫɩɢɞɧɵɣ ɫɥɚɧɟɰ) are important
host rocks for concordant orebodies. This deposit appears to be syngenetic,
and the lead, zinc and other metal sulphides form an integral part of the rocks
in which they occur. They are affected by sedimentary deformation. The
orebody occurs in a single generally conformable zone (ɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɨ
ɡɚɥɟɝɚɸɳɚɹ ɡɨɧɚ) between 60 and 90 m thick and runs 6.6% lead and 5.9%
zinc. Other metals recovered are silver, tin, cadmium, antimony, bismuth,
copper and gold. The footwall rocks consist of graded impure quartzites and
argillites and, in places, conglomerate. The hanging wall rocks are more
thickly bedded and arenaceous. The ore zone is a mineralized argillite in
which the principal sulphide-oxide minerals are pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena,
pyrite and magnetite, with minor chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and cassiterite.
Arenaceous hosts
Chalcopyrite is the principal sulphide mineral, sometimes being accompanied
by significant amounts of bornite. The ore zone consists of feldspathic
sandstone. The basal portion is coarse-grained and characterized by festoon
cross-bedding (ɝɨɪɢɡɨɧɬɚɥɶɧɚɹ ɫɥɨɢɫɬɨɫɬɶ) in which bornite is
concentrated along the cross-bedding together with well rounded, obviously
detrital zircon; whilst in other parts of the orebody, concentrations of
sulphides occur in the hollows of ripplemarks and in desiccation (ɭɫɥɵɯɚɧɢɟ
\ ɨɛɟɡɜɨɠɢɜɚɧɢɟ) cracks. These features suggest that some of the sulphides
are detrital (ɨɫɬɚɬɨɱɧɵɣ \ ɨɛɥɨɦɨɱɧɵɣ) in origin. Mineralization ends
abruptly at the hanging wall, suggesting a regression (ɨɬɫɭɬɩɥɟɧɢɟ) and at
this sharp cut-off (ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɚɪɠɚɧɢɟ) the fades changes from an
arenaceous one to dolomites and shallow water muds.
Copper is not the only base metal that occurs in such deposits. Similar are
lead ores and silver deposits. Another important class of pore-filling deposits
is the uranium-vanadium deposits which occur mainly in sandstones of
continental origin but also in some siltstones and conglomerates. The
orebodies are very variable in form, and pods (ɭɞɥɢɧɟɧɧɚɹ ɥɢɧɡɚ) and

irregularly shaped deposits occur, although large concordant sheets up to 3 m
thick are also present.
Rudaceos hosts
Alluvial gravels and conglomerates also form important recent and ancient
placer deposits (ɡɨɥɨɬɨɣ ɩɪɢɢɫɤ \ ɪɨɫɫɵɩɶ). Alluvial gold deposits are often
marked by 'white runs' of vein quartz pebbles. Figure 7 shows the
distribution of the gold orebodies in the East Rand Basin where the vein
quartz pebble conglomerates occur in quartzites of the Upper Witwatersrand
System. Their fan-shaped distribution strongly suggests that they occupy
distributary channels (ɩɪɨɬɨɤ). Uranium is recovered as a by-product
(ɩɨɛɨɱɧɵɣ ɩɪɨɞɭɤɬ) of the working of the Witwatersrand goldfields.
Fig. 6. Distribution of pay-streaks (gold orebodies) in the Main Leader Reef of the East
Rand Basin of the Witwatersrand Goldficld of South Africa. The arrows indicate the
direction of dip at the outcrop or suboutcrop.
Introduction)

1. Give the English equivalents to the following Russian words.
1. Concordant orebodies have a limited development and these deposits are
referred to as (ɫɥɨɟɨɛɪɚɡɧɵɣ \ ɫɥɨɣɫɬɵɣ).
2. Ore is often developed at certain sedimentary (ɩɪɨɦɟɠɬɨɱɧɚɹ
ɩɨɜɟɪɯɧɨɫɬɶ).
3. Shales, (ɚɪɝɢɥɥɢɬ \ ɝɥɢɧɢɫɬɵɣ ɫɥɚɧɟɰ), argillites and (ɚɫɩɢɞɧɵɣ ɫɥɚɧɟɰ)
are important host rocks for concordant orebodies.
4. The basal portion is coarse-grained and characterized by festoon
(ɝɨɪɢɡɨɧɬɚɥɶɧɚɹ ɫɥɨɢɫɬɨɫɬɶ) in which bornite is concentrated along the
cross-bedding.
5. These features suggest that some of the sulphides are (ɨɫɬɚɬɨɱɧɵɣ \
ɨɛɥɨɦɨɱɧɵɣ) in origin.
6. The orebodies are very variable in form,and (ɭɞɥɢɧɟɧɧɚɹ ɥɢɧɡɚ) and
irregularly shaped deposits occur.
7. Alluvial gravels and conglomerates also form important recent and ancient
(ɡɨɥɨɬɨɣ ɩɪɢɢɫɤ \ ɪɨɫɫɵɩɶ).
8. Uranium is recovered as a (ɩɨɛɨɱɧɵɣ ɩɪɨɞɭɤɬ) of the working of the
Witwatersrand goldfields.
2. Re-read Part 2 and find references to the following phrases.
Example: orebodies show development= in two dimensions
a. Concordant orebodies in sediments=\
b. Limestones are common host rocks =
c. Metal sulphides form=
d. Basal portion=
e. Concentrations of sulphides occur =
f. Important class of pore-filling depsoits =
g. Alluvial gold deposits =
h. Uranium is recovered =

Part 3 Concordant orebodies
Igneous host rocks
Volcanic hosts
There are two principal types of deposit to be found in volcanic rocks,
vesicular (ɤɚɜɟɪɧɨɡɧɵɣ) filling deposits and volcanic-associated
(ɜɭɥɤɚɧɨɝɟɧɧɵɣ) massive sulphide deposits. The first deposit type is not
very important but the second type is a widespread and important producer of
base metals often with silver and gold as by-products. The first type forms in
the permeable vesicular tops of basic lava (ɛɚɡɢɬɨɜɵɣ) flows in which
permeability may have been increased by autobrecciation(ɫɚɦɨɨɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɧɢɟ
ɛɪɟɱɢɢ). Volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits often consist of over
90% iron sulphide usually as pyrite. They are generally stratiform bodies,
lenticular to sheet-like (Figure 8), developed at the interfaces between
volcanic units or at volcanic- sedimentary interfaces.
Fig. 7. Schematic cross section through an idealized volcanic – associated massive

sulphide deposit showing the underlying feeder stockwork and typical mineralogy.
Py = pyrite, sp = sphalerit, ga = galena, cp = chalcopyrite
They can be divided into three classes of deposit: (a) zinc-lead-copper, (b)
zinc-copper, and (c) copper. The most important host rock is rhyolite, and
lead-bearing ores are normally only associated with this rock-type. The
copper class is usually, but not invariably, associated with mafic volcanics.

Plutonic hosts
Many plutonic igneous intrusions possess rhythmic layering and this is
particularly well developed in some basic intrusions. Usually the layering takes
the form of alternating bands of mafic and felsic minerals, but sometimes
minerals of economic interest, such as chromite, magnetite and ilmenitel may
form discrete mineable seams within such layered complexes. Another form
of orthomagmatic deposit is the nickel-copper sulphide orebody formed by the
sinking of an immiscible (ɧɟɫɦɟɳɢɜɚɟɦɵɣ) sulphide liquid to the bottom of a
magma chamber containing ultrabasic or basic magma.
The sulphide usually accumulates in hollows (ɩɭɫɬɨɬɚ) in the base of the
igneous body and generally forms sheets or irregular lenses conformable with
the overlying silicate rock. From the base upwards, massive sulphide gives
way through disseminated sulphides in a silicate gangue to lightly mineralize
and then barren rock (ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ).
Metamorphic host rocks
These deposits generated in contact metamorphic aureoles, e.g. of
wollastonite, andalusite, garnet and graphite, metamorphic rocks are mainly
important for the metamorphosed equivalents of deposits that originated in
sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Residual deposits
These are deposits formed by the removal of non-ore material from protore
(ɨɪɭɞɟɧɟɥɨɫɬɶ). For example, the leaching (ɜɵɳɟɥɚɱɢɜɚɧɢɟ) of silica and
alkalis from a nepheline-syenite may leave behind a surface capping (ɩɭɫɬɵɟ
ɩɨɪɨɞɵ ɧɚɧɨɫɵ ɩɨɤɪɵɜɚɸɳɢɟ ɪɭɞɭ) of hydrous aluminium oxides (bauxite).
Some residual bauxite occurs at the present surface, others have been buried
under younger sediments to which they form conformable basal beds.
Supergene enrichment
This is a process which may affect most orebodies to some degree. After a
deposit has been formed, uplift and erosion may bring it within reach of
circulating ground waters, which may leach some of the metals out of that
section of the orebody above the water table. These dissolved metals may be
redeposited in that part of the orebody lying beneath the water table and this
can lead to a considerable enrichment in metal values.
Introduction)

1. Match the synonyms in column A to the one in column B.
1. secondary product a. country rock

2. porous b. void
3. surface boundary c. halo
4. host rock d. by-product
5. layering e. washing out
6. hollow f. banding
7. aureole g. vesicular
8. barren rock h. capping
9. leaching i. interface
2. Look at the following questions. As you read «Part 3», underline the
words or phrases which answer these questions.
1. What are the principal types of deposits found in volcanic rocks?

2. Which type is an important producer of metals?
3. Where does the first type form?
4. What is the % - content of volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits?
5. What are the classes of volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits?
6. What are plutonic igneous intrusions like?
7. What is a form of orthomagmatic deposit?
8. Where does sulphide usually accumulate?
9. Where do metamorphic host deposits generate?
10. How do residual deposits form?
11. What process may affect many orebodies?
12. What is supergene enrichment?

IV. Terminology development
1. Look through the text and find the Russian equivalents to the following
terms. Give an explanation to each term.
1.enclosing rock
2. tabular
3.host rock
4. lode
5. gangue mineral
6. pipe
7. dissemination
8.accessory mineral
9. country rock
10.aureole
11.interface
12. placer deposit
13. barren rock
14. protore
15. capping
16. manto
17. infilling
18. dissolution
19. replacement
20. leaching
2. A list of ores (metals) is given in column A. State in what type of ore

deposit can this or that ore (metal) be found (in column B). The first
example is done for you.
For example: copper can be found in disseminated deposits

Ore (metal) Ore deposit type
copper disseminated deposits
molybdenum
tin
gold
silver
mercury
uranium
iron
tungsten
zinc
lead
nickel
V. Reading focus
1. Complete the following summaries by referring to the text. Use a term or
phrase from the text.
A. Orebodies are classified in the same way as _____________
___________. _________orebodies can be subdivided into those orebodies
which have an approximately __________ shape and those which are
__________ in their outlines.
B. Tabular bodies include ________ and _________. Veins resulted mainly
from the infilling of pre-existing __________, whilst the formation of lodes
involved extensive___________ of pre-existing ______ ________.
_________ orebodies are vertical or subvertical and horizontal or
subhorizontal. The first are called __________(or ________), while the
second are _____________. Pipes may be of various types and origins, but
many are formed by the partial ___________of the host rock.
C. _________deposits are irregular in shape and may cut acroos geological
boundaries. The shape of such deposits is either ____________ or
___________. These deposits produce most of the world’s ________ and
molybdenum and they are also of some importance in the production of tin,
________, ________, mercury and __________. Many ore deposits have
been formed by the __________ of preexisting rocks at low to medium
temperatures

D. ____________ orebodies in sediments are very important producers of
many different metals, especially base metals and iron. These orebodies
include such host rocks as ______________, ___________, ___________,
and _________.The base metals in such deposits are not only copper, but also
silver and ________ deposits.
E. There are two principal types of deposit to be found in volcanic rocks,
_______ filling deposits and __________ massive sulphide deposits. They
can be divided into three classes of deposit: (a) ____________, (b) zinc-
copper, and (c) copper.
F. _________deposits are formed by the removal of non-ore material from
________. For example, the ___________- of silica and alkalis from a
nepheline-syenite may leave behind a surface ________ of hydrous
aluminium oxides
G. ______________is a process which may affect most orebodies to some
degree. After a deposit has been formed, _________ and __________ may
bring it within reach of circulating ground waters. This may _________-some
of the metals out of that section of the orebody above the water table. This
can lead to a considerable enrichment in metal values.
2. Look at the following statements and the list of orebody deposits. Match
each statement with the corresponding deposit.
1. Pipes can be of various types and origins.
2. The most common type of tin deposits occur in sheeted veins.
3. The major metals found in skarn deposiots are iron, graphite, talc and
uranium.
4. Concordant orebodies in sediments are very important producers of many
different metals.
5. The infilling of veins consists of an intergrowth of ore and gangue
minerals.
6. Copper is not the only base metal that occurs in such deposits.
7. These deposits can be referred to as stratiform.
8. Uranium is a by-product in Witwatersrand goldfields.
9. An example of this deposit can be diamonds in kimberlites or
orthomagmatic in nickel-copper deposits.
10. Theses deposits are extremely irregular in shape, such as tongues.
11. The following host rocks- shales, argillites, slates- are important in the
formation of concordant orebodies.

12. Volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits are a widespread and
important producer of base metals often with silver and gold as byproducts.
13. Wollastonite, andalusite, garnet and graphite are generated in contact
metamorphic aureoles
14. Volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits often consist of over 90%
iron sulphide usually as pyrite.
15. Ore is often developed at certain sedimentary interfaces.
16. Alluvial gravels and conglomerates are today’s placer deposits.
17. Nickel-copper sulphide orebody can be found in orthomagmatic deposits.
18. Dissolved metals redeposited in another part of the orebody can lead to a
considerable enrichment in metal values.
19. Discordant orebodies can be subdivided into those orebodies of regular
shape and those with irregular shape in their outlines.
20. Deposits are formed by the removal of non-ore material from protore.
Orebody deposits
A. Tabular orebodies F.Argillaceous host rocks
B.Tubular orebodies G.Arenaceous host rocks
C.Disseminated deposits H.Rudaceous host rocks
D.Irregular replacement deposits I. Volcanic host rocks
E. Sedimentary host rocks J. Residual deposits
K. Supergene enrichment
3. This task will help you to have a more detailed understanding of the text.
Look through the text again and complete the following table with all
necessary information.
Sub-type Host rocks Formation Deposit types

4. Answer the following questions below. Choose no more than three words
from the text for each answer.
1. What is the classification of orebodies?
2. What is the subdivision of discordant orebodies?
3. What are the characteristic features of tabular orebodies?
4. What is the difference between veins and lodes?
5. How were veins and lodes formed?
6. Why are lodes called veins?
7. What are sheeted veins? Give an example.
8. What is the infilling of veins?
9. What is the difference between tabular and tubular orebodies?
10. What are disseminated deposits?
11. Where do stockworks occur?
12. What are examples of disseminated deposits?
13. When do replacement processes occur?
14. What is the characertistic feature of a deposit formed by replacement?
15. Why are these deposits irregular in shape?
16. What is another term for pyrometasomatic deposits?
17. What are the principal materials produced from skarn deposits?
18. What are flats?
VI. Extended writing

Listen to a series of talks on ore deposits by Andrew Jackson, a geologist in
Global Resource Investments. He is responsible for technical evaluations
for mining companies and properties in global investments. Andrew
Jackson put together one and one series of talks on ore deposits to help
non-technical people for understanding what are ore deposits, how they are
formed, how they are explored, how they are evaluated and how metals are
extracted from the ores.
1. Lecture Ore Deposts 101 - » Introduction» Part 1.
x Take notes.
x Answer the questions.These questions will help you to understand the
lecturer.
x Word list to understand the lecture more clearly.
x Write an essay, using your notes, (200-300 words).
1. What is the distance from the Earth’s surface to the center of the Earth?
2. What are such diagrams based on?

3. Based on indirect evidence, what are the three main layers?
4. Why does the crust “float” on the mantle?
5. Wheredoes man obtain all the minerals from?
6. Which of the three layers is poorest in metals?
7. What is the crustal abundanceof some metals- copper, gold?
8. What was more important in the Soviet period- cost or amount?
9. What concentration is needed to make an economic deposit?
10. Why do most metals have to be produced less so as to be sold?
11. What factors influence the economic metal concentration? (give
examples)
12. How much upgrading \ crustal averaging does nature have to do in oreder
to produce a material that we might be able to economically mine?
Word list
Here are the key words that will help you to understand the lecture, to be
more concise in note-taking.
formation float crustal rock
contributing variables solid economic metal
cross-section molten continuity of
mineralization
indirect measurements nickel-iron crustal average
mantlc flow capacity concentrating
mechanism
crust partial melt rare ore metals
core (outer \ inner) sustain upgrading
metal poor crustal abundance
VII. Discussion
1. The texts in this unit contain 7 figures. You can understand a great deal
by carefully studying graphs, diagrams, illustrations and tables. Such
figures are intended to summarize the contents of what you are reading. By
paying attention to these visual aids, you often get a much clearer
understanding of the text.
1. Study the following figures: 1(pg.22); 2 (pg. 23); 3 (pg. 24); 4 (pg.
26); 5 (pg. 27); 6 (pg. 29); 7 (pg. 31).
2. Read through the text in order to locate the sections that refer
specifically to this figure;
3. Describe the figure using information from the text.

VIII. Assignment task
internship)
Step III Referencing systems
You have a list of bibliographical information (resources, websites, and
journals). The important thing to the referencing should be COMPLETE,
ACCURATE and CONSISTENT.Pay careful attention to the referencing
systems used in the books and journals you are reading
(SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.135\ 139)
Step IV Writing introduction (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.140.)

Write an introduction according to the following plan:
x Background (This report has been written because….; It was requested
by….; )
x Objectives (The objectives of this report are to….)
x Scope (This report examines…)
TERMINOLOGY
discordant ɧɟɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɨ ɡɚɥɟɝɚɸɳɢɣ \ ɧɟɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɚɹ
ɢɧɬɪɭɡɢɹ)
concordant ɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɨ ɧɚɩɥɚɫɬɨɜɚɧɧɵɣ
banding ɩɨɥɨɫɱɚɬɨɫɬɶ\ ɪɭɞ
enclosing rocks ɜɦɟɳɚɸɳɢɟ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ
tabular ɩɥɚɫɬɨɜɵɣ
dimension ɢɡɦɟɪɟɧɢɟ
vein ɩɪɨɠɢɥɨɤ \ ɠɢɥɚ – ɬɪɟɳɢɧɚ
lode ɪɭɞɧɚɹ ɠɢɥɚ
Infilling (filling) ɧɚɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɟ
open spaces ɨɬɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ ɜ ɩɭɫɬɨɬɚɯ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ
replacement ɡɚɦɟɳɟɧɢɟ \ ɦɟɬɚɫɨɦɚɬɨɡ)
host rock ɜɦɟɳɚɸɳɢɟ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ \ ɨɫɧɨɜɧɚɹ ɝɨɪɧɚɹ
ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
sheeted vein ɩɪɨɠɢɥɨɤ ɜ ɜɢɞɟ ɩɥɚɫɬɨɜ
tonnage ɩɪɨɢɡɜɨɞɢɬɟɥɶɧɨɫɬɶ ɜ ɬɨɧɧɚɯ
grade ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɟ ɪɭɞɵ
intergrowth ɫɪɚɫɬɚɧɢɟ
gangue minerals ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
tubular ɬɪɭɛɱɚɬɵɣ

pipes (chimneys) ɭɞɥɢɧɟɧɧɨɟ ɪɭɞɧɨɟ ɬɟɥɨ
mantos ɩɥɚɳɟɨɛɪɚɡɧɨɟ ɪɭɞɧɨɟ ɬɟɥɨ
dissolution ɜɵɳɟɥɚɱɢɜɚɧɢɟ
disseminated ɜɤɪɚɩɥɟɧɧɨɟ
peppered ɦɟɥɤɨɪɚɡɞɪɨɛɥɟɧɧɵɣ
accessory minerals ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ-ɫɩɭɬɧɢɤ
dissemination ɜɤɥɸɱɟɧɢɟ \ ɜɤɪɚɩɥɟɧɢɟ
veinlets ɩɪɨɠɢɥɨɤ
country rocks ɛɨɤɨɜɚɹ ɜɦɟɳɚɸɳɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ \ ɤɨɪɟɧɧɚɹ
ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
replacement ɡɚɦɟɳɟɧɢɟ
tongues ɛɵɫɬɪɨ ɜɵɤɥɢɧɢɜɚɸɳɢɣɫɹ ɩɥɚɫɬ
planar structure ɩɥɨɫɤɨɫɬɧɚɹ ɬɟɤɫɬɭɪɚ
contact aureole ɤɨɧɬɚɤɬɨɜɚɹ ɡɨɧɚ
termination ɨɤɨɧɱɚɧɢɟ \ ɩɪɟɤɪɚɳɟɧɢɟ
flats ɝɨɪɢɡɨɧɬɚɥɶɧɨ ɡɚɥɟɝɚɸɳɢɣ ɩɥɚɫɬ;
ɩɨɥɨɝɚɹ ɡɚɥɟɠɶ
impervious cover ɧɟɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɟɦɵɣ \ ɩɨɤɪɵɜɚɸɳɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
stratiform ɫɥɨɟɨɛɪɚɡɧɵɣ \ ɫɥɨɣɫɬɵɣ
interface ɩɪɨɦɟɠɬɨɱɧɚɹ ɩɨɜɟɪɯɧɨɫɬɶ
conformable zone ɫɨɝɥɚɫɧɨ ɡɚɥɟɝɚɸɳɚɹ ɡɨɧɚ
cross-bedding ɝɨɪɢɡɨɧɬɚɥɶɧɚɹ ɫɥɨɢɫɬɨɫɬɶ
desiccation ɭɫɥɵɯɚɧɢɟ \ ɨɛɟɡɜɨɠɢɜɚɧɢɟ
detrital ɨɫɬɚɬɨɱɧɵɣ \ ɨɛɥɨɦɨɱɧɵɣ
regression ɨɬɫɭɬɩɥɟɧɢɟ
cut-off ɛɨɪɬɨɜɨɟ ɫɨɞɚɪɠɚɧɢɟ
pods ɭɞɥɢɧɟɧɧɚɹ ɥɢɧɡɚ
placer deposit ɡɨɥɨɬɨɣ ɩɪɢɢɫɤ \ ɪɨɫɫɵɩɶ
distributary channels ɩɪɨɬɨɤ
by-product ɩɨɛɨɱɧɵɣ ɩɪɨɞɭɤɬ
vesicular ɤɚɜɟɪɧɨɡɧɵɣ
volcanic-associated ɜɭɥɤɚɧɨɝɟɧɧɵɣ
autobrecciation ɫɚɦɨɨɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɛɪɟɱɢɢ
immiscible ɧɟɫɦɟɳɢɜɚɟɦɵɣ
hollows ɩɭɫɬɨɬɚ
barren rock ɩɭɫɬɚɹ ɩɨɪɨɞɚ
protore ɨɪɭɞɟɧɟɥɨɫɬɶ
leaching ɜɵɳɟɥɚɱɢɜɚɧɢɟ
capping ɩɭɫɬɵɟ ɩɨɪɨɞɵ ɧɚɧɨɫɵ ɩɨɤɪɵɜɚɸɳɢɟ
ɪɭɞɭ

UNIT 3
ORE GENESIS
I. Switch on
Examine the terminology diagram and focus on the key words.Ore deposit
types can be classified on the following basis.

1. The diagram below shows the basic requirements for ore formation.
Complete the following table, using information from Fig. 1.
Requirements Basic geological elements
source
transport
mechanism
preservation
depositional process
additional \ essential items

Fig. 1. The basic requirements for ore formation.. The degree of element concentration
during transport and deposition is a critical factor, but enriched sources can be important
for re ducing the required concentration factor and hence the required efficiency
and probability of ore formation.
2. Read the text «Basic Requirements for Ore Formation».What

information has not been considered? Look through the table in Ex.1 and
add missing information. Discuss your diagram with your groupmates.
Basic Requirements for Ore Formation
Ore deposits are crustal concentrations of useful elements that can be

exploited at a profit. Like all crustal rocks, they consist of minerals formed
by geological processes. There are four basic geological requirements for any
ore deposit to form (Fig.1):
i) a source for the ore components (metals and ligands);
ii) a mechanism that either transports these components to the ore deposit site
and allows the appropriate concentration or removes nonore components to
allow residual concentration;
iii) a depositional mechanism (trap) to fix the components in the orebody as
ore minerals and associated gangue;
iv) a process or geological setting that allows the ore deposit to be preserved.
Additional and essential requirements include energy (generally thermal,
gravitational or deformational) to power the transport mechanism and a
suitable crustal structure to focus ore-forming components and accommodate
their deposition. Metals are largely derived from the mantle or crust by
partial melting and fluid-related leaching. Ligands (ɥɢɝɚɧɞɵ) ɫan be

provided from the same sources, or from the atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere. Transport is mainly by mechanical or mass transfer mechanisms
and by fluids. On and near the surface, biological processes can also
concentrate and transport ore components or remove non-ore components.
Hydrothermal fluids are a major transport medium for many ore systems;
these fluids are essentially water, with lesser and variable amounts of CO2,
H2S, SO2, CH4, N2, NaCl and other salts, as well as dissolved metal
complexes. They are derived from a variety of sources, including i) water-
rich silicate melts, ii) circulated sea, connate and meteoric waters, iii)
formational, diagenetic and metamorphic fluids.
At upper crustal levels, the fluids are typically hotter than the rocks they
traverse and in which they deposit their ores; they have variable pH and Eh,
and they may be charged with a range of metal complexing agents including
Cl- and HS-. Deposition of ore minerals results from changes to
physiochemical parameters, including temperature, pressure, pH, redox
state and total concentration of ligands. These changes are associated with
such processes as addition of components by contamination, phase
separation, cooling across a temperature gradient, pressure decrease, fluid
mixing and reaction with host rocks. A large variety of geological processes
concentration of ore elements is best viewed as part of the geological (and
geochemical) cycle. The vast array of ore deposit types and their particular
elemental compositions result from the complex interplay of favourable com-
binations of source, transport and depositional variables. Although ore
formation is a common and intrinsic part of crustal evolution, large and super
large ore deposits require the coincidence of particularly favourable
combinations of processes and source parameters.
Introduction)
3. Additional and essential requirements help to understand the ore

formation process Sort them into the following requirement matrix.
REQUIREMENT MATRIX
Energy Fluids
Physico-chemical changes Various geological processes

4. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to Participle I and II;
Infinitve. (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.150)
1. Like all crustal rocks, they consist of minerals formed by geological

processes.
2.Additional and essential requirements include energy to power the transport
mechanism.
3.their variation in occurrence and the large number of minerals known in
nature, hydrothermal deposits a chemical consistency.
4. The solutions are considered to below temperature residual fluids left over
after pegmatite crystallization and containing the base metals …
5. This model derives not only the water, the metals and other elements from
a hot body of igneous rock, but also the heat to drive the mineralizing system.
6. Below these magmas crystallize to produce anhydrous mineral assemblage
7. The steam pressure will decrease until the mass outflow through (C) is
reduced to equal the mass inflow.
8. Contact and regional metamorphism producing industrial mineral
deposits…
9. Leaching from rocks of soluble elements to leave concentrations of
insoluble elements
Ore deposit types
Ore deposits can be classified on the basis of:

• Composition of the deposit (contained elements).
• Form of the deposit (size, shape, orientation and ore mineral distribution).
• Associated host rocks or geological structures (ore associations).
• Interpreted genesis of the deposit (processes, controls).
Geologists generally prefer genetic classification schemes that also
incorporate elements of composition, form and association. A simplified
genetic classification encompassing all ore deposit types is shown in Fig.2.
This scheme highlights the broad categories of ore-forming processes.

Fig. 2. A simplified genetic classification scheme for ore deposits showing
the major groups of ore-forming and modifying processes
Deposits can also be broadly subdivided into syngenetic (formed with the
enclosing rocks) and epigenetic (introduced into pre-existing rocks).
Examples of deposit types related to the major groups of ore-forming
processes are given in Table 1. Evans (1993) divides ore genesis into the
following main categories based on physical process.

Ore genesis processes (1)
Theory Nature of process Typical deposits

Origin due to internal processes
Magmatic Precipitation of ore minerals as major or minor Diamonds disseminated in kimberlites, REE
crystallization constituents of igneous rocks in the form of (rare earth elements) minerals in carbonates.
disseminated grains or segregations Lithium-tin-caesium pegmatities of Bikita,
(ɧɚɤɨɩɥɟɧɢɟ \ ɪɚɡɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɨɜ). Zimbabwe. Uranium pegmatities of
Bancroft, Canada and Rossing, Namibia.
Bulk material deposits of granite, basalt,
dunite, nepheline-syenite.

Magmatic Separation of ore minerals by fractional Chromite layers in the Great Dyke of
segregation crystallization and related processes during Zimbabwe and the Bushveld Complex, RSA
magmatic differentiation.
Liquation, liquid immiscibility. Settling out
from magmas of sulphide, sulphide-oxide or Copper-nickel orebodies of Sudbury,
oxide melts that accumulated beneath the Canada; Pechenga, USSR and the Yilgarn
silicates or were injected into wall rocks or in Block, Western Australia; Allard Lake
rare cases erupted on the surface. titanium deposits, Quebec, Canada
Hydrothermal Deposition from hot aqueous solutions, which Tin – tungsten – copper veins and
may have had a magmatic, metamorphic, stockworks of Cornwall, UK; molybdenum
surface or other source. stockworks of Climax, USA; porphyry
copper deposits of Panguna, PNG and
Bingham, USA; fluorspar veins of
Derbyshire, UK
Lateral Diffusion (ɞɢɮɮɭɡɢɹ; ɪɚɫɫɟɢɜɚɧɢɟ) of ore-and Yellowknife gold deposits, Canada; mother
secretion gangue-forming materials from the country Lode gold deposits, USA
rocks into faults and other structures.
Metamorphic Contact and regional metamorphism producing Andalusite deposits, Transvaal, RSA; garnet
processes industrial mineral deposits. deposits, NY, USA

Pyrometasomatic (skarn) deposits formed by Copper deposits ofMackay, USA and
replacement (ɡɚɦɟɧɚ \ ɡɚɦɟɳɟɧɢɟ) of wall Craigmont, Canada; magnetite bodies of
rocks adjacent to an intrusion. Iron Springs, USA; talc deposits, Luzenac,
France
Some gold veins and disseminated nickel

Initial or further concentration of ore elements
deposits in ultramafic bodies
by metamorphic processes, e.g. granitization,
alteration processes.
Origin due to surface processes
Mechanical Concentration of heavy, durable minerals ( ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ Rutile – zircon iron sands of New
accumulation ɫ ɬɪɭɞɨɦ ɩɨɞɞɚɸɳɢɣ ɪɚɡɪɭɲɟɧɢɸ \ ɫɬɨɣɤɢɣ South Wales, Auatralia and Trail
ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ) into placer deposits. Ridge, USA; tin placers of
Malaysia; gold placers of the
Yukon, Canada; industrial sands
and gravels; kaolin deposits,
Georgia, USA; bauxites of
Guyana
Sedimentary Precipitation (ɜɵɩɚɞɟɧɟ) of particular elements in Banded iron formations of the
precipitates suitable sedimentary environments, with or without Precambrian shields; manganese
the intervention (ɜɨɡɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟ) of biological deposits of Chiaturi, USSR;

organisms.” zechstein evaporate deposits of
Europe; floridan phosphate
deposits, USA
Residual Leaching from rocks of soluble elements leaving Nickel laterites of New
(ɨɫɬɚɬɨɱɧɵɣ) concentrations of insoluble elements in the remaining Caledonia; bauxites of Hungary,
processes material. France, Jamaica and Arkansas,
USA; kaolin deposits, Nigeria
Secondary or Leaching of valuable elements from the upper parts Many gold and silver
supergene enrichment of mineral deposits and their precipitation at depth to bonanzas; the upper parts of a
produce higher concentration. number of porphyry copper
deposits
Volcanic exhalative Exhalations (ɜɵɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ \ ɩɟɪɜɨɧɚɱɚɥɶɧɵɟ Base metal deposits of Meggan,
(= sedimentary ɷɦɚɧɚɰɢɢ \ ɝɚɡɚ ɢɡ ɦɚɝɦɚ) of hydrothermal solutions Germany; Sullivan, Canada;
exhalative) at the surface, usually under marine conditions and Mount Isa, Australia; Rio Tinto,
generally producing stratiform orebodies. Spain; Kuroko deposits of Japan ;
black smoker deposits of modern
oceans; mercury of Almaden,
Spain; solfatara deposits (kaolin +
alunite), Sicily
Table 1. Simple classification of the theories of mining deposit gen

1. Associate the terms describing the nature of processes to the theory of

ore formations.
Theory Nature of process Terms

Magmatic crystallization leaching (x2)
deposition
concentration (x3)
Magmatic segregation
segregation
marine conditions
Hydrothermal aqueous solution
precipitation (x3)
separation
Lateral secretion
disseminated grains
liquation
Metamorphic processes durable minerals
fractional crystallization
replacement
Mechanical
accumulation intervention
contact metamorphism
valuable elements
initial concentration
ore minerals

Sedimentary precipitates sediment environment
soluble ekements
regional metamorphism
exhalations
Residual processes magmatic differentiation
liquid immiscibility
further concentration
Secondary enrichment
gangue minerals
insoluble elements
Volcanic exhalative hydrothermal solutions
diffusion
2. Draw two diagrams to show the ore genesis: (a) due to internal
processes; (b) due to surface processes. Describe each of these two
processes, using the information from Table 1.
Ore genesis (2)
Origin due to internal processes
(1) Magmatic segregation ore deposits that have crystallized direct from
magma. Magmatic segregation deposits may consist of layers within or
beneath the rock mass (chromite layers, subjacent copper- nickel sulphide
ores).

(2) Hydrothermal processes
Hot aqueous solutions have played a part in the formation of many different
types of mineral and ore deposit, for example veins, stockworks of various
types, volcanic-exhalative deposits and others. Such fluids are usually called
hydrothermal solutions. Hydrothermal ore deposits are small compared with
most geological features – the largest are only a few km2 in volume. They
may appear to be random accidents with little or no control over the position
or geological environment in which they occur within the crust. Deposits can
be classified into families and individual family members occur more
frequently in some areas of the crust than others. Moreover, their variation in
occurrence and the large number of minerals known in nature, hydrothermal
deposits displays a chemical consistency that is best expressed by the limited
and repetitive ranges of minerals, mostly sulphides and oxides.
Sources of the solutions and their contents
Minerals and rocks suggest that there are five sources of subsurface
hydrothermal waters:
1. surface water, including water, commonly referred to as meteoric

water (ɚɬɦɨɫɮɟɪɧɚɹ ɜɨɞɚ) ;
2. ocean (sea) water;
3. formation and deeply penetrating meteoric water;
4. metamorphic water (ɦɟɬɚɦɨɪɮɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɜɨɞɚ);
5. magmatic water (ɜɵɞɟɥɢɜɲɚɹɫɹ ɢɡ ɦɚɝɦɵ ɩɪɢ ɟɟ ɨɯɥɚɠɞɟɧɢɹ).
Differences in source rocks and differences in leaching conditions will

produce different concentrations of economic metals in the reacting solutions.
Very scarce elements, such as tin, mercury and silver may require pre-
enrichment. Because of the spatial relationship (ɩɪɨɫɬɪɚɧɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɟ
ɫɨɨɬɧɨɲɟɧɢɟ) that exists between many hydrothermal deposits and igneous
rocks indicate that consolidating magmas are the source of many, if not all,
hydrothermal solutions. The solutions are considered to be low temperature
residual fluids left over after pegmatite crystallization and containing the base
metals and other incompatible (ɧɟɫɦɟɲɢɜɚɟɦɵɣ) elements. This model
derives not only the water, the metals and other elements from a hot body of

igneous rock, but also the heat to drive the mineralizing system. The
solutions are assumed to move upwards along fractures and other channel-
ways to cooler parts of the crust where deposition of mineral occurs. How
much water do magmas contain? Burnham (1979) estimated that water
concentrations in felsic magmas vary from 2.5 to 6.5 wt% with a medium
close to 3%. The same magma with 4% water will behave similarly at about
4.5km depth. Below these magmas crystallize to produce anhydrous mineral
assemblage (ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɶɧɵɣ ɫɨɫɬɚɜ)Whether any granite magma can produce
economic mineral deposits under favorable conditions, or whether the ability
to develop significantly rich mineralizing fluids is dependent on the source
region of magma.
(3) Geothermal systems
Part A
Geothermal systems form where a heat engine (usually magmatic) sets deep
ground waters in motion. These waters are usually meteoric in origin but in
some systems formation or other saline waters (ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɢɡɨɜɚɧɧɵɟ \
ɫɨɥɟɜɚɹ ɜɨɞɵ) may be present. Systems near the coast may be fed by sea
water or both sea water and meteoric water. Magmatic water may be added
by the heat engine (ɝɟɨɤɨɧɜɟɤɰɢɹ), and some ancient systems appear to
have been dominated by magmatic water in their early stages (porphyry
copper and molybdenum deposits). Dissolved constituents may be derived by
the circulating waters from a magmatic body at depth, or from the country
rocks which contain the system. These may be altered by the solutions to
mineral assemblages identical with those found in some wall rock alteration
zones associated with orebodies. The principal features of a geothermal
system are shown in Fig.3.

Fig. 3. Scheme showing some of the features of a geothermal system

Part B
Meteoric water sinking to several kilometers depth (A) enters a zone of high
heat flow, absorbs heat and rises into one or a succession of permeable zones
(BD). There may be outflow at an appreciable rate along a path such as (C) or
much slower outflow by permeation (ɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɧɢɟ) of the cap rock
(mudstone, tuff). Outflow (ɢɡɥɢɹɧɢɟ \ ɫɨɫɤɚɥɶɡɵɜɚɧɢɟ) through (C)
depends on the permeability of the rocks and the pressure at the top of the
zone (BD). If the outflow rate does not exceed that of the inflow
(ɩɪɢɬɟɤɚɧɢɟ) an all liquid system will prevail. With a higher outflow rate, a
steam phase will form in (BD) and the steam pressure will decrease until the
mass outflow through (C) is reduced to equal the mass inflow. A dynamic
balance then obtains with a lowered water level in the permeable horizon,
boiling water and the development of convection currents (ɩɨɞɤɨɪɨɜɨɟ
ɬɟɱɟɧɢɟ) in the water.
Fig. 3 b illustrates the structure of a geothermal system in a volcanic terrane.
Note that the hot waters are circulating through, reacting with and probably
obtaining dissolved constituents from both the magmatic intrusion and the
country rocks.
In Fig. 3 c \ d geothermal systems are postulated to explain vein tin and
copper mineralization in and adjacent to the Land/s End Granite in south-
west England.
In Fig. 3 e geothermal systems are invoked to explain some of the different
types of mineralization in south-west England and the zoning of metals that is
one of the well-known features of this orefield.
Introduction)
IV. Reading focus
1. Read the text «Hydrothermal processes» (Origin due to internal

processes) and discuss the following questions briefly (give possible
examples).
1. What solution is involved in the mineral and ore deposit formation?

2. Why are hydrothermal ore deposits small in dimension?
3. What minerals are consistent in hydrothermal deposits? Why?
4. There are five sources of solutions. Name and describe them.

5. What is the interrelation between source rocks and leaching conditions/
6. What is the basic source of hydrothermal solutions? Describe these
solutions.
7. How much water do magmas contain? (according to Burnham)
8. What does the source region of magma influence?
2. Read the text «Geothermal systems».PART A.Give evidence to the

following statements.
1. The role of a heat engine.
2. Ground waters may be of different origins.
3. The influence of magmatic water.
4. The formation of dissolved constituents.
3. The principal features of a geothermal system are shown in Fig. 3

(pg.57) Describe each feature using information from the text «Geothermal
systems» PART B.
V. Extended writing
x Take notes.
lecturer.
How does nature provide metal concentrations?
1. What are the steps in producing a metal concentration?
2. What is necessary to melt a rock?
3. What are the ways of melting rocks in nature?
4. What is subduction?
5. What is the biggest subduction zone?

6. What is significant about the zone “ring of fire”?
7. What are the two ways of thickening crust?
8. What is crustal loading?
9. How does crustal laoding happen? ( Give examples)
10. What is compressing the crust?
11. What is magma injection?
12. What other principle is similar to magma injection?
13. How does temperature affect the melting of minerals \rocks?
14. What is the first stage of metal concentration?
15. How does melting rise to the surface?
16. How can the melt rise to a solid rock?
17. What happens to magma as it rises?
18. What does magma contain?
19. Whay happens when magma rises?
20. What does separation change?
21. What happens to magma when pressure drops?
22. What are the phases in a magma chamber?
23. Do metals go through all these phases? (Give examples)
24. Describe the magma chamber.
25. When do metals accumulate?
26. What does concentrating of metals include?
27. What are the metal crystals?
28. Why do we need to dump and skim off these metal crystals in the
magma chamber?
29. Why is this process (dumping and skimming off) repeatable?
Word list
partial melt continental plate viscous
cooling process accumulate (v) surrounding rocks
melt thickening of crust volatiles
high pressure pile up (v) separation
subduction fault (thrust) crystallize(v)
compression eruption partition
injecting hot magma depositing remaining
withstand (v) continental shelf degass (v)
deflection currents magmag injection relieve (v)
underlying mantle melting point hydrothermal fluids

adjacent to contitiuents (s)
move apart restite
over-ride (v) be enriched (in)
shift (v) displace (v)
pass (v) shovel (v)
diverge (v) enclose (v)
converge (v) buoyancy
VI. Discussion:
1. Comment on the following: Why does the lecturer compare the
formation of ore deposits to drinking beer? (based on the lecture)
2. Read the text below Ore genesis (3) Part 2-. Origin due to surface
processes.
Ore genesis (3)
PART 2. Origin due to surface processes
Volcanic – exhalative (sedimentary – exhalative) processes - This is a
group of deposits often referred to as exhalites and including massive
sulphide ores. They frequently show a close spatial relationship to volcanic
rocks. They are conformable and frequently banded; and in the volcanic-
associated types the principal constituent is usually pyrite with varying
amounts of copper, lead, zinc and barite; precious metals together with other
minerals may be present. The ores with a volcanic affiliation
(ɩɪɢɧɚɞɥɟɠɧɨɫɬɶ) show a progression of types:
x Volcanic affiliation associated with basic volcanics, usually in the form

of ophiolites (Figure 4);
x Volcanic –associated massive sulphide (VMS) Figure 5.
3. Label Fig. 4 (Formation of chimneys) and Fig. 5 (volcanic- associated

massive sulphides), using the terms in the boxes below.

sea water hot fluids…..impermeable crust………..sulphides
anhydrite + some sulphide……collapsed chimney
anhydrite…….rising on fractures……porous less porous
seafloor rocks
sea water……black ore…..volcanic rocks…….stockwork ore
ferruginous chert exhalite…….yellow ore …….pyrite rich
basal section……Cu-poor solution…..Cu-rich solution
Sp+ga+py+bar…py+cp+qr…….
3000C…. -3500C…-2000C…..-2500C….-3500C - -4000C
Fig. 4. Formation of chimneys and sulphide mounds on the sea floor (after Barnes, 1998)

Fig. 5. Diagrams illustrate the first four stages during the formation of volcanic-associated
massive sulphide deposits as described in the text: bar – barite; cp – chalcopyrite;
ga-galena; py-pyrite; qz – quartz; sp - sphalerite

Introduction)
4. Discuss the two types of genesis origin due to surface processes. Use the
information from the diagrams above. State the differences and similarities
between these two types.
5. Ore genesis is based on the following physical processes - internal,

hydrothermal, metamorphic and surficial.
x Choose one process type and prepare a short presentationon.

x Now exchange information with the other students in your group.
x Be prepared to answer any questions. (Refer to the Power Point
Presentation Technical and Professional Communication p.69; PP
«Creating Effective Slides for Presentations» (Laura Grossenbacher))

internship)
Step V Writing the title page. (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.141)
Write a title page according to the following plan:
Title:
Submitted by:
Submitted to:
Date:
Department:
Year:
Institution:
Step VI.Contents page

Write a draft of your future contents page,
Contents Page
Section...........................................................................................Page Number
Introduction.......................................................................................................1
Literature Review..............................................................................................3
Methodology .....................................................................................................5
Findings.............................................................................................................7
Conclusions.(Recommendations) ...................................................................14
Appendices......................................................................................................15
Bibliography ...................................................................................................20
List of Figures ................................................................................................21
List of Tables ..................................................................................................22

TERMINOLOGY
convection currents ɩɨɞɤɨɪɨɜɨɟ ɬɟɱɟɧɢɟ

diffusion ɞɢɮɮɭɡɢɹ; ɪɚɫɫɟɢɜɚɧɢɟ
durable minerals ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ ɫ ɬɪɭɞɨɦ ɩɨɞɞɚɸɳɢɣ
ɪɚɡɪɭɲɟɧɢɸ \ ɫɬɨɣɤɢɣ ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥ
exhalations ɜɵɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ \ ɩɟɪɜɨɧɚɱɚɥɶɧɵɟ
ɷɦɚɧɚɰɢɢ \ ɝɚɡɚ ɢɡ ɦɚɝɦɚ
heat engine ɝɟɨɤɨɧɜɟɤɰɢɹ
incompatible ɧɟɫɦɟɲɢɜɚɟɦɵɣ
inflow ɩɪɢɬɟɤɚɧɢɟ
intervention ɜɨɡɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟ
ligands ɥɢɝɚɧɞɵ
liquation
magmatic water ɜɵɞɟɥɢɜɲɚɹɫɹ ɢɡ ɦɚɝɦɵ ɩɪɢ ɟɟ
ɨɯɥɚɠɞɟɧɢɹ
metamorphic water ɦɟɬɚɦɨɪɮɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɜɨɞɚ
meteoric water ɚɬɦɨɫɮɟɪɧɚɹ ɜɨɞɚ

mineral assemblage ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɶɧɵɣ ɫɨɫɬɚɜ
outflow ɢɡɥɢɹɧɢɟ \ ɫɨɫɤɚɥɶɡɵɜɚɧɢɟ
permeation ɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɧɢɟ
precipitation ɜɵɩɚɞɟɧɟ
replacement ɡɚɦɟɧɚ \ ɡɚɦɟɳɟɧɢɟ
saline waters ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɢɡɨɜɚɧɧɵɟ \ ɫɨɥɟɜɵɟ ɜɨɞɵ
segregation ɧɚɤɨɩɥɟɧɢɟ \ ɪɚɡɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ
ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɨɜ
spatial relationship ɩɪɨɫɬɪɚɧɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɟ ɫɨɨɬɧɨɲɟɧɢɟ

UNIT 4
TEXTURES OF ORE AND GANGUE MINERALS
I. Switch on

FLUID INCLUSIONS
Secondary Pseudosecondary
OPEN-SPACE FILLING

WALL ROCK ALTERATION

1. Match the terms (or phrases) to the explanations.
1. precipitation from silicate melts A. change showing spatial and

temporary relationship to ore deposits
2. precipitation from aqueous B.fluid in which crystals grow may
solutions be trapped in tiny cavities.
3.replacement C.cyrstallization of sulphides because
of lower melting points after
associated silicates
4. fluid inclusion D.open spaces are permeated by
mineralizing solutions
5. wall rock alteration E.one mineral dissolves, another
mineral settles in its place, without
disturbing the development of open
spaces and no change in volume
2. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the Gerund.

(SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.152)
1. If the prevailing physic- chemical conditions induce precipitation then
crystals will form.
2. Replacement is the dissolving of one mineral and the simultaneous
deposition of another mineral in its place without the intervening
development of appreciable open spaces
3. Nearly all ores, including those developed in open spaces show some
evidence of the occurrence of replacement processes.
4. Secondary replacement processes leading to sulphide enrichment by
downward percolating meteoric waters, are sometimes most dramatic and
fraught with economic importance.
5. They can be every bit as important as primary (hypogene) replacement
brought about by solutions emanating from crustal or deeper sources.
6. Halite-bearing inclusions, have salinities ranging up to more than 50%.
7. One common mode of formation is during the heating of fractures and this
leads to the development of planar arrays of numerous small inclusions.

8. Hypogene alteration is caused by ascending hydrothermal solutions and
supergene alteration by descending meteoric water reacting with previously
mineralized ground.
9. This alteration involves extreme leaching of bases (alkalis and calcium)
from all aluminous phases such as feldspars and mica.
10. The principal minerals are kaolin-montmorillonite group minerals
occurring mainly as alteration products of plagioclase.
ORE TEXTURES
The textures of orebodies vary according to whether their constituent

minerals were formed by deposition in an open space from a silicate or
aqueous solution, or by replacement or pre-existing rock or ore minerals.
Subsequent metamorphism may drastically alter primary textures.
1. Open space filling
Precipitation from silicate melts

The major factors are crystallization and the presence or absence of
simultaneously crystallizing silicates. Oxide ore minerals (chromite) often
crystallize out early and may form good euhedral (ɚɭɬɨɦɨɪɮɧɵɣ) crystals,
although these may be subsequently modified in various ways. Chromites
deposited with interstitial (ɜɧɭɬɪɢɩɨɪɨɜɨɣ) silicate liquid may suffer
corrosion and partial resorption (ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɟɧɢɟ) to produce atoll
(ɤɨɥɶɰɟɨɛɪɚɡɧɵɣ) textures and rounded grains. When oxide and silicate
minerals crystallize simultaneously, adhedral to subhedral
(ɝɢɩɢɞɢɨɦɨɪɮɧɵɣ) granular textures develop, owing to mutual interference
during the growth of the grains of all the minerals. Sulphides crystallize
(because of lower melting points) after associated silicates and may be
present as rounded grain aggregates representing frozen globules (ɲɚɪɢɤ) of
immiscible sulphide liquid or as anhedral grains (grain aggregates) which
have crystallized interstitially to the silicates and whose shapes are governed
by those of the enclosing silicate grains (Fig.1).

Fig. 1. Chromite grains in anorthosite.The chromites are euhedral crystals which have
undergone partial resorption, producing rounded grains of various shapes,
including atoll texture
Precipitation from aqueous solutions

Open spaces may be permeated by mineralizing solutions. If the prevailing
physic- chemical conditions induce precipitation then crystals will form.
These will grow as the result of spontaneous nucleation (ɫɩɭɲɟɧɢɟ ɜɨɞɹɧɵɯ
ɩɚɪɨɜ) within the solution or by nucleation on the enclosing surface. This
leads to the precipitation and outward growth of the first formed minerals on
vein walls. If the solutions change in composition, there may be a change in
mineralogy and crusts of minerals of different composition may give the vein
filling a banded appearance, called crustiform banding (Figure 2).Open space
deposition also occurs at the surface at sediment- water or rock-water
interfaces during the formation of volcanic- associated massive sulphide
deposits.

Fig. 2. Section across a vein showing crustiform banding
2. Replacement is the dissolving of one mineral and the simultaneous

deposition of another mineral in its place without the intervening
development of appreciable open spaces and commonly without a change of
volume. Replacement has been an important process in the formation of
many ore deposits, particularly the skarn class. This process involves not
only the minerals of the country rock, but also the ore and gangue minerals.
Nearly all ores, including those developed in open spaces show some
evidence of the occurrence of replacement processes. The most compelling
evidence of replacement is pseudomorphism. An overall view of ore deposits
suggests that there is no limit to the direction of metasomatism. Given the
right conditions, any mineral may replace any other mineral, although natural
processes often make for unilateral reactions. Secondary (supergene)
replacement processes leading to sulphide enrichment by downward
percolating (ɩɪɨɫɚɱɢɜɚɸɳɢɣɫɹ \ ɩɪɨɯɨɞɹɳɢɣ ɫɤɜɨɡɶ) meteoric waters, are
sometimes most dramatic and fraught with economic importance. They can
be every bit as important as primary (hypogene) replacement brought about
by solutions emanating from crustal or deeper sources.

3. Fluid inclusions
The growth of crystals is never perfect and as a result samples of the fluid in
which the crystals grew may be trapped in tiny cavities usually < 100ȝm in
size; these are called fluid inclusions (ɠɢɞɤɨɟ ɜɤɥɸɱɟɧɢɟ) Fluid inclusions
are divided into various types.
Primary inclusions are formed during the growth of crystals. They are
common in most rocks and mineral deposits. The principal matter in most
fluid inclusions is water. Second in abundance is carbon dioxide. The most
common minerals where inclusions are reported (Table 1).
1 Quartz 6 Dolomite
2 Fluorite 7 Sphalerite
3 Halite 8 Baryte
4 Calcite 9 Topaz
5 Apatite 10 Cassiterite
Table 1 top ten minerals from which fluid inclusions have been reported (Shepherd et al\
1985)
The commonest inclusions in ore deposits fall into four groups.

TYPE I (Fig.3). – moderate salinity inclusions, are generally two phase,
consisting principally of water vapour, which forms 10-40% of the inclusion
The presence of the bubble indicates trapping at an elevated temperature with
formation of the bubble at cooling. Sodium, potassium, calcium and chlorine
occur in solution and salinities range from 0 to 23wt % NaCl equivalent. In
some of these inclusions small amounts of daughter (ɞɨɱɟɪɧɵɣ) salts have
been precipitated during cooling, among them carbonates and anhydrite.
TYPE II (Fig.3). – gas-rich inclusions, generally contain more than 60%
vapour. Again they are dominantly aqueous but CO2 may be present in small
amounts. They often appear to represent trapped steam. The simultaneous
presence of gas-rich and gas-poor aqueous inclusions is good evidence that
the fluids were boiling at the time of trapping.
TYPE III (Fig.3). – halite-bearing inclusions, have salinities ranging up to
more than 50%. They contain well-formed cubic halite crystals and generally
several daughter minerals (for example, sylvite, anhydrite). Clearly, the more
numerous and varied the daughter minerals the more complex was the ore
fluid.
TYPE IV (Fig.3). - CO2 –rich inclusions, have CO2: H20 ratios ranging from
3 to over 30mol%.They grade into TYPE II inclusions and there is a general
gradation in many situations, e.g. porphyry copper deposits, between the
common types of fluid inclusion.

Fig. 3. Sketches of four important types of fluid inclusions. L = aqueous liquid;
V= vapour; LCO2
Secondary inclusions are those formed by any process after the crystallization
of the host mineral. One common mode of formation is during the heating of
fractures and this leads to the development of planar arrays of numerous
small inclusions. They are particularly common in porphyry copper deposits
because most of these have suffered repeated brecciation.
Pseudosecondary inclusions are frequently of a dominantly primary nature
but they also form a spectrum that overlaps both primary and secondary
inclusions.
4. Wall rock alteration

Frequently alongside veins or around irregularly shaped orebodies of
hydrothermal origin, alteration of the country rock can be found. This may
take the form of colour, textural, mineralogical or chemical changes, or any
combination of these. Alteration may vary from minor colour changes to
extensive mineralogical transformations and complete recrystallization. The
higher the temperature of deposition of the ore minerals the more intense is
the alteration (but not necessarily more widespread). This alteration which
shows spatial and usually a close temporary relationship to ore deposits are
called wall rock alteration. The areal extent of the alteration can vary from a

few centimeters on either side of a vein to forming a thick halo around an
orebody.
There are two main divisions of wall rock alteration: hypogene and
supergene. Hypogene alteration is caused by ascending hydrothermal
solutions and supergene alteration by descending meteoric water reacting
with previously mineralized ground. A third mechanism for the formation of
wall rock alteration is the metamorphism of sulphide orebodies.
Types of wall rock alteration
1. Advanced argillic alteration – characterized by dickite, kaolinite,
pyrophyllite and quartz. Sericite is usually present and frequently
alunite, pyrite, tourmaline, topaz and zunyite. This is one of the most
intense forms of alteration, often present as an inner zone adjoining
many base metal vein or pipe deposits associated with acid plutonic
stocks. This alteration involves extreme leaching of bases (alkalis and
calcium) from all aluminous phases such as feldspars and micas. The
generation of advanced argillic alteration (ɫɤɨɪɨɫɬɶ ɚɪɝɢɥɥɢɬɨɜɨɣ
ɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɢɹ) can be very important in developing the high permeability
necessary for the circulation of enormous quantities of hydrothermal
fluids and vein growth.
2. Sericitization -this is one of the most common types of alteration in
aluminium-rich rocks such as slates, granites. The dominant minerals
are sericite and quartz, pyrite often accompanying them. Muscovite is
stable over a wide pressure-temperature field and this account for its
common occurrence as an alteration mineral. If potassium is
introduced into the wall rocks then rocks low in this element, such as
diorites, can be sericitized. Wall rock alteration is progressive with
some minerals reacting and being altered more rapidly than others.
Sericitization (ɫɟɪɢɰɢɬɢɡɚɰɢɹ) may grade from into three types of
higher grade alteration and one of lower grade.
3. Intermediate argillic alteration – the principal minerals are kaolin-
montmorillonite group minerals occurring mainly as alteration
products of plagioclase.
4. Propylitic alteration – a complex alteration characterized by chlorite,
epidote, albite and carbonate (calcite, dolomite or ankerite).
5. Chloritization (ɯɥɨɪɢɪɨɜɚɧɢɟ) – chlorite may be present alone or with
quartz or tourmaline in very simple assemblages. Hydrothermal
chlorites often show a change in their Fe:Mg ratio with distance from
the orebody, usually being richer in iron adjacent to the sulphides.

6. Carbonization (ɫɚɬɭɪɚɰɢɹ) – dolomitization is a common
accompaniment of low to medium temperature ore deposition in
limestones, and dolomite is probably the commonest of the carbonates
formed by hydothermal activity.
7. Potassic alteration – secondary potash feldspar and \ or biotite are the
essential minerals in this alteration. Clay minerals are absent but minor
chlorite may be present. Anhydrite is often important especially in
porphyry copper deposits.
8. Silicification (ɨɤɜɚɪɰɟɜɜɚɧɢɟ)– this involves an increase in the
proportions of quartz or crypo-crystalline silica in the altered rock. The
silica may be introduced from the hydrothermal solutions.
9. Feldspathization (ɮɟɥɶɞɲɩɚɬɢɡɚɰɢɹ)– when potassium or sodium
metasomatism has produced new potash feldspar or albite
accompanied by the other alteration products characteristic of potassic
alteration.
10. Tourmalinization (ɬɭɪɦɚɥɢɧɢɡɚɰɢɹ) – is associated with medium to
high temperature deposits, e.g. many tin and some gold veins have a
strong development of tourmaline in the wall rocks and often in the
veins as well.
Introduction
1. .Complete the following summary (Fluid inclusions) using the list of

words.
Fluid inclusions are the result of (1)_________, being trapped in tiny
(2)_________. Fluid inclusions are divided into three major types
(3)_________, (4)___________, and (5)______________. Primary
inclusions are formed during the growth of (6)___________. The principle
matter is (7)__________, while the second matter is (8)_________
(9)_____________. Such minerals can be found in clusions- quartz,
(10)__________, calcite, (11)________, topaz and others.
The inclusions in ore deposits can be divided into four groups, depending on
the (12)_____________ content. Moderate (13) __________ inclusions
consist mainly of (14)__________ ___________. Gas-rich inclusions contain
more than (15)_________ ___________, which is mainly (16)___________.
The presence of gas-rich and (17)___________ aqueous inclusions indicate

that fluids were boiling at the time of (18)_________. Halite-bearing
inclusions have (19)__________ of more than (20)___________. Such
inclusions contain (21)__________crystals and several (22)___________
minerals. CO2 –rich inclusions include (23)_____:_______ ratio.
crystals primary
60% vapor water
matter dolomite
gas-poor salinity
halite daughter
cavities secondary
carbon dioxide aqueous
fluid CO2:H2O
salinities pseudosecondary
water vapor trapping
2. What ore minerals listed below are involved in the different types of wall
rock alteration?
1. advanced argillite alteration dolomite
2. sericitization limestone
3. intermediate argillic alteration slates
4. propylitic alteration granites
5. chloritization sericite (x2)
6.carbonization quartz (x3)
7.potassic alteration pyrite
8.silicification silica
9.feldspathization potassium
10.tourmalinization anhydrate
chlorite (x2)
albite
tourmaline
biotite
carbonate
pyrophyllite
plagioclase
potash feldspar

IV Reading focus
1. The list below describes the process of precipitation from silicate melts.
Which THREE are mentioned in the text («Open-space filling»).
A. oxide ore minerals crystallize out early.
B. copper-rich solution can replace earlier deposited minerals.
C. sulphides crystallize because of lower melting points.
D. precipitation is a result of mixing cool hydrothermal solutions.
E. Chromites may undergo corrosion and partial resorption.
5. Complete each sentence with the correct ending A- E below.
1. Replacement is when one mineral dissolves,______________________.
2. Replacement is an important process ___________________________.
3. The occurrence of replacement processes can be seen _________.
4. Under right conditions __________________________________.
5. Secondary replacement leads to ___________________________.
A. Sulphide enrichment.
B. And another mineral is deposited.
C. In practically all deposits and in developed open spaces.
D. Any mineral may replace any other mineral.
E. In the formation of skarn ore deposits.
V. Extended writing

x Take notes.
lecturer.
Word list
hydrothermal deposits native-formed crystals placer deposits
deep crustal deposits nickel-sulfide massive VHMS(volcanic-host-
deposits massive sulphides)
epithermal deposits layered complexes wash into
surface deposits porphyry solution
mafic crystallization differentiation
ultra-mafic salty brines environment of
deposition
intrusions useless materials
Classification of deposits?
1. What is the ore deposit classification?
2. What is the primary melt?
3. What crystal types are formed during the primary melt?
4. Which are economic?
5. Give examples of economic ore deposits.
6. What economic deposits form between deep mantle and mesothermal
stages?
7. What deposits form during the mesothermal stage?
8. Where do epithermal deposits form?
9. What nature processes affect the formation of surface deposits?
10. Where do we usually find surface deposits?
The following summary is an outline for writing the essay.

x Few metals are abundant enough to mine economically, without being
pre-concentrated by nature.

x Process of melt, rise and cool is responsible for allowing 90% of
deposits to reach economic grades:
9 Partially melt by subduction, crustal thickening or injection of
hot magma;
9 Rise to mineable depth by displacement, assimilation or
fracturing;
9 Cool to allow metals to concentrate into one or another phase.
x Most deposit types are simply variations on the same theme, with
differences due to
9 Source of melt
9 Depth of differentiation
9 Environment of deposition
VI. Discussion
1. How would you answer these questions in a discussion forum? Use
information from the texts, diagrams and terms from Switch on (pg.66)
1. What major factors affect the textures of ore minerals?
2. What is the difference between the two types of open-space filling?
3. What do replacement processes result in?
4. What fluids are involved in the development of inclusions?
5. What is the importance of wall rock alteration in the formation of ore
deposits? What are the characteristic features of wall rock alteration?
internship)
Step VII Write the main body of the report. (SUPPLEMENTARY
MATERIAL, pg.143)
Step VIII. Write the conclusion to your report. (SUPPLEMENTARY

MATERIAL, pg.144)

TERMINOLOGY
advanced argillic alteration ɫɤɨɪɨɫɬɶ ɚɪɝɢɥɥɢɬɨɜɨɣ ɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɢɹ

alteration ɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɢɟ ɩɨɪɨɞ ɩɨ ɫɥɨɠɟɧɢɸ ɢ
ɫɨɫɬɚɜɭ; ɦɟɬɚɦɨɪɮɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɜɵɬɟɫɧɟɧɢɟ
atoll ɤɨɥɶɰɟɨɛɪɚɡɧɵɣ
carbonization ɫɚɬɭɪɚɰɢɹ
chloritization ɯɥɨɪɢɪɨɜɚɧɢɟ
daughter ɞɨɱɟɪɧɵɣ
euhedral ɚɭɬɨɦɨɪɮɧɵɣ
feldspathization ɮɟɥɶɞɲɩɚɬɢɡɚɰɢɹ
fluid inclusions ɠɢɞɤɨɟ ɜɤɥɸɱɟɧɢɟ
globule ɲɚɪɢɤ
interstitial ɜɧɭɬɪɢɩɨɪɨɜɨɣ
nucleation ɫɩɭɲɟɧɢɟ ɜɨɞɹɧɵɯ ɩɚɪɨɜ
percolating ɩɪɨɫɚɱɢɜɚɸɳɢɣɫɹ \ ɩɪɨɯɨɞɹɳɢɣ ɫɤɜɨɡɶ
permeate (v) ɩɪɨɩɢɬɵɜɚɬɶ
resorption ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɟɧɢɟ
sericitization ɫɟɪɢɰɢɬɢɡɚɰɢɹ
silicification ɨɤɜɚɪɰɟɜɜɚɧɢɟ
subhedral ɝɢɩɢɞɢɨɦɨɪɮɧɵɣ
tourmalinization ɬɭɪɦɚɥɢɧɢɡɚɰɢɹ

UNIT 5
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
I. Switch on

1. Discuss the following questions:
1. What classifications of ore deposits do you know?
2. Which classification is used in Russia today?
3. Can you give a detailed description of the existing classification in
Russia? (Obrichev)
2. Translate the following sentences (revision). (SUPPLEMENTARY

MATERIAL, pg.148-152)
1. Ore deposits are usually classified by ore formation processes and
geological setting.
2. Ore deposits may be formed by one or more of the basic genesis
processes above, creating ambiguous classifications.

3. Classification of hydrothermal ore deposits is also achieved by
classifying according to the temperature of formation, which correlates
with particular mineralizing fluids.
4. This is a more elaborate classification of mineral deposits based on
host rock lithology.
5. …….has a useful column giving the known geological age range of
particular deposit types
3. Translate the following term phrases.

1. deeply eroded areas
2. fracture-filling and nreplacement bodies
3. coarse-grained, frequently banded fluid inclusions
4. lack high temperature minerals
5. fine banding cockade ore
Types of classification
Ore deposits are usually classified by ore formation processes and geological
setting. Ore deposits may be formed by one or more of the basic genesis
processes, creating ambiguous classifications. Often ore deposits are
classified after examples of their type, for instance Broken Hill Type lead-
zinc-silver deposits or Carlin-type Gold deposits.
(1) Lindgren classification (1933)- Classification of hydrothermal ore
deposits is also achieved by classifying according to the temperature of
formation, which correlates with particular mineralizing fluids (ɮɥɸɢɞ
ɧɚɫɵɳɟɧɧɵɣ ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɶɧɵɦɢ ɫɨɥɹɦɢ) mineral associations and structural
styles. This was proposed by Lindgren (1933) who classified hydrothermal
deposits as hypothermal, mesothermal, epithermal and telethermal.
Lindgren’s classification was the first put forward in 1913 and has been the
most influential classification ever proposed. A brief summary of the
modified version of 1933 is as follows:
1. Deposits formed by mechanical processes;
2. Deposits formed by chemical processes of concentration.

(a) In surface waters: (i) by reactions (between solutions); (ii) by
evaporation (of solutions).
(b) In bodies of rock : (i) by concentration of substances contained within
rocks by weathering, by ground water and metamorphism; (ii) by
introduced substances – without igneous activity and related to igneous
activity by (I) ascending hydrothermal waters (epithermal,
mesothermal and hypothermal deposits), and (II) by direct igneous
emanations (ɜɵɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ) ( pyrometasomatic and sublimate deposits.
(c) In magmas by differentiation: (i) magmatic deposits and (ii)
pegmatites.
Here is the detailed Lindgren classification.
Hydrothermal deposits
Depth of formation 3000-15 000 m
Temperature of formation «300-600°C
Occurrence
In or near deep-seated acid plutonic rocks in
deeply eroded areas. Usually found in
Precambrian terranes, rarely in young rocks.
Often found in reverse faults
Nature of ore zones Fracture-filling and replacement bodies, with

the latter phenomenon often more prevalent,
leading to irregular shaped ore-bodies;
nevertheless these are frequently broadly
tabular. Sheeted zones common, also bedding
plane deposits and short, irregular veins.
Boundaries usually sharp with limited amount
of ore disseminated in walls. Good
persistence ( ɩɪɨɬɹɠɟɧɢɟ) in depth
Au, Sn, Mo, W, Cu, Pb, Zn, As
Ores
Ore minerals Magnetite, specularite, pyrrhotite, cassiterite,
arsenopyrite, molybdenite, bornite,
chalcopyrite, Ag-poor gold, wolframite,
scheelite, pyrite, galena, Fe-rich sphalerite
(marmatite)

Gangue minerals Garnet, plagioclase, biotite, muscovite, topaz,
tourmaline, epidote, quartz (often originally
high quartz), chlorite (high Fe variety),
carbonates
Wall rock alteration Albitization, tourmalinization, rutile
development, sericitization in siliceous rocks,
chloritization. Wall rocks are often crisp and
sparkling
Often very coarse-grained, frequently banded,
Textures and structures fluid inclusions present in quartz
Zoning Textural and mineralogical changes with

increasing depth are very gradual over
thousands of metres. Gold tellurides may give
rise to spectacular bonanzas (ɛɨɝɚɬɵɣ
ɪɭɞɧɵɣ ɤɚɪɦɚɧ)

Mesothermal deposits
Depth of formation 1200-4500 m
Temperature of formation 200-300°C
Occurrence Generally in or near intrusive igneous rocks.
May be associated with regional tectonic
fractures. Common in both normal and
reversed faults
Extensive replacement deposits or fracture-
Nature of ore zones fillings. Boundaries of orebodies often
gradational from massive to disseminated ore.
Tabular bodies, sheeted zones, stockworks,
pipes, saddle-reefs (ɩɥɚɫɬɨɜɚɹ ɠɢɥɚ,
ɢɦɟɸɳɚɹ ɮɨɪɦɭ ɚɧɬɢɤɥɢɧɚɦɢ), bedding-
surface deposits. Fissures (ɬɪɟɳɢɧɚ) fairly
regular in dip and strike ( ɩɪɨɫɬɢɪɚɧɢɟ ɫ
ɩɚɞɚɧɢɟɦ)
Au, Ag, Cu, As, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, W, Mo, U,
Ores etc.
Ore minerals Native Au, chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite,
sphalerite, galena, enargite, chalcocite,
bournonite, argentite, pitchblende, niccolite,
cobaltite, tetrahedrite, sulphosalts
Lack high temperature minerals (garnet,
Gangue minerals
tourmaline, topaz, etc.), albite, quartz,
sericite, chlorite, carbonates, siderite, epidote,
montmorillonite
Intense chloritization, carbonization or
Wall rock alteration sericitization. Walls often dull
Less coarse than hypothermal ores, pyrite,
Textures and structures when present, is often very fine-grained.
Veins are often banded, large lenses usually
massive
Zoning Gradual but definite change in mineralization
with depth, e.g. Butte. Good vertical range,
many deposits not bottomed after 1800 m of
mining

Epithermal deposits
Depth of formation Near surface to 1500 m
Temperature of 50-200°ɋ
formation
Occurrence
In sedimentary or igneous rocks, especially in or
associated with extrusive or near surface intrusive
rocks, usually in post-Precambrian rocks not
deeply eroded since ore formation. Often occupy
normal fault systems, joints, etc.
Nature of ore zones Simple veins—some irregular with development
of ore chambers—also commonly in pipes and
stockworks. Rarely formed along bedding
surfaces. Little replacement phenomena
Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, Hg, Sb, Cu, Se, Bi, U
Ores
Ore minerals Native Au now often Ag-rich, native Ag, Cu, Bi.
Pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite, cinnabar, jamesonite, stibnite,
realgar, orpiment, ruby silvers, argentite,
selenides, tellurides
Gangue minerals Si02 as chert, chalcedony or crystalline quartz—
often amethystine, (sericite), low Fe chlorite,
epidote, carbonates, fluorite, baryte, andularia,
alunite, dickite, rhodochrosite, zeolites
Wall rock alteration Often lacking, otherwise chertification,
kaolinization, pyritization, dolomitization,
chloritization
Textures and Crustification (banding) very common, often with

structures development of fine banding, cockade ore, vugs
and brecciation of veins. Grain size very variable
Zoning This type of mineralization may vary abruptly
with depth, often having only a small vertical
range (telescoping), mostly bottoms at 300-900 m.
Grade variable with occurrence of bonanzas
within low grade ore

Telethermal deposits
Depth of formation Near surface
Temperature of ±100°C
formation
Occurrence In sedimentary rocks or lava flows, often in
areas where plutonic rocks are apparently absent
In open fractures, cavities, joints, fissures,
Nature of ore zones caverns, etc. No replacement phenomena
Pb, Zn, Cd, Ge
Ores
Ore minerals Galena (poor in Ag), sphalerite (poor in Fe,
may be rich in Cd), marcasite in excess over
pyrite, cinnabar, etc. Viz: similar to epithermal
mineralogy (Table 6.3)
Calcite, low-Fe dolomite, etc.
Gangue minerals
Dolomitization and chertification

Wall rock alteration
Textures and As epithermal

structures
Table 1. General classification of ore deposits(after Lindgren 1933)
(2) Stanton classification(1972) showed mineral deposits as common rocks.

He recognized seven important worldwide associations, which can be
condensed as follows:
1. Ores in igneous rocks:
(a) ores of mafic and ultramafic association;
(b) ores of felsic association.
2. Iron concentrations of sedimentary affiliation
3. Manganese concentrations of sedimentary affiliation
4. Stratiform sulphides of marine and marine-volcanic association
5. Strata –bound ores of sedimentary affiliation
6. Ores of vein association
7. Ore deposits of metamorphic affiliation

(3) Smirnov classification (1976) also recognized mineral deposits as part of
the spectrum of crustal rocks.
(4) Aleva & Dijkstra classification (1986). This is a more elaborate
classification of mineral deposits based on host rock lithology. It is basically
simple, although the complete classification has many divisions and
subdivisions and has a useful column giving the known geological age range
of particular deposit types.
(5) Obrichev (1935) introduced the following genetic classification of ore
deposits:
I. GROUP – endogenous (deep)
Category magmatic Crystallization
Class – eumagmatic
Class - injective Liquation
Class - pegmatite
Category emanation
Class – contact
Class - pneumatholeitic
Class- exudates and sublimate
Category hydrothermal
Class - hypothermal Open space filling
Class - mesothermal
Class - epithermal Metasomatic
II. GROUP – exogenous (surface)

Class - sedimentary
Class - infiltration
Class – residual
Iron hat
Class - clastic \ placer Alluvial
Eluvial
III. GROUP Metamorphic (changes
deposits)
Class - pyrometamorphic
Class - dynemetamorphic
Class – hydatometamorphic

(6) Classification, according to various criteria developed via the study of
economic geology, or ore genesis.
1. Hydrothermal epigenetic deposits
x Mesothermal lode gold deposits, typified by the Golden Mile,

Kalgoorlie
x Archaean conglomerate hosted gold-uranium deposits, typified by
Elliot Lake, Canada and Witwatersrand, South Africa
x Carlin–type gold deposits, including;
o Dolomite-hosted jasperoid replacement subtype
x Epithermal stockwork vein deposits
2. Granite related hydrothermal
x IOCG or iron oxide copper gold deposits, typified by the supergiant

Olympic Dam Cu-Au-U deposit
x Porphyry copper +/- gold +/- molybdenum +/- silver deposits
x Intrusive-related copper-gold +/- (tin-tungsten), typified by the
Tombstone, Arizona deposits
x Hydromagmatic magnetite iron ore deposits and skarns
x Skarn ore deposits of copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, etcetera
3. Nickel-cobalt-platinum deposits
x Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE deposits including

o Cumulate vanadiferous or platinum-bearing magnetite or
chromite
o Cumulate hard-rock titanium (ilmenite) deposits
o Komatiite hosted Ni-Cu-PGE deposits
o Subvolcanic feeder subtype, typified by Noril'sk-Talnakh and
the Thompson Belt, Canada
o Intrusive-related Ni-Cu-PGE, typified by Voisey's Bay, Canada
and Jinchuan, China
x Lateritic nickel ore deposits, examples include Goro and Acoje,
(Philippines) and Ravensthorpe, Western Australia.
4. Volcanic-related deposits
x Volcanic hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) Cu-Pb-Zn including;

o Examples include Teutonic Bore and Golden Grove, Western
Australia

Besshi type
Kuroko type
5. Metamorphically reworked deposits
x Podiform serpentinite-hosted paramagmatic iron oxide-chromite

deposits, typified by Savage River, Tasmania iron ore, Coobina
chromite deposit
x Broken Hill Type Pb-Zn-Ag, considered to be a class of reworked
SEDEX deposits
6. Carbonatite-alkaline igneous related
x Phosphorus-tantalite-vermiculite (Phalaborwa South Africa)

x Rare earth elements - Mount Weld, Australia and Bayan Obo,
Mongolia
x Diatreme hosted diamond in kimberlite, lamproite or lamprophyre
7. Sedimentary deposits
x Banded iron formation iron ore deposits, including

o Channel-iron deposits or pisolite type iron ore
x Heavy mineral sands ore deposits and other sand dune hosted deposits
x Alluvial gold, diamond, tin, platinum or black sand deposits
x Alluvial oxide zinc deposit type: sole example Skorpion Zinc
8. Sedimentary hydrothermal deposits
x SEDEX
o Lead-zinc-silver, typified by Red Dog, McArthur River, Mount
Isa, etc.
o Stratiform arkose-hosted and shale-hosted copper, typified by
the Zambian copperbelt.
o Stratiform tungsten, typified by the Erzgebirge deposits,
Czechoslovakia
o Exhalative spilite-chert hosted gold deposits
x Mississippi valley type (MVT) zinc-lead deposits
Hematite iron ore deposits of altered banded iron formation
Introduction)

1. Match the author to the ore deposit classification.
1. Lindgren a. genesis of ore deposits
2. Stanton b. common rocks
3. Smirnov c. temperature of formation,
correlating with particular
mineralizing fluids, mineral
associations and structural styles
4. Alev & Dijkstra d. part of the spectrum of crustral
rocks
5. Obrichev e. host rock lithology
2. Look at the three classifications of ore deposits below. What terms (in the
box) describe each of them? What could you add to the list? Write a
description for each classification.
1. hydrothermal ore deposits
2. deposits as common rocks
3. genetic classification
A.
crystallization, endogenous, magmatic, emanation, hydrothermal,
exogenous, metamorphic, open-space fillings, liquation, alluvial,
eluvial, metasomatic
B.
igneous rocks, mafic \ ultra mafic associations, felsic

associations, iron \ manganese concentrations, sedimentary
affiliation, vein association, metamorphic affiliation, strata-bound
ores, stratiform sulphides

C.
Formation temperature, mineralizing fluids, mineral

associations, structural style, mechanical and chemical
processes, solution reactions, bodies in rocks, magma by
differentiation
IV. Reading focus

1. Comapre two classifications- Lindgran and Obrichev. What are the
differences and similarities between these two classifications? Fill in the
table below. Summarize the information (100-140 words).
Classification Differences Similarities

Lindgren
Obrichev
2. Look through the text again. Choose no more than three words for each
answer.
Which classification of ore deposits should you look at if it is based on
1. various criteria developed via economic geology or ore genesis
2. worldwide associations
3. crustal rock groups

4. host rocks
5. genetic features
6. formation temperature
V. Extended writing
1. Write a full essay, using all your previous notes, (750–1000 words) on
the topic discussed in this presentation.
VI. Discussion
1. Work with a partner. How do you rate these different classification
categories? Give reasons for your rating and evidence to prove your point
of view.
2. Prepare a short presentation about one of the classifications. Now
exchange information with the other groups in you class. Be prepared to
answer any questions your groupmates may have. (Refer to the Power
Point Presentation Technical and Professional Communication p. 69; PP
«Creating Effective Slides for Presentations» (Laura Grossenbacher))

internship)
Step IX Write an abstract. (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg. 145)
Write an abstract according to the following plan:
1. Write out the main idea
2. Write out words \ phrases
3. Write a draft:
9 100-250 words
9 No abbreviations, tables and diagrams
9 No citations
9 Introduction
9 Characteristic features of the problem
9 Method and materials
9 Results
9 Conclusion
4. Don’t forget KEYWORDS

Step X Check your report. Hand in. Good luck!
Check your report according to the following checklist:
1. Is the thesis statement concise and clear?
2. Is everything in a logical sequence?
3. Are all sources properly cited?
4. Is each paragraph with a topic sentence?
5. Is everything documented proof \ examples?
6. Spelling and grammatical errors
7. Are the points interesting and clear?
8. Is the report a completion?
TERMINOLOGY
mineralizing fluids ɮɥɸɢɞ ɧɚɫɵɳɟɧɧɵɣ
ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɶɧɵɦɢ ɫɨɥɹɦɢ
persistence ɩɪɨɬɹɠɟɧɢɟ
saddle-reefs ɩɥɚɫɬɨɜɚɹ ɠɢɥɚ, ɢɦɟɸɳɚɹ ɮɨɪɦɭ
ɚɧɬɢɤɥɢɧɚɦɢ
fissures ɬɪɟɳɢɧɚ
dip and strike ɩɪɨɫɬɢɪɚɧɢɟ ɫ ɩɚɞɚɧɢɟɦ
bonanzas ɛɨɝɚɬɵɣ ɪɭɞɧɵɣ ɤɚɪɦɚɧ
emanation ɜɵɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ
telethermal ɬɟɥɟɬɟɪɦɚɥɶɧɵɣ
exudate ɜɵɞɟɥɹɟɦɨɟ ɜɟɳɟɫɬɜɨ
sublimate ɩɟɪɟɝɨɧɹɬɶ (ɫɭɛɥɢɦɚɰɢɨɧɧɵɣ)
infiltration ɜɵɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɟ ɠɢɥɵ ɢɡ
ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɶɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ
crustification (banding) ɩɨɥɨɫɱɚɬɨɫɬɶ \ ɨɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɤɨɪɤɢ
cockade ore ɝɪɟɛɟɧɱɚɬɵɣ ɩɢɪɢɬ
mesothermal ɦɟɡɨɬɟɪɦɚɥɶɧɵɣ
hydrothermal ɝɢɞɪɨɬɟɪɦɚɥɶɧɵɣ
epithermal ɷɩɢɬɟɪɦɚɥɶɧɵɣ
eumagmatic ɷɜɦɚɝɦɚɬɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ
vug ɩɭɫɬɨɬɚ ɜ ɩɨɪɨɞɟ

UNIT 6
ASSIGNMENT (PROJECT)
Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits
The project you are going to complete will be on the topic of ore geology and
mineral exploration. For this you are given certain «core» texts to consult.
However, you will have the opportunity to carry out some independent
research – from books, journals or online sources.
The aim of this project is to give you practice in finding appropriate
information. Although a range of texts is available, you will need to read
«selectively» in order to find information that is revelant to the task title. You
will also practice note-taking from these sources and then summarizing your
notes effectively.
The core text under discussion is Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits (pg. 107)
1. Scan the text Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits to overview the

necessary information to answer the following questions, which are
grouped under three broad headings. Brainstorm some ideas on the given
questions. Write down your answers.
Introduction
1. What are «Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits»? (explanation)

2. Where such deposits are mainly located?
3. When are gold-rich porphyry copper deposits economic?
Main body
1. What are the main items?

2. Are these points typical for every deposit?
3. What are the possible items for different deposits (if so)?
4. What evidence can you find to prove your possible anwers?

Conclusion
1. Based on the given information, to what extent are such deposits

economic and extent?
2. The purpose for reading the sources is to find information that is

relevant to the topic. It is important to remember that not all of the
information in the sources you have will be relevant. You have to read
selectively in order to identify the necessary information.
Analyze the title and look at sources relevant to this title. Make a list of the
sources of information.
3. Read the text and compile your own terminology list.The following
outline will help you to group the terms according to headlines.
1. Introduction
2. Regional setting
3. Intrusive rocks
4. Hydrothermal alteration and mineralization
5. Hydrothermal breccias
6. Gold mineralization
7. Supergene effects
8. Genetic aspects
9. Exploration implications
10. Concluding remarks
4. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the grammar

structures and terminology.
1. Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits have been mined in bulk since 1906.
2. Most of the world's gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are confined to the
circum-Pacific region.

3. The stocks are foci of more extensive hydrothermal systems, within which
gold deposits of several different kinds — high and low-sulphidation
epithermal veins, skarns and replacements in carbonate and non-carbonate
rocks may also be present
4. Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are emplaced in volcano-plutonic arcs,
which are generated during and, in small part, immediately following active
subduction of oceanic lithosphere.
5. Generation of gold-rich porphyry copper deposits is believed to be
independent of the composition and thickness of underlying crust
6. Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits, like gold-poor porphyry systems, are
predominantly of Tertiary age
7. Stocks in gold-rich porphyry deposits belong exclusively to I-type and
magnetite-series suites
8. However, if gold is incorporated principally in magmatic sulphides rather
than in magnetite, highly oxidized magmas should favor generation of gold-
rich deposits
9. Five principal alteration types are developed in and around gold-rich
porphyry copper deposits
10. Potassium-silicate (K-silicate) alteration is typically characterized by the
presence of replacement and vein-filling biotite
11. Calcic systems also commonly contain epidote, as an integral component
of K-silicate as well as propylitic assemblages.
12. Hydrothermal magnetite, attaining 5-10 vol.% in some deposits, is
typically associated with synchronous or later copper-iron sulphides; it
appears as disseminated grains, patches and veinlets with and without quartz
13. In bornite-rich zones, bornite and gold are characteristically intergrown
14. Gold enrichment is abnormal in leached cappings over gold-rich
porphyry deposits
15. Epithermal gold deposits, especially the high-sulphidation, acid-sulphate
type, are commonplace in areas with an appropriate erosion level for
exposure and preservation of gold-rich porphyry deposits

16. Once gold-rich porphyry prospects are identified, observed alteration and
mineralization features may be used to predict the likely metallurgical
respons
17. Geological, geochemical and geophysical techniques employed routinely
in porphyry copper exploration are equally applicable to the gold-rich end of
the porphyry spectrum
18. Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are not a discrete ore deposit type;
instead they represent the gold-rich end of the porphyry copper spectrum
19. Nevertheless, more than 80% (Table I) of gold-rich porphyry copper
deposits are appreciably richer in hydrothermal magnetite
20 Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits, including copper-poor, gold-only end
members, are generated in volcano-plutonic arcs of apparently all ages.
5. Lecture Ore Deposts 101 – « Porphyries, IOCGs »
x Take notes.
lecturer.
x Compile your own word list
x Questions are divided into 6 parts.
Part 1 - Porphyries formation
1. What is the importance of porphyries and IOCGs (iron oxide copper gold
deposits)?
2. Where are porphyries located within the crust?
3. Where are the porphyries generated?
4. What are the basic groups of porphyries?
5. What is the formation process of porphyries?
6. What is the drop-off sequence of the metals during the formation of
porphyries?

7. What is mineralization associated with?
8. What role does mineralization play in the formation of poryhyries?
9. What is the importance of alteration in the exploration of porphyry
associations?
10. Describe the stages of metal concentration.
11. What metal is formed in the second stage of metal concentration?
12. Where are porphyries located in the world?
13. What is the age of poryphry deposits/
14. What clues does alteration provide in finding ore bodies?
Part 2 - Exploration
1. What exploration methods are used to find porphyries?
2. What is the difference between unprocessed and processed satellite
images?
3. What geophysical tools are used to explore porphyries?
4. What do magnetic surveys (IP-induced polarization, radiometric surveys)
detect?
5. What characteristic features does geophysical survey reveal?
6. Why do we need geochemistry in exploring porphyries?
7. What does geochemistry include?
8. What is the objective target of drilling?
Part 3 - Economic value

1. How are porphyries mined? Why? Give examples.
2. What are the biggest copper deposits in the world (in tones)?
3. What are the grades of the copper deposits?
4. What porphyry deposits are potential economic?
Part 4 - Extraction
1. How are porphyry deposits extracted? Describe the two different
processes.

2. Why is a flotation agent used?
3. What is SXEW?
4. What is the difference between sulfide – oxide mineral extraction?
Part 5 Skarn deposits

1. When are skarns formed?
2. Describe the characteristic features of a skarn deposit?
3. Give an example of a skarn deposit.
Part 6 – IOCG deposits

1. What is the age of IOCG deposits?
2. Where are these deposits formed?
3. What IOCGs associated with?
4. What is the formation key in IOCGs?
5. What metals are included in IOCGs?
6. Where do we find IOCGs?
7. What is the size of IOCG deposits? Give examples.
8. What is the basic metal-content in Olympic Dam deposit?
9. What techniques are used in IOCG exploration?
6. Discuss the following ke y points:

x usually very big hydrothermal systems, but low grade;
x fairly homogenous, but skarns are exceptions (patchy);
x porphyries generally similar; IOCGs all different;
x usually both oxide and sulfide ores;
x high capital cost, low operating cost \ t;
x geophysics provides powerful exporation tools.

7. Summarize the relevant information:
9 make a rough outline plan of your ideas;

9 identify the main points (key words \ phrases, and even sentences);
9 take notes of relevant information (core text; online sources);
9 comment on each of the outline points.
8. Write an essayon the discussed topic.
9. Analyze the information.
Based on the information from the core text, analyze similar deposits in
Russia, according to the following plan:
1. Introduction ( location, economic potential deposits)

2. Regional setting (tectonic framework, lithology, age)
3. Intrusions ( compositions, geometries)
4. Alteration and mineralization (types)
5. Genetic aspects
6. Exploration tools and methods
10 .Prepare a poster presentation (Refer to the Power Point Presentation

Technical and Professional Communication p. 45).
SELF- EVALUATION CHECKLIST
Below is a list of skills you will need when working with different
information sources and fulfilling various tasks.
Tick the appropriate box for each skill according to how well you feel you
have done it.

Do not Can
Find it Can do it
Skills know partially
difficult well
how do it
Looking for information
1. Identify which book\
journals\websites to use
2. Select relevant parts of
a text
3. Evaluate sources
Using sources
1. Acknowledge sources of
information
2. Synthesise information
from more than one source
3. Write a bibliography
correctly
Planning \ Writing
1. Brainstorm ideas
2. Plan written work
3. Organise a text
4. Link ideas effectively
5. Summarise ideas
6. Paraphrase ideas
7. Write an introduction
8. Write a conclusion
9. Write the main body
10. Write an abstract
Personal study skills

1. Work independently
2. Manage time- meet
deadlines
Oral expression
1. Give a presentation on
my work
2. Discuss ideas with other
students

IT skills
1. Access the Internet
2. Use search engines
3. Create Word* documents
4. Use PowerPoint*
(English for academic study: Extended writing & research skills. Course
Book (1988), Garnet Publishing Ltd.)
SELF-ASSIGNMENT TASK
Read thetext from “Reading Resource Book”:
1. Overview the necessary information to answer the following
questions:
x What are these deposits? (explanation)
x Where such deposits are mainly located?
x When are deposits economic?
x What are the main items?
x Are these points typical for every deposit?
x What are the possible items for different deposits (if so)
x What evidence can you find to prove your possible anwers?
x Based on the given information, to what extent are such deposits
economic and extent?
2. Compile a terminology list.
3. Write out the difficult sentences for understanding and translate
them.
4. Analyze the deposit, according to this plan:
x Introduction ( location, economic potential deposits)
x Regional setting (tectonic framework, lithology, age)
x Intrusions ( compositions, geometries)
x Alteration and mineralization (types)
x Genetic aspects
x Exploration tools and methods
5. Write an essay based on your analyse.
6. Prepare a Power point presentation.

SOURCE TEXT
GOLD –RICH PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
INTRODUCTION
Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits have been mined in bulk since 1906,
when Bingham, Utah, came into production, although by-product gold was of
little consequence until gold prices increased during the 1970s. Attention was
again focused on gold-rich porphyry copper deposits with Santo Tomas II,
Philippines, and Panguna, Papua New Guinea, coming into production in
1958 and 1972, respectively. However, more widespread appreciation of the
economic importance and potential of gold-rich porphyry deposits came from
four recent discoveries: Grasberg, Indonesia, and Lepanto Far Southeast,
Philippines, for their high gold and copper grades; and Marte and Lobo,
Chile, for their copper-deficient, gold-only character (Fig. 1). These four
deposits average at least 1.5 ppm Au. Moreover, total gold contents ranging
from 700 t to 900 t (Table I) justify the designation of Panguna, Grasberg and
Bingham as giant gold deposits. Indeed, a recent announcement suggests that
the Grasberg deposit may contain as much as 1400 t of gold.

Figure1. Gold and copper contents and approximate production plus reserve tonnages
of principal gold-rich porphyry copper deposits. Copper grades are hypogene except
at Ok Tedi (3) and Sungai Mak (6), where important supergene enrichment is included.
Supergene alteration also occurred at Kingking (8), Mount Polley (18) and Afton (21),
but hypogene and supergene copper grades are similar. Note: Gold in leached capping
at Ok Tedi is not plotted; both geological and mining reserves are plotted for Lepanto
Far Southeast (13); and both total orebody and current reserves are plotted
for Bingham (22). Numbers are keyed to names in Table I. (Data taken from references
in Table I and the mining literature.)
Most of the world's gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are confined to the
circum-Pacific region. (Sillitoe, 1990). However, deposits are also known in
Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belts and elsewhere. Twenty-nine deposits are
considered as a basis for this analysis; 11 of them are being mined at the time
of writing (early 1991), and another, Panguna, ceased production recently.
Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits possess all essential geological features

of their gold-poor counterparts (e.g., Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; McMillan
and Panteleyev, 1980; Titley and Beane, 1981), with gold present in zones of
veinlet stockwork and as disseminations within or immediately contiguous to

porphyry stocks. The stocks are foci of more extensive hydrothermal
systems, within which gold deposits of several different kinds — high and
low-sulphidation epithermal veins, skarns and replacements in carbonate and
non-carbonate rocks may also be present (e.g., Sillitoe, 1988). One of the
best examples of gold and base-metal deposits zoned around gold-rich
porphyry copper is provided by the Bingham district, as summarized by
Tooker (1990).
Gold-rich porphyry deposits were defined arbitrarily by Sillitoe (1979)

to include deposits containing >0.4 ppm Au, a definition that emphasizes
economic rather than geological parameters. However, the present analysis
includes deposits at Bingham, Utah, and Island Copper, and Morrison,
British Columbia, with lower average gold grades (Fig. 1), but large
tonnages containing >0.4 ppm Au. Furthermore, this analysis also includes
Marte and Lobo, Chile, which lack appreciable copper (Fig. 1) and may be
designated strictly as porphyry gold deposits (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991) — a
mineralization type hypothesized 12 years earlier (Sillitoe, 1979). The
generalized occurrence (empirical) model of gold-rich porphyry copper
deposits outlined below is based on geological characteristics of deposits
listed in Table I, as well as summaries and discussions by Barr et al.
(1976), Cox and Singer (1988), Perello and Cabello (1989), Sillitoe (1979,
1990), Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) and Sinclair et al. (1982). The geological
model is underpinned by widely accepted genetic concepts for porphyry
deposits in general. Aspects of fluid evolution in this orthomagmatic
model are mentioned briefly.
REGIONAL SETTING
Geotectonic Framework
Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are emplaced in volcano-plutonic
arcs, which are generated during and, in small part, immediately following
active subduction of oceanic lithosphere, but under a variety of regional
stress regimes. These regimes range from compressive, Chilean-type
continental margins (e.g., Marte, Lobo, Dos Pobres, Bajo de La Alumbrera,

Bingham) to extensional, Mariana-type island arcs (e.g., Panguna, Cabang
Kiri, Sungai Ɇɚɤ, Philippine deposits). Bajo de La Alumbrera and Bingham
were generated above down dip extremities of shallowly dipping slabs,
several hundred kilometres east of their respective trenches. Ok Tedi and
Grasberg were emplaced at the leading edge of the Australian craton in an
active foreland fold-thrust belt developed as a result of collision with an
island-arc terrane to the north (e.g., Rogerson and McKee, 1990). Mamut
occupies a comparable compressive setting induced by arc-continent
collision (Rangin et al., 1990).
Lepanto Far Southeast, Guinaoang, Santo Tomas II, Amacan and

Kingking are localized in island-arc settings by splays of the major
Philippine transcurrent fault zone (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). However,
many deposits elsewhere lack evidence for control by faults of regional
dimensions. Solomon (1990) pointed out that many gold-rich porphyry
copper deposits in the western Pacific region (New Guinea, Bougainville
Island, Luzon) were emplaced immediately after a reversal in subduction
polarity, a geo-dynamic event that also preceded porphyry copper
emplacement in northern Sulawesi (Perello, in press). Jurassic island-arc
terranes and contained gold-rich porphyry deposits in British Columbia
(Table I) were incorporated subsequently in the North American
continental margin during accretion events (e.g., Bailey, 1990). The
alkaline composition of intrusive rocks associated with deposits in the
Intermontane belt of British Columbia (Table I; and see below) suggests,
by analogy with Tertiary gold deposits in the western Pacific region
(Sillitoe, 1989), that extensional, possibly back-arc, environments are
represented. A similar alkalic composition for the host intrusion at
Skouries, Greece (Table I) may also be taken as evidence for extension, but
following collision of the Serbomacedonian massif with the Eurasian
continental margin.

Lithological Associations
Generation of gold-rich porphyry copper deposits is believed to be

independent of the composition and thickness of underlying crust, which
ranges from primitive oceanic to evolved cratonic. A relationship between
gold-rich porphyry deposits and anomalously high gold contents in
underlying crust (e.g., Titley, 1990) fails to account for isolated gold-rich
deposits (e.g., Marte, Lobo, Dos Pobres) in otherwise gold-poor porphyry
copper provinces; neither can such a relationship account for closely spaced
deposits with markedly different gold contents (e.g., Saindak, Pakistan:
Sillitoe and Khan, 1977). However, relatively reduced crustal units may
buffer the redox state of magmas that ascend through them, and magmas with
relatively low oxidation states are considered by some investigators (e.g.,
Keith and Swan, 1987; Leveille et al., 1988) as especially favourable for
generation of gold-rich deposits. The commonly accepted correlations
between molybdenum-rich deposits and continental settings and between
gold-rich deposits and oceanic settings (e.g., Hollister, 1975) are discredited
further by the recent discovery at Marte and Lobo of porphyry gold deposits
that are underlain by the thick Andean crust of northern Chile (Vila and
Sillitoe, 1991).
Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are commonly associated with stocks

emplaced at shallow (1-2 km) crustal levels (Cox and Singer, 1988); this
association is illustrated by widespread preservation of coeval volcanic
sequences. Indeed, 25 deposits (86%) listed in Table I cut coeval volcanic
rocks. The volcanic rocks are commonly broadly andesitic or tracbyan-desitic
and in most districts constitute erosional remnants of stratovolcanoes. In
some districts, however, any coeval volcanic sequences have been eroded
entirely, and stocks are hosted by rocks as disparate as serpentinites at
Mamut (Kosaka and Wakita, 1978), gneiss at Skouries (Kalogeropoulos,
1986), and limestone at 0k Tedi (Bamford, 1972). At Ok Tedi, however, the
former presence of a stratovolcano is supported by nearby volcano-clastic
sedimentary rocks of the Birim Formation (Rush and Seegers, 1990).

Age Relations
Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits, like gold-poor porphyry systems, are

predominantly of Tertiary age. Seventeen deposits (59%) in Table I are
Miocene or younger. The youthfulness of these deposits is ascribed to the
rapidity of erosion rates in volcano-plutonic arcs, especially where uplift
rates are high and climatic regimes pluvial. However, early Mesowe3zoic
deposits are widespread in British Columbia, Canada (Barr et al., 1976), and
even older deposits such as the Goonumbla district in southeastern Australia,
of latest Ordovician age (Perkins et al, 1990), are preserved locally (Table I).
Moreover, gold-rich deposits considered as being porphyry type are
widespread in Archean greenstone belts (e.g., Sinclair, 1982; Symonse& aZ.,
1988).
INTRUSIVE ROCKS
Geometries
Vertically extensive (1 km to >2 km) porphyry stocks of grossly cylindrical

form are present in gold-rich porphyry copper deposits and generally
contain all or part of the ore (Fig. 2). Stocks are generally composite, with
late-mineral and (or) inter-mineral phases often intruded into the axial
portions of the cylindrical bodies. This nested geometry sometimes gives
rise to low-grade cores as at Panguna (Clark, 1987), Grasberg (Van Nort et
al, 1991), and Santo Tomas II (Serafica and Baluda, 1977). Such late
intrusions, however, may be emplaced eccentrically with respect to early
stocks, thereby giving rise to complexities in ore distribution patterns.
Inter- (and some late-) mineral intrusions are commonly very similar in
texture and composition to the earliest phases of stocks. Consequently, their
distinction proves difficult, especially in surface outcrops, and requires
observation of early stockwork veinlets truncated by intrusive contacts (e.g.,
Kirkham, 1971). Most late- to post-mineral intrusive phases are obviously
less intensely fractured and veined and thus generally easier to document.

The former are locally equigranular, as at Panguna (Clark, 1987) and Santo
Tomas II (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), whereas the latter are general Wuyke-
Yike and andesitic in composition. Elsewhere, equigranular intrusions are
precursors to ore-bearing stocks, as either genetically related plutons (e.g.,
Ok Tedi [Hewitt et al, 1980]; Afton [Barr et al, 1976]; Goonumbla
[Heithersay et al., 1990]) or appreciably older batholiths (e.g., Tanama [Cox,
1985]; Santo Tomas II [Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984].
Compositions
Stocks in gold-rich porphyry deposits belong exclusively to I-type and

magnetite-series suites (e.g., Ishihara, 1981). However, compositions
(K20/Si02) are extremely varied and may be assigned to three broad
categories (Table 1): low-potassium calc-alkalic diorite, quartz diorite and
granodiorite; high-potassium calc-alkalic quartz monzonite; and alkalic mon-
zonite and syenite. On the basis of their compositions, the alkalic stocks
could be included in the shoshonitic category. In the Goonumbla district,
alkalic volcanics and intrusions were followed by genetically related sub-
alkalic porphyry copper-gold stocks of quartz monzonitic composition
(Heithersay et al., 1990). Keith (1983) concluded that major gold deposits are
generally not associated with alkali-calcic intrusions (K57 5 indices between
2.45 and 3.8). At least some gold-poor, molybdenum-bearing porphyry
copper deposits underlain by cratonic crust appear to be of this composition
(Titley, 1990). More reduced members of oxidized I-type and magnetite-
series intrusive suites may be more favourable progenitors for gold-rich
porphyry copper deposits because magnetite, considered the main sink for
gold at the magmatic stage, crystallizes in lesser amounts (Leveille et al.,
1988). However, if gold is incorporated principally in magmatic sulphides
rather than in magnetite, highly oxidized magmas should favor generation of
gold-rich deposits (Candela, 1989).

Figure 2. Generalized occurrence model showing intrusive and alteration
relationships in and around gold-rich porphyry copper deposits, a, b,
and ɫ are approximate positions of cross-sections presented in Figure 6.
(Modified from Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984.)
HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AND MINERALIZATION
Five principal alteration types are developed in and around gold-rich

porphyry copper deposits (Figs. 2 and 3): potassium-silicate, propylitic,
intermediate argillic, sericitic (phyllic) and advanced argillic [in Meyer and
Hemley's (1967) terminology]. Potassium-silicate zones locally include
silicate minerals indicative of sodium or calcium, as well as potassium,
metasomatism.

Potassium-Silicate Alteration
Potassium-silicate (K-silicate) alteration is typically characterized by the

presence of replacement and vein-filling biotite, commonly of phlogopitic
(magnesium-rich) composition, which may be accompanied by hydrothermal
potassium-feldspar and (or) magnesium-rich amphibole (hornblende and (or)
actinolite). Potassium-feldspar tends to be more abundant in association with
high-potassium calc-alkalic and alkalic intrusions, whereas amphibole is
most common in, but not restricted to, dioritic to quartz dioritic systems
because of greater availability of calcium. Calcic systems also commonly
contain epidote, as an integral component of K-silicate as well as propylitic
assemblages. However, the presence of abundant hydrothermal
clinopyroxene, with or without garnet as at Galore Creek (Allen et al., 1976),
Mount Polley (Hodgson et al, 1976) and Island Copper (Perello et al., 1989)
and the presence of hydrothermal albite at several deposits as either an early
addition, as at Cabang Kiri (Carlile and Kirkegaard, 1985), or a late addition,
as at Mount Milligan (Rebagliati et al., 1990) confirm important calcium and
sodium metasomatism in some K-silicate zones. Calc-silicate alteration is
more intense in alkalic systems, as at Galore Creek, because of the silica-
deficient character of the causative fluids (M.H. Reed, pers. comm., 1991).
Coexistence of potassium-feldspar and albite alteration, especially in alkalic
deposits, is reminiscent of potassic and sodic fenites developed in the
wallrocks to carbonatites, where the sodic metasomatism generally is earlier
(Woolley, 1982). Anhydrite is a widespread and abundant constituent of K-
silicate assemblages and the other alteration types described below.
An appreciable proportion of hydrothermal silicates and sulphides are

generally present in quartz veinlets, except in quartz-poor alkalic systems
in British Columbia. In such systems veinlets are sparse and sulphides
appear mainly as blebs, patches and disseminated grains (Barr et al., 1976),
possibly as a consequence of hydrothermal fluids being released either less
vigorously or prior to complete solidification of the magma. However, the
syenite porphyry-hosted deposit at Skouries contains a well developed
quartz-veinlet stockwork (Eliopoulos and Economou-Eliopoulos, 1991).
Quartz veinlets constitute 10-90 vol.% of K-silicate zones, with
coalescence of closely spaced veinlets leading to semi-pervasive

silicification, as in the core of the Ok Tedi deposit (Bamford, 1972).
Quartz veinlets are generally multidirectional, but they appear locally as
short, subparallel bundles following a single preferred direction, as at
Marte (Vila et al, 1991), Grasberg and Skouries (writer's unpublished
observations, 1990, 1991). Sulphide assemblages are dominated by pyrite,
chalcopyrite and bornite, with pyrite contents normally relatively low (i.e.,
pyrite/(chalcopyrite + bornite) = 0.5-3). Locally, however, pyrite is much
less abundant; pyrite/(chalcopyrite + bornite) ratios are as low as 0.1 at
Santo Tomas II (Serafica and Baluda, 1977). Chalcopyrite/bornite ratios
generally exceed 3 and increase outward from centres of deposits.
Chalcotite and digenite are present as inclusions in bornite, especially in
bomite-rich zones.
Figure 3. Schematic time-depth relations of principal alteration types in gold-rich

porphyry copper systems
Hydrothermal magnetite, attaining 5-10 vol.% in some deposits, is

typically associated with synchronous or later copper-iron sulphides; it
appears as disseminated grains, patches and veinlets with and without quartz
(Sillitoe, 1979; Cox and Singer, 1988). Twenty-four deposits (83%) in Table
I contain, in. excess of about 4 vol.% magnetite, a quantity exceeding that
present in most copper-bearing but gold-poor K-silicate zones. Pyrrhotite as

well as magnetite accompanies chalcopyrite in K-silicate alteration at Mamut
(Kosaka and Wakita, 1978).
Potassium-silicate zones in gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are products

of multiple, superimposed hydrothermal events, which may be distinguished
on the basis of different mineralogies and (or) crosscutting veinlet
relationships. Intermineral intrusive phases are subjected only to the later
hydrothermal events. In some deposits, probably those that underwent
relatively deep erosion (Chivas, 1978), one or more early alteration events
deficient in potassium and metals are recognizable. Amphibole (± magnetite
± albite) cores low in copper and gold are reported from Mamut (Kosaka and
Wakita, 1978), Tanama (Cox, 1985) and Island Copper (Perello et al., 1989;
Arancibia and Clark, 1990). Elsewhere, early biotite-rich potassium-silicate
assemblages are metal-poor, as at Goonumbla, where potassium-feldspar and
chlorite appear to have accompanied introduction of much of the copper and
gold (Heithersay et al., 1990). This alteration sequence was also noted widely
in southwestern North American porphyry copper-molybdenum deposits by
Beane and Titley (1981). Early alteration may be metal-deficient because flu-
ids were then either high in temperature, thereby increasing the stability of
metal chloride complexes, and (or) sulphide-poor but sulphate-rich.
Propylitic Alteration
Potassium-silicate alteration grades outward to propylitic alteration (Fig. 2),

which is characterized by the coexistence of chlorite, epidote, calcite and,
locally, albite. Chlorite increases at the expense of biotite as the propylitic
zone is approached. Pyrite, ranging from 3 vol.% to, locally, >20 vol.%,
accompanies propylitic assemblages that, with or without sericitic alteration
(see below), constitute pyritic haloes to copper-gold zones.

Intermediate Argillic Alteration
Intermediate argillic alteration is widespread, but often unrecognized, as a

pale-green overprint to K-silicate assemblages, especially in the upper parts
of the stocks (Figs. 2 and 3). K-silicate alteration is all but obliterated in the
upper parts of some gold-rich porphyry deposits, for example, Dizon (Sillitoe
and Gappe, 1984), Guinaoang (Sillitoe and Angeles, (1985), Marte (Vila et
al, 1991) and Tanama (Cox, 1985). Intermediate argillic alteration varies in
both intensity and mineralogy and includes several of the following minerals:
seridte, illite, smectite, chlorite and calcite (hence, sericite-clay-chlorite
(SCC) alteration (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984)). Magnetite is variably martitized
(hematitized), and pyrite and specular hematite, with or without minor
chalcopyrite, are introduced. Pre-existing veinlet stock-works are not
destroyed, although copper and gold may be partly removed.
Sericitic Alteration
White to grey quartz-sericite-pyrite assemblages, displaying partial to

complete destruction of rock texture, are not widely developed in many gold-
rich porphyry copper systems. The broad sericitic annuli around K-silicate
cores described from many porphyry copper-molybdenum deposits (Lowell
and Guil-bert, 1970) are observed only at Bajo de La Alum-brera (Sillitoe,
1979), Fish Lake (Wolfhard, 1976), Morrison (Carson and Jambor, 1976),
Grasberg (Van Nort et al, 1991) and Saindak (Sillitoe and Khan, 1977).
More localized sericitization, typically controlled structurally, is more
common (e.g., Panguna, Guinaoang, Bell Copper, Tanama, Goonumbla) as
an overprint to K-silicate, or in some places, intermediate argillic
assemblages (Figs. 2 and 3). However, many deposits listed in Table I lack
sericitic alteration. Most sericitic zones possess pyrite as the only sulphide
mineral, in quantities ranging from 5 vol.% to >20 vol.%. Pyrite is either in
veinlets, typically without quartz, or disseminated. Locally, however,
copper-gold mineralization accompanies sericitization. At Guinaoang and
Bell Copper, pyrite-bornite and pyrite-chalcopyrite assemblages,
respectively, carry the highest copper and gold grades (Sillitoe and Angeles,
1985; Carson et al., 1976).

Advanced Argillic Alteration
Advanced argillic alteration is believed to be widespread in the upper,

commonly volcanic-hosted parts of gold-rich porphyry systems. This
alteration is partly preserved in eight of the deposits considered (Table I).
Chalcedonic quartz, alunite-natroalunite, pyrophyllite, diaspore, and kaolinite
± dickite are abundant component minerals. Barite and native sulphur appear
also as late-stage, open-space fillings. Pyrite-rich, high-sulphidation sulphide
assemblages containing abundant enargite and luzonite + covellite may be
present, especially in structurally controlled replacement bodies of
chalcedonic quartz ± alunite (e.g., Guinaoang: Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985).
Pyrophyllite-clay zones are normally metal-poor and typified by only a few
percent disseminated pyrite (e.g., Island Copper: Perello et al, 1989).
Advanced argillic zones are invariably the last to be active during the
hydrothermal decline of porphyry systems, although the timing of their
initiation remains obscure (Fig. 3). Advanced argillic assemblages clearly
overprint intermediate argillic and K-silicate alteration, and at Marte (Vila et
al., 1991) and Guinaoang (Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985), structurally
localized, advanced argillic alteration extends for tens to hundreds of metres
beneath the subhorizontal, roughly planar bases of advanced argillic zones
(Fig. 2). At Guinaoang, hypogene chalco-cite and covellite, rather than
copper sulphosaits, are present in these advanced argillic roots (Sillitoe and
Angeles, 1985). The interface between advanced argillic alteration and
underlying alteration types may be designated as the transition between
epithermal and subvolcanic porphyry environments.
HYDROTHERMAL BRECCIAS
Hydrothermal breccias are commonly associated with gold-rich porphyry
deposits. Where generated early and of magmatic-hydrothermal
(orthomagmatic) origin, breccias show K-silicate alteration and may carry
higher copper and gold contents than surrounding stockwork and
disseminated zones. Examples are Panguna (Clark, 1990) and Endeavour 27
at Goonumbla (Jones, 1985). Inter-mineral to late-mineral breccias (Fig. 2)
may also be well mineralized — as at Lepanto Far Southeast (Garcia, 1991)
and Galore Creek (writer's unpublished report, 1991), but they are
commonly of sub-ore grade or barren. In contrast, end-stage diatreme
breccias, associated plug domes (Fig. 2), and volumetrically minor pebble
dykes are generally barren (Sillitoe, 1985); however, at Lepanto, there is a
major enargite-gold orebody immediately beneath a flared diatreme contact
(Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Concepcion and Cinco, 1989; Garcia, 1991).

GOLD MINERALIZATION
The bulk of gold in gold-rich porphyry deposits is introduced with copper

during K-silicate alteration and, as a general rule, gold and copper grades
vary sympathetically (Fig. 4). Ore zones are commonly upright cylinders or
bell-shaped bodies, although other geometries are known (e.g., flat, tabular
body at Mount Milligan: Rebagliati and Copeland, 1989). Intermediate
argillic alteration zones may constitute ore where they overprint copper- and
gold-bearing K-silicate assemblages. Moreover, locally, sericitic and
advanced argillic alterations carry appreciable gold and copper values;
examples are Guinaoang (Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985) and Bell Copper
(Carson et al., 1976).
Figure 4. Distribution of copper and

gold on an upper level of the Dizon
deposit, Philippines. (From Sillitoe
and Gappe, 1984)
Gold in gold-rich porphyry deposits is mainly fine grained (commonly <20

urn, generally <60 am) and present as high-fineness native metal. However,
subsidiary amounts of auriferous tellurides, possibly late-stage additions, are
reported from Bingham (Boutwell, 1905), Goonumbla (Heithersay et al.,
1990), Dos Pobres (Langton and Williams, 1982) and Skouries (Tarkian et al,
1991). Native gold is closely associated with the copper-iron and iron
sulphides (generally pyrite, but also marcasite at Ok Tedi) as either intergrown
grains, overgrown grains, or nearby, commonly quartz-encapsulated grains.

As much as half of the gold in pyritic deposits is generally associated with
pyrite, whereas in pyrite-poor deposits it is commonly associated with
chalcopyrite or bornite. In bornite-rich zones, bornite and gold are
characteristically intergrown (c/., Cuddy and Kesler, 1982).
Many gold-rich porphyry deposits are deficient in molybdenum (Fig. 5)

(Barr et al., 1976; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), whereas others possess
appreciable molybdenum contents and fall within Cox and Singer's (1988)
porphyry Cu-Au-Mo category (Fig. 5). However, molybdenum tends to be
concentrated as haloes to the molybdenum-poor, copper-gold cores of many
deposits (Fig. 6; e.g., Santo Tomas II, Lepanto Far Southeast, Ok Tedi, Bajo
de La Alumbrera, Dos Pobres, Saindak), although the molybdenum-rich core
at Bingham (John, 1978) provides a notable exception. Silver in gold-rich
porphyry deposits tends to exist co-spatially with gold, but the low values
present (0.5-4 ppm) are of no economic significance. Platinoids, especially
palladium, are also reported in close association with gold and copper in a
few deposits, for example, Santo Tomas II (R.P. Baluda, pers. comm., 1986)
and Skouries (Eliopoulos and Econo-mou-Eliopoulos, 1991).
Figure 5. Cu-Au-Mo triangular graph for selected gold-rich porphyry copper deposits.
Multiplication factors are those employed by Kesler (1973) and subsequent workers.
The fields occupied by porphyry Cu-Mo, Cu-Au-Mo, and Cu-Au as defined by Cox and
Singer (1988) are also depicted. Numbers are keyed to names in Table I. (Data taken from
references in Table I and the mining literature.)
SUPERGENE EFFECTS

Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits characteristically lack economically
significant zones of super-gene copper enrichment because of the low pyrite
contents and relatively high neutralizing capacities of most copper- and gold-
bearing K-silicate zones. Consequently, leached cappings are goethitic and
contain appreciable copper as malachite, neotocite, pitch limonite (cupreous
goethite) and other oxidized copper minerals. However, notable exceptions are
provided by the chalcocite blankets at Bingham (Boutwell, 1905), Tanama
(Cox, 1985), Ok Tedi (Bam-ford, 1972) and Sungai Ɇɚɤ (C.J. Bryant and M.J.
Wilson, unpublished report, 1984), and by the copper-poor, jarositic leached
capping at the Marte porphyry gold deposit (Vila et al., 1991).
Gold enrichment is abnormal in leached cappings over gold-rich porphyry

deposits, but it is reported at Bingham (Boutwell, 1905) and Ok Tedi (Danti
et al, 1988). There a portion of the gold is substantially coarser than that in
subjacent sulphide zones (Rush and Seegers, 1990). Gold enrichment at Ok
Tedi may have been appreciable, given that 46 Mt in the leached capping
averaged 2.7 ppm Au, more than four times greater than the average gold
content of subjacent hypogene ore.
In common with most porphyry copper deposits, gold-rich examples are

characterized, by supergene kaolinization of silicates (especially plagioclase),
martitization of magnetite, and hydration (to gypsum) and subsequent
dissolution of anhydrite. Blasting and caving characteristics of ore are
markedly different beneath the anhydrite front, which constitutes a roughly
planar or trough-shaped interface hundreds of metres beneath the surface
within hypogene ore (e.g., Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Clark, 1990).
GENETIC ASPECTS
Results of fluid-inclusion and isotopic studies (e.g., Bowman et al, 1987;

Cox, 1985; Eastoe, 1982; Trudu and Bloom, 1988) suggest strongly that gold
and copper in K-silicate alteration zones are transported as chloride
complexes in high-temperature (350° to > 700°C), magmatic-hydrothermal
brines. Brines probably are produced mainly by aqueous-fluid immis-cibility
at high temperatures (Cline and Bodnar, 1991). Chlorine, sulphur and,

possibly, gold and copper contents of brines most likely originate from
dehydration of subducted oceanic crust beneath volcano-plutonic arcs (e.g.,
Candela, 1989; Ishihara, 1981; Sillitoe, 1972). At upper crustal levels, the
metals and other introduced components are liberated as a result of
decompression during convective overturn of magma chambers beneath the
composite porphyry stocks (Westra, 1979; Hendry et al., 1985). The required
volume of these parent magma chambers is only a few tens of cubic
kilometres (Cline and Bodnar, 1991). The mineralized porphyry stocks
occupy the conduits that deliver magma to overlying stratovolcanoes, and act
as "valves" for focussed collection and release of ascending fluids. Ore
deposition in and adjoining stocks takes place in a zone of lithostatic-
hydrostatic transition, where mechanical energy released during repeated
second boiling events causes extensive rock fracturing and localized
brecciation (Burnham, 1979). Dilution, cooling and boiling induce
destabilization of chloride complexes and precipitation of gold and copper in
the fractured rocks (e.g., Seward, 1984).
Progressive outward mixing and cooling of magmatic-hydrothermal brines

with meteoric and (or) formation waters in the host rocks give rise to the
transition from metal-bearing K-silicate to barren propylitic alteration (e.g.,
Bowman et al., 1987). Lower density, acidic volatiles resulting from aqueous
immiscibility ascend, condense and mix with meteoric water in shallow parts
of systems, causing advanced argillic alteration. Copper, gold and arsenic
may be transported in these fluids as volatile chloride complexes (Symonds
et al., 1987; Cline and Bodnar, 1991). Deeper condensation of magmatic vol-
atiles into meteoric water, rather than simply the ingress of meteoric water
alone (e.g., Sheppard et al., 1971), is tentatively proposed as responsible for
sericitic alteration because of observed downward passage from advanced
argillic to sericitic assemblages. However, the substantially more oxidized
(hematite-bearing) intermediate argillic assemblages appear to mark the
retrograde collapse of meteoric convection cells onto the cores of systems.
The amount of gold inherited from early K-silicate assemblages during
superimposition of intermediate argillic, sericitic or advanced argillic
alteration remains to be assessed.

Post-mineral contact of relatively cool meteoric water with late-stage
magma bodies is believed to trigger phreatomagmatic explosions responsible
for diatreme emplacement and phreatic brecciation responsible for pebble
dykes (Sillitoe, 1985). More widespread occurrence of diatremes in
association with gold-rich porphyry deposits in western Pacific island arcs
(Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Carlile and Kirkegaard, 1985) may be attributed to
pluvial climates and greater availability of meteoric water.
The degree of overprinting (telescoping) of advanced argillic alteration on

deeper environments is taken to reflect the amount of paleosurface
degradation during the life spans (1-2 Ma; Silberman, 1985) of porphyry
systems (Sillitoe, 1989). In extreme cases, the bases of advanced argillic
zones impinge on porphyry stocks, as at Marte (Vila et al., 1991).
EXPLORATION IMPLICATIONS
Target Selection
The most prospective areas for gold-rich porphyry deposits are well defined
porphyry copper-gold belts and districts of the circum-Pacific and Alpine-
Himalayan regions. Areas such as the Philippine archipelago, north Sulawesi
(Indonesia), the island of New Guinea (Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea),
British Columbia, and the Serbo-Macedonian massif (parts of Bulgaria,
Greece and the former Yugoslavia) spring immediately to mind.
Concentration of exploration effort in these volcano-plutonic arcs, each
carrying at least one gold-rich porphyry deposit, is amply justified by recent
major discoveries at Lepanto Far Southeast (Philippines), Grasberg (Irian
Jaya), and Mount Milligan (British Columbia).
Maximum exploration potential may exist within 3-4 km of known deposits

because of the tendency of porphyry copper deposits to occur in clusters, as
in the Philippines (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). These clusters probably reflect
the positions of underlying causative plutons. The 11 discrete porphyry
prospects in the Goonumbla district (Heithersay et al., 1990) provide an
extreme example of this tendency. However, the location of Marte and Lobo
in the Chilean Andes and Dos Pobres in southwestern North America, both

regions long-accepted as gold-poor porphyry copper-molybdenum
provinces, emphasizes the potential of subduction-related settings
worldwide. This point is underscored further by the apparent independence
of gold-rich porphyry deposits from the overall crustal setting, structural
position and intrusive composition in I-type, magnetite-series volcano-
plutonic arcs, as noted above. Redox state of I-type, magnetite-series
intrusions as an indicator of gold potential is still too contentious (see above)
for use as an exploration tool. It is also an exceedingly difficult parameter to
measure properly in the case of the hydrothermally altered intrusive rocks
ubiquitous in porphyry systems.
In any volcano-plutonic arc, deeply eroded (>4 km) terranes characterized

by extensive batholiths must be considered of lower priority than areas
possessing isolated stocks and widespread volcanic rocks of intermediate
composition, albeit containing a few larger plutons. Epithermal gold
deposits, especially the high-sulphidation, acid-sulphate type, are
commonplace in areas with an appropriate erosion level for exposure and
preservation of gold-rich porphyry deposits {e.g., Sillitoe, 1989; Vila and
Sillitoe, 1991).
In mature, well explored porphyry copper-gold belts and districts, remaining

potential is likely to be greatest beneath high-level zones of advanced argillie
alteration (lithocaps; Fig. 2). Enargite-(luzonite-) gold mineralization in an
advanced argillic zone may be considered as hypogene leakage from a
concealed porphyry deposit, although the deposit may not be rich in gold in
all cases (Sillitoe, 1988). However, it should be borne in mind that the
porphyry deposit is not necessarily located vertically beneath the enargite-
gold mineralization, especially if there is appreciable lateral fluid transport
controlled by a dominant structure (see Sillitoe, 1983, fig. 1; Carlile and
Kirke-gaard, 1985, fig. 2; Garcia, 1991, fig 3). Where late-stage diatremes
cut advanced argillic zones, their phreatomagmatic breccia fill should be
scrutinized for clasts of gold-rich porphyry-type mineralization transported
upward from concealed deposits. The existence of Lepanto Far Southeast
deposit was predicted in this way (Sillitoe, 1983; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984).

Where gold-rich porphyry mineralization concealed by lithocaps, flared
diatremes or post-mineral cover is drill-tested, care must be taken to
distinguish early, well mineralized from inter- or late-mineral intrusive
phases, which if intersected in isolation may lead to properties being
abandoned for lack of grade.
Once gold-rich porphyry prospects are identified, observed alteration and

mineralization features may be used to predict the likely metallurgical
response. Gold-rich porphyry deposits with high pyrite/ (chalcopyrite +
bornite) ratios, commonly those that underwent intense intermediate argillic
or sericitic overprinting, are characterized by low (50%) gold recoveries
using conventional flotation techniques because of gold loss to tails (e.g.,
Amacan, Bell Copper). Therefore, pyrite-deficient prospects, having gold re-
coveries in the 70-90% range, constitute more attractive exploration
objectives.
In complete contrast, gold-rich leached cappings above pyritic porphyry-

type mineralization are preferable to those developed from chalcopyrite- and
bornite-rich deposits because oxide copper contents are lower, thereby
rendering them potentially more amenable to cyanidation. Gold leach circuits
are senitive to the presence of cyanide-soluble minerals, especially oxidized
copper; this sensitivity is exemplified by the grave problems encountered
during processing of the gold-rich capping at Ok Tedi (Rush and Seegers,
1990).
Exploration Methods
Geological, geochemical and geophysical techniques employed routinely in

porphyry copper exploration are equally applicable to the gold-rich end of
the porphyry spectrum. Geochemical, chargeability and magnetic responses
are markedly different at progressively deeper levels in gold-rich porphyry
systems, as idealized in Figure 6. Each displays additional variations related
to further intrusive and alteration complexities and to degree and nature of
supergene alteration. Chargeability maxima highlight pyritic haloes, rather
than copper-gold cores lower in total sulphide content, but define effectively
the overall dimensions of porphyry systems.

Of particular use, however, are gold geochemistry and magnetometry.
Appreciable depletion of gold has not been recorded from leached cappings
above gold-rich porphyry deposits subjected to temperate, arid or tropical
climatic conditions; indeed enrichment took place at Bingham (Boutwell,
1905) and Ok Tedi (Danti et al, 1988). Consequently, gold values in bedrock,
talus fines, and soils closely reflect hypo-gene gold contents of underlying
porphyry deposits (e.g., Learned and Boisson, 1973; Lowder and Dow, 1978;
Vila et a/., 1991). The -80 mesh (<177 urn) fraction of stream-sediment
samples is also an effective medium for detection of gold-rich porphyry
deposits, given the fine-grained nature of the native metal. Panned-
concentrate (heavy-mineral) geochemistry is also often applicable, especially
where placer gold is associated with gold-rich porphyry copper deposits
(e.g., Bingham, Panguna, Ok Tedi).
The high magnetite contents of many gold-rich porphyry deposits enable

detection by ground and in some cases, as at Island Copper (Cargill et al.,
1976), even airborne magnetic surveys (Fig. 6). Nevertheless, magnetic
susceptibilities can be reduced dramatically by both hypogene (intermediate
argillic) and supergene martitization of magnetite.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits are not a discrete ore deposit type;
instead they represent the gold-rich end of the porphyry copper spectrum
(Fig. 5) (e.g., Cox and Singer, 1988). However, besides the obvious
enrichment in gold and general (but far from universal) impoverishment in
molybdenum (Fig. 5), gold-rich porphyry copper deposits do not possess any
unique features that distinguish them from porphyry copper-molybdenum
deposits. Nevertheless, more than 80% (Table I) of gold-rich porphyry
copper deposits are appreciably richer in hydrothermal magnetite (±
hematite) than other porphyry copper deposits. As well, they tend to display
calc-silicate in addition to K-silicate alteration of centrally located ore zones,
as exemplified by the presence of amphibole, pyroxene and (or) garnet.
Furthermore, sericitic alteration overprinting or alongside copper-gold zones
appears to be less widespread than in gold-poor deposits

Figure 6. Alteration cross-sections to show litho-geochemical, chargeability, and
magnetic responses at (a) shallow, (b) intermediate and (c) deep levels in a typical
gold-rich porphyry copper system. Supergene effects are omitted. Sections a, b, and ɫ
are shown in Figure 2, but are not drawn to extend across the diatreme-dome complex

Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits, including copper-poor, gold-only end
members, are generated in volcano-plutonic arcs of apparently all ages
worldwide, and are preserved where overall erosion levels are relatively
shallow (<4 km). Island-arc and continental-margin settings seem to be
equally favorable. The deposits are associated with porphyry stocks
possessing a wide range of compositions: low-to high-potassium calc-alkalic
as well as alkalic. Porphyry copper-molybdenum and copper-gold deposits
are present with calc-alkalic stocks, but only gold-rich deposits appear to
accompany alkalic stocks.
(Mineral Deposit Modeling (1993) Ed. RV Kirkham, WD Sinclair, RI Thorpe, & JM

Duke. Geological Association of Canada)

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
NOTE-TAKING
Notes show key information only.Efficient note-taking will include: key
words, short phrases, figures, symbols and signs, abbreviations. Whole
sentences are never used in note-making. Note – taking focuses on the key
information and not on the form of the sentence.
How should notes be organized? – in a line, as a list-like structure, a spider
web or mindmap type.
Sectioning and listing – is necessary to make your notes easy to read and
information easy to find. There are a variety of techniques, such as capitals
for headings and sub-headings; lettering system; colouring; sketching or
drawing diagrams.
TAKING LECTURE NOTES
I. There are many reasons for taking lecture notes.
A. Making yourself take notes forces you to listen carefully and test your
understanding of the material.
B. When you are reviewing, notes provide a gauge to what is important in

the text.
C. Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text.
D. The writing down of important points helps you to remember then

even before you have studied the material formally.
II. Instructors usually give clues to what is important to take down. Some of
the more common clues are:
A. Material written on the blackboard.
B. Repetition
C. Emphasis

1. Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gesture.
2. Emphasis can be judged by the amount of time the instructor

spends on points and the number of examples he or she uses.
D. Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . " "The third
reason is . . . " " In conclusion . . . ")
E. Summaries given at the end of class.
F. Reviews given at the beginning of class.
III. Each student should develop his or her own method of taking notes, but
most students find the following suggestions helpful:
A. Make your notes brief.
1. Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase
where you can use a word.
2. Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent.
B. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be
noted exactly:
1. Formulas
2. Definitions
3. Specific facts
C. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention helps you

distinguish major from minor points.
D. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the
information later.
E. Don't try to use every space on the page. Leave room for coordinating
your notes with the text after the lecture. (You may want to list key
terms in the margin or make a summary of the contents of the page.)
F. Date your notes. Perhaps number the pages.

SAVING TIME ON NOTETAKING
Here are some hints regarding taking notes on classroom lectures that can
save time for almost any student. Some students say that they plan to rewrite
or type their notes later. To do so is to use a double amount of time; once to
take the original notes and a second to rewrite them. The advice is simple:
DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME
Second, there are some students who attempt to take notes in shorthand.
Though shorthand is a valuable tool for a secretary, it is almost worthless for
a student doing academic work. Here's why. Notes in shorthand cannot be
studied in that form. They must first be transcribed. The act of transcribing
notes takes an inordinate amount of time and energy but does not
significantly contribute to their mastery. It is far better to have taken the
notes originally in regular writing and then spend the time after that in direct
study and recitation of the notes.
Third, do not record the lesson on a cassette tape or any other tape. The
lecture on tape precludes flexibility. This statement can be better understood
when seen in the light of a person who has taken his/her notes in regular
writing. Immediately after taking the notes this person can study them in five
minutes before the next class as s/he walks toward the next building, as s/he
drinks his/her coffee, or whatever. Furthermore, this student, in looking over
his/her notes, may decide that the notes contain only four worthwhile ideas
which s/he can highlight, relegating the rest of the lecture to obscurity.
Whereas the lecture on tape has to be listened to in its entirety including the
worthwhile points as well as the "garbage," handwritten notes may be studied
selectively. A student who takes the easy way out - recording the lecture on
tape as he or she sits back doing nothing - will box him or herself into
inflexibility.
(Academic Skills Center, Dartmouth College 2001)

SUMMARISING INFORMATION FROM THE TEXT
Write a summary of the text, using the information below.

Summarising information from the text.
How to summarise:
9 It is important to decide why you are summarizing;
9 It is essential to understand the material to summarise;
9 It is useful to take notes;
9 Write your summary using your own notes;
9 Read the original text tocompare it with the written summary.
When summarizing, use the N.O.W. approach:
NOTE down key points
ORANISE the points
WRITE your summary using these points
HOW TO WRITE A REPORT
1. What is a report?
A report is a systematic, well organised document which defines and analyses
a subject or problem, and which may include:
the record of a sequence of events
interpretation of the significance of these events or facts
evaluation of the facts or results of research presented
discussion of the outcomes of a decision or course of action
conclusions
recommendations
Reports must always be:
accurate
concise
clear
well structured
2.Initial preparation Always analyse your brief carefully, making sure that
you fully understand the topic, question or case, that you know what the
purpose of the report is, and who it is being written for. The clearer these

things are in your mind, the easier the report will be to write and the more
effective it will be.
3. Planning and research

You first need to decide your basic framework. With your main topic or
question as a central focus, jot down your initial thoughts and start to group
these together. You may find the Mind Mapping technique useful: Start to
divide key ideas from subsidiary information, and continually ask yourself if
everything is relevant; if it isn’t, then delete it.
From your prior knowledge (from reading and lectures), you should be able
to put together a fairly basic structure.
You will now be able to plan your research. Ask yourself what you need to
find out, maybe in the form of questions that need to be answered, then
approach your reading from this starting point. If you have specific
information to look for, it will make your reading easier and less time
consuming.
Try not to gather too much information. Again, keeping your topic or
question in mind, reject anything which is not 100% relevant. When you’re
making notes, always try to summarise the main points as concisely as
possible. Remember to make a comprehensive record of any sources
consulted in order to be able to correctly reference these.
4. Compiling a bibliography
This is either a separate list of sources which you have used during your
research, but have not actually made reference to in your writing, or this list
together with your list of references.
A book – single author
Evans, A. (1993) Ore geology and industrial minerals.UK: Blackwell

Publishing.

A book – more than one author
Moon, C and Whateley, M. (2007) Introduction to mineral exploration.

UK: Blackwell Publishing.

A journal article
Butt, C.R.M. (1992) ‘Conceptual models in exploration geochemistry’

Geochemistry Exploration. 12: pp. 89 - 97

An Internet site
Wikipedia Encycopaedia. 23 \ 04 \ 10 Witwatersrand basin http; \\ www.

en.wikipedia. org. \ wiki \
5. References
This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made
reference within your text. By far the most common method in use is the
Harvard method.
The important thing is that your referencing is COMPLETE, ACCURATE
and CONSISTENT.
THE HARVARD METHOD

1. Within your text, you simply state the SURNAME of the author (without
an initial or first name), the YEAR OF PUBLICATION, and sometimes the
PAGE NUMBER (separated from the date by a colon, or written p.78).
For example: According to Stewart (1996).
Butcher (1991:78) gives an entirely different explanation of the phenomenon.
The full details of the source then appear at the end of the work, in your
references section. Your references must be strictly alphabetical.

6. Writing introductions
Your introduction is the first impression your readers will have of your
writing. A good introduction will show them that you know what you're
talking about and that you're going to complete the task in question. It will
also make them want to carry on reading and feel well disposed to what is to
come. A bad introduction will have the opposite effect and might even
prejudice the reader against the rest of the writing, even if it does improve.
A good introduction will:
show that you are going to answer the question or complete the task
show that you understand the issues and their implications
show how you are going to do this by indicating the structure of your
answer and making clear the main areas that you are going to write about
(your plan).
show evidence that you have carried out some research by making a
reference to one of your sources
be totally relevant
be concise: 8-9% of the total number of words is usually recommended
(eg 120 words in a 1500 word assignment).
The introduction includes :

a "topic sentence" which indicates the main thrust of your answer. For
example;
use the same, or very similar, wording as in the question.
use words and expressions which clearly show the plan behind your
writing, for example:
The report is divided into four main sections.

It will first consider ...
It will then go on to describe ...
The third part compares ...
Finally, some conclusions will be drawn as to ...

EXAMPLE:
The survey area is located in the Olcha mineralization zone, Magadan region.
Theexploration target is to study the material rock composition and Olcha ore
deposits, their textural-structure features, and further mineralization.
Exploration tasks included macroscopic analysis of rocks and ores,
microscopic investigation of thin sections. Eight polished and seven thin
sections were prepared for the microscopic analysis. The report is divided
into two major parts. The first part describes the geological structure of the
studied ore field. The second part includes the different survey methods used
during the exploration study. Finally some conclusions will be drawn as to
genetic structure types, characertistic features of ores in this zone,and
preliminary estimation of reserves.
7. Title page (always included)

This should normally include the title, your name and the name of the tutor to
whom it is being submitted, date of submission, your course/department, and
if applicable, the name of the person and/or organisation who has
commissioned the report.
The title page should normally include the title, your name, date, the
unit/subject, course and the name of the tutor to whom it is being submitted.
Requirements do vary though from course to course, so check with your tutor
what is expected.
Make sure you copy the title exactly as it has been given to you: don’t
paraphrase or summarise it in any way. Print the title in a bigger font (and
maybe in bold) as it should stand out from the rest of the information.
Ensure everything is spelt correctly! A mistake on the title page creates a

very bad impression.
It is generally best to avoid graphics and pictures (especially Microsoft

clipart!); also avoid coloured and “fancy” fonts or effects.

EXAMPLE:
Gold-bearing Ores in Zharki Area (Magadan Region).

Research Techniques and Methods
Submitted by: Dasha Cherdantseva
Submitted to: Associate Prof, R.N. Abramova
Date: 23 May, 2011
Geology and Mineral Exploration
Year 4
National Research
Tomsk Polytechnical University
Institute of Natural Resources
8. Contents page
A clear, well-formatted list of all the sections and sub-sections of the repo rt.
Don’t forget to put the page numbers! If applicable, there should be a
separate list of tables, figures, illustrations and/or appendices after the main
index.
Make sure that the headings in this list correspond exactly with those in your
main body. (It is best to do your list of contents right at the end.)

EXAMPLE:
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction 3
1. Geology 4
1.1 Geological feature of search works area 4
1.2 Geological structures of Zharki area 4
2. Prerequisites and features of ore mineralization 5
2.1Prerequisites of ore mineralization 5
2.2 Search features of ore mineralization 5
3. Research methods 5
3.1 Distance methods of searching 6
3.2 Surveying work 6
3.3 Geological survey (geological routes) 6
3.4 Geochemical work 6
3.5 Geophysical work 7
3.6 Underground development 7
3.7 Drilling operations 7
4. Laboratory research of ores and host rocks 8
4.1 Research techniques and methods 8
4.2 The specific feature of host rocks and ores 8
4.3 Electron microscopy 9
4.4 Output 9
Conclusion 10
Bibliography 11
9. Main body/findings
This is the substance of your report. The structure will vary according to the
nature of the material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used
to clearly indicate the different sections.
A"situation>problem>solution>evaluation" approach may be appropriate.
Charts, diagrams and tables can be used to reinforce your arguments,
although sometimes it may be better to include these as an appendix.
Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section.

Results (possibly included in scientific/engineering reports)
This section records your observations (in the past tense) and would normally
include statistics, tables or graphs.
EXAMPLE: APPENDIX 1 (pg.157)
10. Conclusions
A good conclusion will show that you have successfully answered the
question or completed the task set. A good conclusion should:
be more than just a summary. It should be a thoughtful end to a piece of

writing; for example, by applying what you have written to the outside world.
emphasize or reinforce your main ideas, but with your ideas restated in a
fresh way: don't use the same language again. You should refer back to your
introduction, either with key words or parallel concepts and images.
if appropriate, suggest results or consequences or make a call for some
sort of action.
make predictions or suggest solution.
A good conclusion should NOT:

include completely new ideas. If they're important, include them in your
main text.
focus on minor points.
qualify the impact of any previous points.
EXAMPLE:
Deposit mineral formation according to composition is divided into 3 major
genetic structure types;
2) Replaced associated with metamosmatic wall rocks and
ores;
3) Mineral deposits formed during vein-filling;
4) Cataclastic- indicating traces of the wall rock alteration
and early mineral aggregate formation with further clastic
cementation of vein minerals (breccias).
Distinctive characteristics of ores in Olcha field include low sulfidization and
copper mineralogy, which can be seen in the wide development of
chalcopyrite. There is also a weak zone of oxidation.

According to texture-structure and mineralogical characteristics, Olcha area
is of subsurface (epithermal) genesis of Au-Ag mineralization.
11. How to write an abstract.
ABSTRACT SUMMARY ANNOTATION

A shortened version of Restates the main Critical or explanatory
the paper written for findings and comments added to a
people who may never conclusions of a paper document or literary
read the full version and is written for people work after it has been
who have already the created or published.
whole thing
WHERE?
Normally appears at the top of the page in front of the actual paper it outlines.
WHY?
To inform readers concisely as possible what is in the article so that one can
decide whether to read it in detail.
WHAT?
2 types:
¾ Descriptive- a kind of «contents list» of what will be in the paper (
appropriate for longer papers- review articles); general statements of
facts;
¾ Informative describes what will be in the article and gives a summary
of the main factual information- methods, materials and results,
conclusions ( papers and reports about original research); what was
actually done or found
HOW LONG?
¾ No fixed length
¾ Write enough for what the reader needs to know rather summarizing
everything the paper;
¾ Typical length between 100-250 words (5 – 10% of the original)

WHAT? (content)
¾ Introduction (an expansion \ explanation of the title);

¾ Discussing the characteristic features of the problem ( purpose of the
research);
¾ Methods and materials ( describing method, equipment and conditions
of experiments- how it was conducted);
¾ Results (main findings);
¾ Advantages \ disadvantages (recommendations);
¾ Conclusion (limitations)
******NOT
Any information that is not in the paper;
Abbreviations;
Tables and diagrams;
Citations from other people’s works
HOW? (structuring)
x Most significant ideas

x Know the main point in a short period of time
HOW? (effectiveness)
x Descriptive- present tenses ; generalized vocabulary and phrases

x Informative – pas tense; precise specific language, including numbers
What are KEYWORDS?
x Most important words that are specifically related to the topic (in the
paper)
x Printed at the end of the abstract (in a line)

WORDS FOR WRITING AN ABSTRACT
Means of connection- the sentences within the paragraph can also be linked
with the help of transitional words and phrases (conjunctions \ conjunction
phrases).
ADDITION CONTRAST CONSEQUENCE
and then (thus, now) but hence
furthermore however therefore
in addition nevertheless thus
besides on the one (other) hand as a result
in a similar way on the contrary because
again in contrast with
also ENUMERATION
SUMMARY firstly \secondly….
CAUSE in conclusion in the first place
this is the reason for … to conclude lastly
for this reason in brief
EXPLANATION
GENERALIZATION ILLUSTRATION in respect of (to)
in general for example concerning
as a rule for instance with regard to
on the whole to illustrate that
EXAMPLE:
Linking sentences with the verbs of «acquiring and passing on» knowledge
also serve as boundary –signals between different paragraphs and at the same
time bring them together.
show demonstrate point out introduce
illustrate discuss explain characterize
mention describe concentrate assume

ɗɅȿɆȿɇɌɕ ɉȿɊȿȼɈȾȺ ɋ ȺɇȽɅɂɃɋɄɈȽɈ əɁɕɄȺ
ɇȺ ɊɍɋɋɄɂɃ
1. ɉɊȺȼɂɅɈ ɊəȾȺ
ȿɫɥɢ ɩɨɫɥɟ ɚɪɬɢɤɥɹ (ɢɥɢ ɞɪɭɝɨɝɨ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɢɬɟɥɹ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɨɝɨ) ɫɬɨɢɬ
ɪɹɞ ɫɥɨɜ (ɱɚɳɟ ɜɫɟɝɨ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɯ ɜ ɟɞɢɧɨɦ ɱɢɫɥɟ ɢ ɛɟɡ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɝɚ
(ɩɪɟɞɥɨɝɢ ɨɛɵɱɧɨ ɩɪɟɪɵɜɚɸɬ ɪɹɞ), ɬɨ ɬɨɥɶɤɨ ɩɨɫɥɟɞɧɟɟ ɢɡ ɧɢɯ ɛɭɞɟɬ
ɬɟɦ ɫɥɨɜɨɦ, ɤ ɤɨɬɨɪɨɦɭ ɨɬɧɨɫɢɬɶɫɹ ɚɪɬɢɤɥɶ ɢ ɫ ɤɨɬɨɪɨɝɨ ɧɚɞɨ
ɧɚɱɢɧɚɬɶ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞ ɪɹɞɚ, ɦɵɫɥɟɧɧɨ ɫɬɚɜɹ ɩɨɫɥɟ ɧɟɝɨ ɜɨɩɪɨɫ ɄȺɄɈɃ?
ȼɫɟ ɨɫɬɚɥɶɧɵɟ ɫɥɨɜɚ ɹɜɥɹɸɬɫɹ ɟɝɨ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹɦɢ.
ɉɪɢ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɚ ɪɹɞɚ ɫɜɹɡɶ ɦɟɠɞɭ ɫɥɨɜɚɦɢ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɢɡ ɢɯ
ɥɟɤɫɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɹ ɩɪɢ ɷɬɨɦ ɦɨɠɧɨ ɜɜɨɞɢɬɶ ɦɧɨɠ-ɧɨɟ ɱɢɫɥɨ,
ɢɫɩɨɥɶɡɨɜɚɬɶ ɪɚɡɧɵɟ ɩɚɞɟɠɢ \ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɝɢ, ɧɨ ɜ ɜɫɟɯ ɫɥɭɱɚɹɯ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɢɦɵɦ
ɫɥɨɜɨɦ ɛɭɞɟɬ ɩɨɫɥɟɞɧɟɟ.
Ɋɹɞ, ɫɨɫɬɨɹɳɢɣ ɬɨɥɶɤɨ ɢɡ 2ɯ ɫɥɨɜ: ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɨɟ ɢɝɪɚɸɳɟɟ ɪɨɥɶ
ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ, ɥɢɛɨ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɩɪɢɥɚɝɚɬɟɥɶɧɵɦ \ ɥɢɛɨ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞ
ɧɚɱɢɧɚɟɬɫɹ ɫ ɩɟɪɜɨɝɨ ɫɥɨɜɚ.
Ɋɹɞ ɫɨɫɬɨɢɬ ɢɡ 3ɯ ɫɥɨɜ: ( ɫɪɟɞɧɟɟ ɦɨɠɟɬ ɛɵɬɶ ɩɪɢɥɚɝɚɬɟɥɶɧɵɦ, Participle
I \ II, ɢɥɢ gerund) ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞ ɫɥɟɞɭɟɬ ɧɚɱɢɧɚɬɶ ɫ ɩɨɫɥɟɞɧɟɝɨ ɫɥɨɜɚ ɢ
ɩɪɨɞɨɥɠɚɬɶ ɜ ɫɬɪɨɝɨ ɨɛɪɚɬɧɨɦ ɩɨɪɹɞɤɟ, ɩɪɢɱɟɦ ɩɪɢ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɟ ɞɨɥɠɧɚ
ɛɵɬɶ ɫɨɛɥɸɞɟɧɚ ɝɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɮɨɪɦɚ ɫɪɟɞɧɟɝɨ ɫɥɨɜɚ.
EXAMPLE: rock-feeding system - ɫɢɫɬɟɦɚ ɩɨɞɚɸɳɚɹ ɝɨɪɧɭɸ ɩɨɪɨɞɭ
ȿɫɥɢ ɜ ɪɹɞɭ ɩɟɪɜɵɦ ɫɬɨɢɬ ɩɪɢɥɚɝɚɬɟɥɶɧɨɟ, ɬɨ ɨɧɨ ɨɛɵɱɧɨ ɨɬɧɨɫɢɬɫɹ ɤ
ɩɨɫɥɟɞɧɟɦɭ cɥɨɜɭ.
EXAMPLE: the important measurement parameters are presented in
Table 1. – ɗɬɢ ɜɚɠɧɵɟ ɩɚɪɚɦɟɬɪɵ ɢɡɦɟɪɟɧɢɹ ɩɪɟɞɫɬɚɜɥɟɧɵ ɜ ɬɚɛɥɢɰɟ 1.
ɋɨɸɡɵ (and \ or) ɨɛɵɱɧɨ ɧɟ ɩɪɟɪɵɜɚɸɬ ɪɹɞɚ
EXAMPLE: sand and mud carrying waters – ɜɨɞɵ, ɧɟɫɭɳɢɟ ɩɟɫɨɤ ɢ ɢɥ.
ȿɫɥɢ ɦɟɠɞɭ ɞɜɭɦɹ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɦɢ ɧɟɬ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɝɚ OF ɬɨ ɜɬɨɪɨɟ ɢɡ ɧɢɯ

ɨɫɧɨɜɧɨɟ,ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɹɟɦɨɟ ( ɢ ɫ ɧɟɝɨ ɧɚɞɨ ɧɚɱɢɧɚɬɶ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞ), ɚ ɩɟɪɜɨɟ
ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɟɦ ɤ ɧɟɦɭ.

2. ɋɌɊȺȾȺɌȿɅɖɇɕɃ ɁȺɅɈȽ
1. ɉɪɢ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɟ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɣ ɫɨ ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɵɦ ɜ ɫɬɪɚɞɚɬɟɥɶɧɨɦ ɡɚɥɨɝɟ
ɨɛɵɱɧɨ ɪɟɤɨɦɟɧɞɭɟɬɫɹ ɫɨɯɪɚɧɹɬɶ ɩɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɫɥɨɜ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ
ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ.
EXAMPLE: These data are presented in Fig. 2 (ɗɬɢ ɞɚɧɧɵɟ ɩɪɟɞɫɬɚɜɥɟɧɵ
\ ɞɚɸɬɫɹ ɧɚ ɪɢɫɸ 2)
2. ɉɪɢ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɟ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɨɝɨ ɜ ɫɬɪɚɞɚɬɟɥɶɧɨɦ ɡɚɥɨɝɟ ɦɨɠɧɨ
ɢɫɩɨɥɶɡɨɜɚɬɶ ɚɤɬɢɜɧɭɸ ɮɨɪɦɭ ɝɥɚɝɨɥɚ ɜ ɪɭɫɫɤɨɦ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ. ɉɪɢ
ɷɬɨɦ ɬɚɤɠɟ ɫɨɯɪɚɧɹɟɬɫɹ ɩɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɫɥɨɜ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ, ɨɞɧɚɤɨ
ɟɝɨ ɩɨɞɥɟɠɚɳɟɟ ɭɠɟ ɧɟ ɛɭɞɟɬ ɩɨɞɥɟɠɚɳɢɦ ɜ ɪɭɫɫɤɨɦ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɟ.
EXAMPLE: The pore spaces must be interconnected ……(ɉɨɪɵ ɞɨɥɠɧɵ
ɛɵɬɶ ɫɨɟɞɢɧɟɧɵ……)
3. ɇɟ ɫɥɟɞɭɟɬ ɡɚɛɵɜɚɬɶ ɨ ɜɨɡɦɨɠɧɨɫɬɢ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɚ ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɨɝɨ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ
ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ.,ɫɬɨɹɳɟɝɨ ɜ ɩɚɫɫɢɜɧɨɣ ɮɨɪɦɟ, ɪɭɫɫɤɢɦ ɝɥɚɝɨɥɨɦ ɜ
ɫɬɪɚɞɚɬɟɥɶɧɨɦ ɡɚɥɨɝɟ ɫ ɨɤɨɧɱɚɧɢɟɦ – ɫɹ ɢɥɢ – ɫɶ.
EXAMPLE: The advantage of this technique over others was recognized by
mmant scientists. ( ɉɪɟɢɦɭɳɟɫɬɜɨ ɷɬɨɝɨ ɦɟɬɨɞɚ ɩɟɪɟɞ ɞɪɭɝɢɦɢ
ɩɪɢɡɧɚɜɚɥɨɫɶ ɦɧɨɝɢɦɢ ɭɱɟɧɵɦɢ.)

3. ɉɊɂɑȺɋɌɂȿ I \ II
Forms of
Active Passive
participle
Present Ɏɭɧɤɰɢɹ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ Ɏɭɧɤɰɢɹ
participle ɉɟɪɟɜɨɞ: (ɚ) ɩɪɢɱ. ɧɚɫɬ. ɜɪɟɦɟɧɢ, ɞɟɣɫɬɜ. ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ
(Part I) Ɂɚɥɨɝ ɉɟɪɟɜɨɞ: (ɚ)
-ɭɲ, - ɸɳ, -ɚɳ, -ɹɳ ɩɪɢɞɚɬɨɱɧɨɟ ɨɩɪɟɞ.
(ɫɩɪɚɲɢɜɚɸɳɢɣ) ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠ.
(ɛ) ɩɪɢɞɚɬ. ɨɩɪɟɞ. ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠ. (ɛ) ɩɪɢɞɚɬ.ɧɚɫɬ. ɢ
ɩɪɨɲ. ɜɪɟɦɟɧɢ
Asking -ɟɦɵɣ, - ɢɦɵɣ
Being asked
Ɏɭɧɤɰɢɹ ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚ Ɏɭɧɤɰɢɹ
ɉɟɪɟɜɨɞ: ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚ
(ɚ) ɞɟɟɩɪ. ɧɚɫɬ. ɜɪɟɦɟɧɢ, ɚ-, ɹ – (ɫɩɪɚɲɢɜɚɹ) ɉɟɪɟɜɨɞ:
(ɛ) when, while 1.ɞɟɟɩɪɢɱɚɫɬ. ɧɚɫɬ.
i. ɫɩɪɚɲɢɜɚɹ ɢɥɢ ɩɪɨɲ. ɜɪɟɦ.
ii. «ɩɪɢ» + ɫɭɳ. (ɩɪɢ ɨɩɪɨɫɟ) (ɛɭɞɭɱɢ
iii. ɩɪɢɞ. ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬ. ɩɪɟɞ. ɫɩɪɨɲɟɧɧɵɦ)
2. ɩɪɢɞɚɬɨɱ. ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬ.
ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠ.
(ɤɨɝɞɚ ɟɝɨ ɫɩɪɨɫɢɥɢ)
Past Ɏɭɧɤɰɢɹ
Participle ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ
(Part. II) ɉɟɪɟɜɨɞ:
ɉɪɢɱɚɫɬɢɟɦ ɩɪɨɲ.
ɜɪ.
Asked ɫɬɪɚɞɚɬ. ɡɚɥɨɝɚ
ɫɭɮɮɢɤɫɵ –
ɇ-; -Ɇ-
«ɫɩɪɨɲɟɧɧɵɣ»
«ɫɩɪɚɲɢɜɚɟɦɵɣ»
Ɏɭɧɤɰɢɹ
ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚ
when, as, if
ɉɟɪɟɜɨɞ:
(ɚ) ɩɪɢɞɚɬ.
ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬ.ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠ.
(ɛ) «ɩɪɢ» + ɫɭɳ.
Perfect Ɍɨɥɶɤɨ ɮɭɧɤɰɢɹ ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚ Ɍɨɥɶɤɨ ɮɭɧɤɰɢɹ
Participle Having asked ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚ
ɉɟɪɟɜɨɞ:
(1) ɞɟɟɩɪɢɱ. ɩɪɨɲɟɞ. Having been asked
ɜɪɟɦɟɧɢ «ɫɩɪɨɫɢ» ɩɨɫɥɟ ɬɨɝɨ ɤɚɤ ɟɝɨ
(2) ̛̪̬̔. ̨̭̯̍. ̨̛̪̬̖̣̙̖̦̖̥̔ ɫɩɪɨɫɢɥɢ
Having been heated
ɧɚɝɪɟɜɲɢɫɶ

x Organic residue carried by waters eventually settled to the bottom of
the ancient seas ( Ɉɪɝɚɧɢɱɟɫɤɢɟ ɨɫɚɞɤɢ,ɭɧɨɫɢɦɵɟ ɜɨɞɚɦɢ, ɜ
ɤɨɧɟɱɧɨɦ ɫɱɟɬɟ, ɨɫɟɞɚɥɢ ɧɚ ɞɧɟ ɞɪɟɜɧɢɯ ɦɨɪɟɣ.)
x Most water associated with hydrocarbon reservoirs is salt water.
(Ȼɨɥɶɲɚɹ ɱɚɫɬɶ ɜɨɞɵ ɜ ɤɨɥɥɟɤɬɨɪɚɯ ɭɝɥɟɜɨɞɨɪɨɞɨɜ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ
ɫɨɥɟɧɨɣ ɜɨɞɨɣ.)
x Where the formation containing an oil reservoir is fairly uniformly
porous and continuous….. (ȼ ɫɥɭɱɚɟ, ɤɨɝɞɚ ɩɥɚɫɬ, ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɳɢɣ
ɧɟɮɬɟɧɨɫɧɵɣ ɤɨɥɥɟɤɬɨɪ, ɞɨɫɬɚɬɨɱɧɨ ɨɞɧɨɪɨɞɧɨ-ɩɨɪɢɫɬɵɣ.)
4. ɇȿɈɉɊȿȾȿɅȿɇɇȺə ɎɈɊɆȺ ȽɅȺȽɈɅȺ (ɂɇɎɂɇɂɌɂȼ)

1. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɩɨɞɥɟɠɚɳɟɝɨ ɢɧɮɢɧɢɬɢɜ ɫɬɨɢɬ ɜ ɧɚɱɚɥɟ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ, ɩɟɪɟɞ
ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɵɦ, ɢ ɦɨɠɟɬ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɢɥɢ ɧɟɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɧɨɣ ɮɨɪɦɨɣ ɝɥɚɝɨɥɚ,
ɢɥɢ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɦ.
EXAMPLE: To account for these variations is in principle straightforward.
(Ɉɛɴɹɫɧɟɧɢɟ ɷɬɢɯ ɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɢɣ ɜ ɩɪɢɧɰɢɩɟ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɩɪɨɫɬɵɦ.)
2. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɞɨɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɹ ɢɧɮɢɧɢɬɢɜ ɫɬɨɢɬ ɩɨɫɥɟ ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɨɝɨ ɢ
ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɧɚ ɪɭɫɫɤɢɣ ɹɡɵɤ ɧɟɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɧɨɣ ɮɨɪɦɨɣ ɝɥɚɝɨɥɚ.
EXAMPLE: We try to minimize the old disadvantages. (Ɇɵ ɫɬɚɪɚɟɦɫɹ
ɫɜɟɫɬɢ ɤ ɦɢɧɢɦɭɦɭ ɪɚɧɟɟ ɢɦɟɜɲɢɟ ɦɟɫɬɨ ɧɟɞɨɫɬɚɬɤɢ.)
3. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚ ɢɧɮɢɧɢɬɢɜ ɦɨɠɟɬ ɫɬɨɹɬɶ ɜ ɧɚɱɚɥɟ ɢ ɜ ɤɨɧɰɟ
ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ, ɢ ɜ ɨɛɨɢɯ ɫɥɭɱɚɹɯ ɟɝɨ ɫɥɟɞɭɟɬ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶ
ɧɟɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɧɨɣ ɮɨɪɦɨɣ ɝɥɚɝɨɥɚ ɫ ɫɨɸɡɚɦɢ ɞɥɹ ɬɨɝɨ ɱɬɨɛɵ ɢɥɢ ɱɬɨɛɵ.
EXAMPLE: The postulates should be simple enough to seem almost
obvious. (ɉɨɫɬɭɥɚɬɵ ɞɨɥɠɧɵ ɛɵɬɶ ɞɨɫɬɚɬɨɱɧɨ ɩɪɨɫɬɵɦɢ, ɱɬɨɛɵ ɤɚɡɚɬɶɫɹ
ɩɨɱɬɢ ɨɱɟɜɢɞɢɦɵɦ.)
4. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ ɢɧɮɢɧɢɬɢɜɨɛɵɱɧɨ ɫɬɨɢɬ ɩɨɫɥɟ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɹɟɦɨɝɨ
ɫɥɨɜɚ ɢ ɨɛɹɡɚɬɟɥɶɧɨ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɩɪɢɞɚɬɨɱɧɵɦ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɟɦ,
ɜɜɨɞɢɦɵɦ ɫɨɸɡɨɦ ɤɨɬɨɪɵɣ.
EXAMPLE: The curves to be presented in Part V were obtained on single-
crystal samples. (Ʉɪɢɜɵɟ, ɤɨɬɨɪɵɟ ɛɭɞɭɬ ɩɪɟɞɫɬɚɜɥɟɧɵ ɜ ɱɚɫɬɢ V, ɛɵɥɢ
ɩɨɥɭɱɟɧɵ ɧɚ ɨɛɪɚɡɰɚɯ ɦɨɧɨɤɪɢɫɚɥɥɨɜ.)
5. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɜɜɨɞɧɨɝɨ ɫɥɨɜɚ ɢɧɮɢɧɢɬɢɜɨɛɵɱɧɨ ɫɬɨɢɬ ɜ ɧɚɱɚɥɟ
ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɹ, ɜɫɟɝɞɚ ɜɵɞɟɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɡɚɩɹɬɵɦɢ ɢ ɦɨɠɟɬ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɢɥɢ
ɞɟɟɩɪɢɱɚɫɬɢɟɦ, ɢɥɢ ɧɟɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɧɨɣ ɮɨɪɦɨɣ ɝɥɚɝɨɥɚ.

EXAMPLE: To be sure, all solutions to problems are conditional.
(Ɉɱɟɜɢɞɧɨ/ ɛɟɡɭɫɥɨɜɧɨ, ɜɫɟ ɪɟɲɟɧɢɹ ɩɪɨɛɥɟɦ ɹɜɥɹɸɬɫɹ ɭɫɥɨɜɧɵɦɢ.)
5. ȽȿɊɍɇȾɂɃ
1.ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɩɨɞɥɟɠɚɳɟɝɨ ɝɟɪɭɧɞɢɣ ɫɬɨɢɬ ɩɟɪɟɞ ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɵɦ ɢ ɦɨɠɟɬ
ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɤɚɤɚ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɦ, ɬɚɤ ɢ ɢɧɮɢɧɢɬɢɜɨɦ.
EXAMPLE: Defining problems precisely requires patience. (Ɍɨɱɧɨɟ
ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ ɡɚɞɚɱ ɬɪɟɛɭɟɬ ɬɟɪɩɟɧɢɹ.)
2. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ ɝɟɪɭɧɞɢɣ ɫɬɨɹɬɶ ɩɟɪɟɞ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɹɟɦɵɦ ɫɥɨɜɨɦ ɛɟɡ
ɩɪɟɞɥɨɝɚ ɢ ɩɨɫɥɟ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɹɟɦɨɝɨ ɫɥɨɜɚ ɫ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɝɨɦ of ɢɥɢ for ɢ
ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɫɹ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɦ \ ɩɪɢɥɚɝɚɬɟɥɶɧɵɦ.
EXAMPLE: the melting point (the point of melting) – ɬɨɱɤɚ ɩɥɚɜɥɟɧɢɹ
3. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɨɛɫɬɨɹɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɚ ɝɟɪɭɧɞɢɣ ɜɫɟɝɞɚ ɢɦɟɟɬ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɝ ɢ ɢɧɨɝɞɚ
ɦɨɠɟɬ ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɞɟɟɩɪɢɱɚɫɬɢɟɦ.
4. ȼ ɪɨɥɢ ɞɨɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɹ ɝɟɪɭɧɞɢɣ ɫɬɨɢɬ ɩɨɫɥɟ ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɨɝɨ ɢ ɦɨɠɟɬ
ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɤɚɤɚ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɦ, ɬɚɤ ɢ ɢɧɮɢɧɢɬɢɜɨɦ, ɢɥɢ
ɫɤɚɡɭɟɦɵɦ ɜ ɩɪɢɞɚɬɨɱɧɨɦ ɩɪɟɞɥɨɠɟɧɢɢ.
EXAMPLE: The turbulent flow of gases produces coolong. (Ɍɭɪɛɭɞɟɧɬɧɨɟ
ɬɟɱɟɧɢɟ ɝɚɡɨɜ ɜɵɡɵɜɚɟɬ ɨɯɥɚɠɞɟɧɢɟ.)

SUPPLEMENTARY READING
(1) Geological maps
Maps Types of maps
Maps are one of the most important Many types of maps are used in
media used to communicate exploration geology. Topographic
information in exploration geology. maps are the most widely used maps.
Maps are a two dimensional These depict the surface morphology
representation of the surface of the by showing lines of equal elevation
earth and its features. Maps have two (or contour lines). The most basic
main purposes: 1) to convey detailed and essential type of map used by
information about a specific area, and geologists is the geologic map. A
2) to indicate the position of the geologic map shows rock types (or
specific area relative to other parts of lithologies) and their geometry.
the earth. The first is accomplished Geologic maps are very often
by recording information in graphic constructed on a topographic base
form. The second is accomplished by map.
showing reference marks (or a
coordinate system), or by showing a
small scale location map with well
known landmarks. A coordinate
system is nothing more than a
graphical means of locating any point
on the map, with two coordinates for
each point giving positions with
respect to the X axis and Y axis.
Most maps have more than just a map

area, they often have lots of other Fig. 2. Geophysical Map
information that is given in the space
around the main map area. A Other types of maps which are used
complete map generally has several in conjunction with geologic maps:
main components. In addition to the
main map area, a complete map will (1) geophysical maps show readings
usually include the following of magnetism, gravity, electrical
information in various positions conductivity, radioactivity, or other
adjacent to the main map area: 1) physical properties of rocks in an
title, 2) author (s), 3) date, 4) scale, 5) area;
indication of true and magnetic north,
and 5) coordinates or reference (2) geochemical maps show
points, 5) explanation (code for geochemical values of samples

reading the map - the colors, symbols collected in an area. These may be
and all other abbreviations used on samples of soil, rock, stream
the map). sediments or water;
(3) derivative maps summarize the

information (numerous values or
readings from an area) or depict the
data that it can be more quickly
evaluated. Typically this is done by
designing a map which delineates or
emphasizes the anomalous (outside
normal) readings or values:
x topographic map - highlights

anomalous values
x thematic map - uses colors or
symbols to code the values on
the map.
(adapted from
http://www.nature.nps.gov\GEOLOGY )
1. Try to explain the following words. Then scan the text «Maps» and see
whether your explanations are correct. State the words or phrases that help
you to understand the words below.
dimensional representation component

feature(s) scale
graphic form explanation
reference mark true north
landmark abbreviation
2. Read the first section and answer these questions.
1. What are maps?

2. What do maps represent?
3. What are the two basic objectives of a map?
4. How is the first objective achieved?
5. How is the second objective achieved?

6. What is the synonym for «reference mark»?
7. What is a coordinate system?
8. What are the two coordinates?
9. What are the major components of a map?
10. What is an explanation?
3. Read the second section of the text «Types of maps» and complete the
sentences.
1. The most widely used maps are a. geochemical values of samples

collected in an area.
2. Topographic maps depict b. readings of magnetism, gravity,
electrical conductivity, radioactivity,
or other physical properties of rocks
in an area.
3. A geologic map shows c. the information.
4. Geologic maps are constructed d. topographic map and thematic
map.
5. Geophysical maps show e. the surface morphology by contour
lines.
6. Geochemical maps show f. topographic maps.

7. Derivative maps summarize g. rock types and their geometry.
8. Two types of derivative maps are h. anomalous values.
9. Topographic maps highlight i. the values on the map by using
colors and symbols.
10. Thematic maps code j. on a topographic base map.

(2) How to read a geological map

(adapted from http://www.nature.nps.gov\GEOLOGY)
Geologic maps are not like other maps. Geologic maps, like all maps, are
designed to show where things are. But, whereas the maps we know best
show the distribution of roads or rivers or county boundaries, a geologic map
shows the distribution of geologic features, including different kinds of rocks
and faults. A geologic map is usually printed on top of a regular map (called
a base map) to help you locate yourself on the map. The base map is printed
with light colors, so it doesn’t interfere with seeing the geologic features on
the map. The geology is represented by colors, lines, and special symbols
unique to geologic maps.

APPENDIX 1
Report- Gold-bearing ores in Zharki Area (Magadan region). Submitted

by 4-year studentDashs Cherdantseva
EXAMPLE (main body)

Introduction
Territorial map P-56-VIII, IX (62040'-63020 's.sh; 151000'-153000'E)

has an area of 7,531 km2, administratively belonging to Srednekansk and
partially (in the south-west) Yagodninskomu area of Magadan region .
The relief includes lowlands with midlands areas. The main waterway is
Kolima River, flowing through the territory from south to north.
The climate is sharply continental with an average temperature of
-11 -13oC,
o
absolute minimum (pre-65oC) in January, maximum (up
o
to + 41 C) in July.
Annual precipitation ranges from 250 to 400 mm, ice lasts from October
to June, in winter all the rivers are covered with thick ice.
Flora and fauna is poor and is typical for the forest-tundra zone.
The area of work is largely economically assimilated. Mining
production has been only in the middle of last century, when performed
exploration, mining of tin ore in the Lazo ore site was developed and tin
processing factory developed.
Settlements are Sejmchan and Verhnii Sejmchan. With the regional
center (Magadan) Sejmchan is connected by a highway, an offshoot of the
Kolyma highway, the distance from Magadan to Sejmchan 520 km.
Communication is the roads paved during the mining period but now
mainly unusable.

1. Geology
1.1 Geological feature of survey area
There are three geological horizons:
(A) lower Paleozoic and Mesozoic (up to Jurassic) deposits of

terrigenic, carbonate and siliceous rocks;
(B) second horizon of Upper Jurassic –Lower Cretaceous thicknesses
of continental terrigenic and volcanogenic formations;
(C) Cenozoic loose sediments.
This area is characteristic of Late Jurassic and Carboniferous intrusive
formations.
1.2 Geological structures of Zharki area
Zharki area is located in the northwestern part of Sugoysk Synclinorium.
Sugoysk Synclinorium structure is composed of Lower-Middle
Jurassic (Maratsk thickness) J1-2mt folded strata, representing formation of
Sejmchan-Achaginsk sub Sugoyskay structural-facies zone.
Lower-Middle Jurassic sediments are
basically hornfels terrigenous rocks (siltstone,
mudstone, sandstone), flysch with total thickness alternation of 3500-
5000 m, at a contact with Deryas-Yuryaginsk granitoid stocks in the
western part of the area.
This area includes only the eastern part of Deryas-
Yuryaginsky stock (J3 kn) (3.5km x2.5km), which is isometric to an array
of granite and granite-porphyrite Late kan'onskii complex. In the east of
endo- and exo- contact an array of
distinguished gold quartz veins with arsenopyrite are found.
There are Quaternary sediments of Upper Pleistocene-Holocene dsQI-H
(diluvial-solifluxionloam with gravel, scree, boulders) and the Holocene aQH
(alluvial sand and gravel and pebbles, boulders) along Krasny and Zharkii
streams.
There are northwest and northeast trending disjunctives in the ore field
area Zharkii. Early north-western distortions (mostly strike slip)
probably generated during the late stages and are most likely controlled
by quartz veins and zones with gold-rare metal mineralization.
More recent northeast distortions are apparently controlled by
tin mineralization; fault plane tilted to the northwest, including thrusts.

2. Prerequisites and features of ore mineralization
2.1Prerequisites of ore mineralization
Among the geological factors that directly or indirectly point to the

possibility of finding gold ore mineralization should include:
- magmatic prerequisites of ore mineralization;
- structural prerequisites of ore mineralization;
- geophysical prerequisites of ore mineralization;
- geochemical prerequisites of ore mineralization.
2.2 Search features of ore mineralization

Among the factors that directly indicate the presence in the area of
mineral resources can be identified as haloes and dispersion
fluxes (associated mineralization), and indirect: ore host rock alteration.
3. Research methods
Based on the geological features the following survey operations were

performed:
1. Distance survey methods;
2. Survey work;
3. Geological survey (geological routes);
4. Geochemical survey;
5. Geophysical survey;
6. Underground development;
7. Drilling operations;

3.1 Distance survey methods
In Zharkii area, the scheme interpretation of aerial photography scale is

1:5000 with detailed element sections of the geological structure, indicating
allocated features of near-ore metasomatic zones.
The following objectives:
-determine the contact boundary of granite and hornfels;
-determine metasomatic zones of altered rocks;
-define and specify the structure of tectonic structures;
3.2 Surveying
The main purpose of topographic and geodetic survey to prepare the

area for:
- underground;
- geophysical;
- geochemical surveys.
As a result necessary to obtain a profile layout for further survey.
3.3 Geological survey (geological routes)
In Zharkii area the geological objective is to specify the structure of the

studied area according to a scale of 1: 5000 (surface geology routes):
1. Explore the nature, extent and distribution area of hydrothermal-
metasomatic changes in granites of Deryas-Yuryaginsk array;
2. Define the contours and detail of vein silicification in the ore field;
3. Survey, geochemical sampling of veins and metasomatic formations.
3.4 Geochemical survey
The main purpose of geochemical survey is the detection of

geochemical gold anomalies, the identification and further specification
of gold mineralization in this area.
Geochemical survey is planned for secondary dispersion halos in steps
of 20 m. The total area is 2 km2.
The results will be include data on the localization of gold ore
mineralization in the area, outlining areas of geochemical dispersion

haloes, testing and specification of qualitative and quantitative
composition of ores.
3.5 Geophysical survey
To perform sensing using differential polarizability (VES-IP) and

probing the establishment of near-field (TEM).
3.6 Underground development
Mining operations to detect mineralized zones. Previous mining

operations to identify secondary gold anomalies, intersected in their strike.
The main work will be conducted after the results of geochemical works
1:5000 scale.
Mining operations include trenching to identify bedrock. The distance
between the ditches on profiles inherent to a network of 100 meters.
3.7 Drilling operations
Drilling operations are provided to identify mineral zones, with the

ultimate goal of prospective estimation of P2 category extent of ore
mineralization to a depth of 200-250 m.
Based on the verification and validation of geophysical
and geochemical sampling is the planning of
vertical drilling exploration wells with core sampling.
The result of drilling is area identification of mineralized zones up to a
depth of 200-250m.
4. Laboratory research of ores and host rocks

4.1 Research techniques and methods
26 samples of host rocks and ores were collected. After which 17 thin
sections were studied, as well as, 10 polished sections.
The thin sections were studied through transmitted rays by polarized
microscope, while polished sections – through reflected rays by ore
microscope.
To determine the chemical and mineral composition and their
metasomatic alteration the electron microscope was used.

4.2 The specific feature of host rocks and ores
There are different types of host rocks in Zharkii area:

1. Granite – porphyrite;
2. Siltstone-mudstone with sandstone lamina;
3. Metasomatic rocks;
4. Chert.
The specific feature – high hydrothermal metasomatic alteration of host
sedimentary rocks to its complete change of initial composition and further
formation of metasomatic rocks. As a result, in all such rocks, quartz veins
can be discovered.
Gold-bearing and tin-bearing minerals

• Gold-bearing minerals are arsenopyrite with pyrite, tennantite
and sphalerite;
• Tin-bearing mineral is cassiterite.
4.3 Electron microscopy

By applying the electron microscope, high content of Sc and Nb was
established in metasomatites, which indicates the existence of rare ore
mineralization in this area, together with gold-bearing ores and tin.
Besides the above-mentioned facts, a high content of W, O, Fe and Mn
were detected which indicate wolframite grains. This shows that the ore
formation includes two stages: high temperature ( forming tin and rare
metals) and medium temperature (forming gold).
Summary
Investigation of ore occurrences of gold-porphyry types in Lazo
tin unit (Zharkii area) shows the fact that it is possible for the co-existence of
tin and gold mineralization and estimate the high potential level of this gold –
bearing ore area.

APPENDIX 2
Ore Deposit 101

Lecture 1
Introduction
The formation of all ore deposits is a huge and even complicated process
with very contributing variables, such as rock and mineral composition,
temperature, pressure, pH, eH, structure and time, all attracting to provide a
host of different outcomes. In truth, ore deposits and exploration technology
is not actually an art, as it is a science.
However, the basic concepts are very straightforward and don’t need multiple
degrees in geology to get across some of these basics. I’ll state the basic
principles that have ever been and you’ll see why I’ve said this, in a little
while.
If you have ever seen diagrams of the cross-section of the Earth like this. The
distance to the surface of the earth to the centre of the core is about 4000
miles or 6400kms. The deepest drilled well ever seen is about 12.2 kms just
below surface or 1|5 of 1% of the distance to the center of the Earth. So
diagrams like this are based only on indirect measurements, including
topography, telemetry, observations of surface rocks, brought to the surface
by volcanic activity, seismic gravity and magnetic data and laboratory
experiments.
Based on this indirect evidence, the Earth is supposed to consist of 3 main
layers. The central core is composed almost entirely of the metal nickel-iron
and nickel. The inner core is solid, the outer core is molten. The core is
surrounded by a mantle which is the thickest of the three main layers.
Although it is solid, it is hard enough to be able to float as a massive if given
enough time. The crust forms the outer rim of the planet, 50 to 70 km. thick,
averaging about 30 km thick. It is largely solid, although there are molten or
partially molten magma chambers, for example, for the impact of uplifting.
The thick crust is only half dense as the mantle, because it actuallt floats on
top of the mantle.
There is no sticking to the saying- if it can’t br grown, it must be mined. The
vast majority of materials that are used to sustain mankind, are ultimately
derived from mining. And because the deepest mines on earththat are brought
to mining are gold mines are 4 kms. deep. All those minerals used by man
have to be obtained from the crust. The problem is that of the three layers-
core, crust and mantle- the crust is the poorest in metals.
So let’s look at the main metal content of that crust. . Ths table summarizes
the average amount of the crustal abundance of some of the most widely used

metals. Figures are expressed in parts of a million. So if the crust abundance
for each metric ton of crustal material could contain 55 grams or less than 2
ounces of copper, 12 grams of lead and a thin head-sized pieces of gold. OK,
in another way! To recover 15 inche of a cube of gold, we need more than 1
million truck loads of typical crustal rock.
And I’m talking about big trucks, like the one in the picture. Obviously,
average crustal abundance is not to cut into another ore deposit. To make
matters worse, if you are trying to extract these mass of metals, versatile
crystal lattices of its silicate metals and it would be virtually impossible to
recover. As to the planned budget Soviet economists were not technically
concerned about the cost of production; all that matter, was if there was
enough volume produced to supply the state’s requirements.. But the free-
market economy doesn’t work that way. Metals have to be produced for less
than they are sold for. So what concentration of metal is needed to make an
economic deposit? Just what is involved in this part? There are many factors
that influence economic paid-off, such as mining depth, mining method,
depth of the deposit, continuity of mineralization, metallogeny and current
mining prices.
However, these figures will be taken in by the point. Few mines are
profitable and grade of copper is of less than 0.3% or 3000ppm; for lead – a
few mines operate on a grade of less than 3% or 30 000ppm of lead. That’s
its whole product. And, so, how much upgrading from crustal average does
nature have to do in order to produce a material we might be able to
economically mine. While looking at the right-hand point, anything from 27
times, in the case of nickel, to 7000times in the case of silver. The conclusion
is that nature must provide a significant concentrating mechanism before we
can make any money on it. It is interesting to note that rare ore metals, such
as gold, don’t necessarily require upgrading than more common plain metals
as lead, in order to reach economic levels.
How does nature provide metal concentrations
Now let’s turn to how nature provides these high concentrations of metals or
ore deposits. In 90% of deposits one single process is responsible for
concentrating the metals:
x Partially melt a section of the crust (or mantle). We’ll see shortly why
partial melting is important.
x Then the magma rise through the crust
x And progressively cool that magma to the certain state so that the
metals be concentrated at various stages of the cooling process.

So melt --------- rise ---------- cool.We’ll look at each of these processes in
turn.
Melt
To melt rock you have to heat it all producing high pressure to already hot
rock. There are three main ways of melting the rock occurring in nature:
1. By subduction;
2. By compression, by piling the rock upon top of it or squeezing
horizontally;
3. By injecting hot magma into it from below.
Now, we’re going into each of these in turn on the next few slides.
Starting with subduction. The thin rim of the Earth’s crust isn’t strong
enough to withstand the deflection currents of the underlying mantle that’s
broken up into a series of pieces or tectonic plates. In fact, there are about 15
of these plates all being dragged into different directions at speeds because of
the deflection currents in the underlying mantle. And the plates are adjacent
to one another like pack-ups in the Artic Ocean. In some places, they move
apart, in others they over-ride each other or simply shift pass one another. In
the map the red arrows show this very routine direction and speed of the
movement. The length of the arrows is proportional to the speed of the
movement of the plates in that position. Where plates diverge mantle material
welds up from the split and new oceanic crust is formed. Where plates
converge one plate is subducted under the other. Usually the dense oceanic
plate is subducted under a less dense continental plate.As it sinks into the hot
mantle below, the subducted plates heats up and, eventually, partially melts
with a higher and lighter molten product rising up into the above underlying
crust to accumulate in magma chambers and to form lines of volcanoes when
they reach the surface. The biggest subduction zone is the so-called “ring of
fire” around the Pacific Ocean. It is known that the Ring of Fire is also where
most of the recent ore deposits are formed. Subduction is the dominant way
of getting rock to melt.
In addition to subduction, there are other ways of melting, such as
thickening of the crust to increase the pressure and force the lower parts of
the crust deeper into the hot mantle. There are two main ways of thickening
the crust: you can pile up new rocks on the surface or you can compress it
horizontally to form faults and thrust faults.
Let’s look at new rocks on existing crust. As mentioned earlier, the crust
floats on the mantle like a boat or a raft on water. If you add a couple of
people to a raft, it compensates their weight by sinking a few inches and
anticipating more water. But because of the density difference between the
crust and the air is much greater than the density difference between the crust

and the mantle, the base of the crust has to sink much more than the height of
the low added load in order to compensate. In fact, to achieve 2 kms. increase
in the surface elevation, you can see h in the diagram on the left that requires
the base crust to sink about 9 kms. into the mantle, i.e. the distance is the root
in the diagram. A 9km. of sinking is also a temperature increase of between
250-3000C. And that’s enough to start melting rocks that are already apart.
So how is this technique of the crust happens? Well, the most popular
ways are either the eruption and building of a large volcanic cone, such as
Kilamanjaro into the air, which rises about 17 000ft. or 5.2 kms above the
surrounding plains; or by depositing sediments on continental shelf, as this
happened in the uplifting which has many kilometers of laid-down sediments
on it.
The second way as you can see on the diagram on the right is to compress
it horizontally. So the thrust faults form like one of the part of the crust being
pushed on top of another. The last way of melting rock without subducting or
thickening the crust is to inject hot magma from below. This magma injection
usually occurs above the subduction zone, as the same principle as melting
snow by pouring hot water. But unlike snow which consists only of ice, rocks
are usually made up of several minerals, each with their own melting point.
So if you heat a rock slowly, certain constituents or minerals within that rock
will melt before the others. The first minerals to melt are commonly the felsic
ones-pale-colored and mostlycontain the highest %-content of silicate. The
remaining minerals or restite commonly is mainly dark-colored or rather
dense. Important for us certain nickels remaining in restite and other metals
prefer to separate into the felsic melt which is generally less dense than the
restite. This provides a mechanism that leads towards the first steps in
concentrating metals to potential economic rates. Gold, for example, usually
partitions into the melt. So, gold-bearing rock is partially melted to produce
20% of the melt in v olume. That melt will be enriched 5 times in gold. We
can detect these areas of partial melting in the crust even if there may be
tens of thousands of content below the surface using seismic surveys.
Seismic maps shown here are within any strong reflectors as this seismic
section in the slide. These may be scattered, maybe 80kms across and the
same distance from top to bottom. These can be very huge bodies of rock
involved.
So much for the melting process. Now let’s look at transporting of this
metal-rich melt upwards to where it can cool and deposit metals at
intensional mining depths. Like water dripping from a saturated sponge, the
melt collects in many areal spaces it can find because of its less density than
these surrounding rocks , it tries to rise to the crust , floating first; but

increasing rapidly as it accumulates into bigger bodies and it enters cooler
rocks. Think about it as hot wax in a lavalor.
You may ask how the melt can rise to a solid rock and there are 3 main
ways that this happens at a depth where the rocks are often casting. It simply
displaces the rocks and passes through, shoveling the softer rocks aside,
allowing them to enclose behind it. If the rocks are too hard to allow this, it
can break off the rock avove it and assimilate so it becomes part of the melt
again. (like an ice cube floating in a glass of hot water). Finally, near the
surface where the rocks are too cold or too brittle to allow either of these
methods, it relies on faulting, folding fractures and cracks (like water seeping
out of a cracked bowl).
But as the magma rises through increasingly cool rocks, it reduces its own
heat, which in turn, causes it to lose its buoyancy and becomes viscous.
Eventually, it can not rise any further and it accumulates in a large magma
chamber . Often major magma chambers are drawn as upside-down tear-drop
shapes like the shape on the right of this image. But in reality they usually are
flatter, tabular bodies, like this one expose a range of pink above. Once the
melt reaches the magma chamber and it stops rising, it continues to lose its
heat from the surrounding rocks and the magma cools. Now we come to the
importance of beer in understanding what are deposits are. Like beer, magma
contains various amounts of dissolved volatiles, such as water, CO2, SO2. As
magma rises, the pressure drops, the magma cools and volatiles separate and
rise to the top of the magma chamber. (Just like gas bubbles in a glass of beer
or a new bottle of beer.) The separation of volatiles changes the pH (acidity),
eH (oxidation) and the viscosity of saturated gas and remaining magma. But
there is noy only just the separation of volatiles and magma. The magma also
begins to crystallize when the rocks cool, and the pressure suddenly drops,
and the areas begin to immediately freeze or crystallize. If you look closle at
this picture on the right, you can see some of these crystals floating just
below.. The same principle occurs with the magma. So now, the magma
chamber has four different phases: volatiles, both gas and liquid, melting
magma and a molten of crystallizing minerals. As the cracked rock is
originally melting each metal preferentially partitions in one or other of these
phases, i.e. crystals, gas, liquid or remaining molten magma. So, for example,
how are diamonds in the form of granite partition to the earlier of crystals Ni
and Pt combine with sulfide to form a dense S melt that accumulates at the
bottom of the magma chamber, like water and oil. Some copper may rise to
the top of the chamber, tends to go into the gas or gaseous liquids and also
concentrates at the top of the magma chamber. So this partition provides the
second critical process in concentrating metals to potential economical
grades.

The magma chamber is usually not the end of the entire magma rise. It is
generally a simple collection point of magma on its way to be erupted from
the volcano as lava, steam and gas. Gas is less dense than magma, so it trys to
occupy more volume. So as the magma degasses in the chamber, the pressure
in the magma chamber increases. Eventually, the rocks are neither heavy
enough or strong enough to hold back that pressure and the upper portion of
that magma explodes upwards and rocks on the surface. This relieves the
pressure, but usually this is not one-off event. It is followed by a part period
in which the gas, fluids encounter the steam or hot mineral –rich water, then
the channeways are clogged with deposited minerals, and the pressure starts
rise again; and the whole process is repeated. Overtime, metals accumulate in
various contents.
Let’s look at this more closely and see how this cream process provides a
ver y neat way of sorting out and concentrating metals to a potential
remarkable grade.
The process of concentrating metals from the magma consists of cooling
magma or hydrothermal fluids. So deposits part material as solid crystals.
These crystals are usually silicate minerals, such as feldspars, pyritites,
quartz, which are eventually no economic value. We need to dump these
waste materials in the magma chamber, and then skim off the metal rich melt
or hydrothermal fluid. Part of this process is repeated several times. The fluid
becomes super-saturated as the valuable efforts, then it begins to crystallize,
concentrating hundreds or even thousands of times to reach potential
economic grades. Cool, dump the dull stuff, skim off the cream-that’s the
process we’re going to be talking about.
Classification of ore deposits
Geologists classify hydrothrermal ore deposits according to the depth

where they form at. So, deep crustal deposits (10-15 kms. deep),
mesothermal deposits forming between 1-10kms., epithermal deposits,
usually less tha 1km. and then the surface deposits, right on the surface. This
section is how and where these ore deposits form.
Usually some of the first to form and to crystallize at the greatest depths
are mafic and ultr-mafic intrusions. And as they start to cool they crystallize,
and they crystallize as such minerals as horensels, and even some feldspars.
But those are absolutely nothing to be worth of. So the metals we do want are
concentrated either in the crystals themselves or selected native formed
crystals. For example, we can talk about Cr, platinum, diamons forming
layered complexes and kimberlites, respectively; or maybe they would
combine with sulfur to form sulfide melt, and copper or nickel are two metals

that tend to do this on these intrusions. So, we’ll find nickel-sulfide massive
deposits and copper-nickel depositst in layered complexes.
As we continue to go upwards into a shallow area, we get into the
porphyry domain. And again as the magma continues to cool, it drops off this
time crystals usually of feldspar and quartz, concentrating metals remaining
either as crystals in melt that crystallization later to form tin, tungsten and
greisens. These are very unimportant deposits and we’re not going to talk
much about them. But what is important are the porphyrys or the metals
which go into or belong to the gases and salty brines that come up as they
cool. Predominantly, among these are cooper and molybenum; secondly Au-
Fe-U and porphyry deposits and IOCG belong to this group of deposits -
IOCGs standing for iron-oxide-copper-gold deposits.
Rising up further into the mesothermal domain, further crystallization at
this stage, we’re normally talking that most of feldspar has dropped off as
quartz; but again of no value in itself. The valuable metals that are of value
for us concentrate further in the melt, into either CO2 gases or hydrothermal
waters or brines coming off there –Cu, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, Li. Li is more like
metals as tin, tungsten and greisens; therefore it forms a big tie and we’re not
going to talk about it again. Cu, Pb, Zn, and Ag and gold, in particular, are
very important in mesothermal veins. Most of the Witsrand deposits are big
gold supplies are of this sort.
Rising up now to the epithermal deposits, these are forming right in the
roots of the volcanoes or they are close to the surface. First, of all,
crystallizing out useless material or the material that is useless for us.
Particularly, quartz,at this stage; and they concentrate in metals that we do
want, either in epithermal waters or CO2gases. Particularly, precious metals,
as copper, silver, and the less, mercury, form epithermal deposits and carlin
deposits and we do get base metals, such as, copper-lead-zinc, forming
deposits in this environment and VHMS (volcanic-host-massive-sulphide)
deposits of great important sort of base metals.
Finally, we can get up to the surface and the surface rock is rained on and
soaked by the weather, getting oxygen coming in from the atmosphere and
the water from the rain. And those react to the rocks to break them down.
They can break down into two forms. We can get either particular formed
removed particles and the metals are Au, Pt, Sn, Ti, and even forming placer
deposits washed down in streams and concentrated by the water flow or
water movement. There are metals that wash into solutions, such as Cu and
U and then being deposited downstream into secondary copper deposits
around weathered copper and in particular, roll front U deposits.

x Few metals are abundant enough to mine economically, without being
pre-concentrated by nature.
x Process of melt, rise and cool is responsible for allowing 90% of
deposits to reach economic grades:
9 Partially melt by subduction, crustal thickening or injection of hot
magma;
9 Rise to mineable depth by displacement, assimilation or fracturing;
9 Cool to allow metals to concentrate into one or another phase.
x Most deposit types are simply variations on the same theme, with
differences due to
9 Source of melt
9 Depth of differentiation
9 Environment of deposition
(Andrew Jackson, talks on ore deposits- Ore Deposts 101 - »

Introduction»)

ɍɱɟɛɧɨɟ ɢɡɞɚɧɢɟ
ȺȻɊȺɆɈȼȺ Ɋɚɢɫɚ ɇɢɤɨɥɚɟɜɧɚ

ȻɈɅɋɍɇɈȼɋɄȺə Ʌɸɞɦɢɥɚ Ɇɢɯɚɣɥɨɜɧɚ
ɆȺɁɍɊɈȼ Ⱥɥɟɤɫɟɣ Ʉɚɪɩɨɜɢɱ
ȽȿɈɅɈȽɂə ɊɍȾɇɕɏ ɆȿɋɌɈɊɈɀȾȿɇɂɃ

ɂ ɊȺɁȼȿȾɄȺ ɉɈɅȿɁɇɕɏ ɂɋɄɈɉȺȿɆɕɏ
ɑɚɫɬɶ 2
Ƚɟɨɥɨɝɢɹ ɪɭɞɧɵɯ ɦɟɫɬɨɪɨɠɞɟɧɢɣ
ɍɱɟɛɧɨɟ ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ
ɂɡɞɚɧɨ ɜ ɚɜɬɨɪɫɤɨɣ ɪɟɞɚɤɰɢɢ
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ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɨɪ ȼ.Ƚ. ȼɨɪɨɲɢɥɨɜ
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ɬ ɥɛɲɠɬɭɝɩɧ ɪɫɠɟɩɬɭɛɝɦɠɨɨɩɞɩ ɩɫɣɞɣɨɛɦ-ɧɛɥɠɭɛ
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ɆɂɇɂɋɌȿɊɋɌȼɈ ɈȻɊȺɁɈȼȺɇɂə ɂ ɇȺɍɄɂ ɊɈɋɋɂɃɋɄɈɃ ɎȿȾȿɊȺɐɂɂ

Ƚɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɟ ɨɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɬɟɥɶɧɨɟ ɭɱɪɟɠɞɟɧɢɟ ɜɵɫɲɟɝɨ ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɨɝɨ ɨɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɧɢɹ

Ɋ.ɇ. Ⱥɛɪɚɦɨɜɚ, Ʌ.Ɇ. Ȼɨɥɫɭɧɨɜɫɤɚɹ, Ⱥ.Ʉ. Ɇɚɡɭɪɨɜ

ȽȿɈɅɈȽɂə ɊɍȾɇɕɏ ɆȿɋɌɈɊɈɀȾȿɇɂɃ

ɉɨɫɨɛɢɟ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɱɚɫɬɶɸ ɭɱɟɛɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɤɨɦɩɥɟɤɫɚ, ɪɚɡɪɚɛɨ-

Ⱦɨɤɬɨɪ ɝɟɨɥɨɝɨ-ɦɢɧɟɪɚɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɧɚɭɤ, ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɨɪ, ɚɤɚɞɟɦɢɤ ɊȺɇ

© ȽɈɍ ȼɉɈ ɇɂ Ɍɉɍ, 2011

Part II Ore Geology

A & N (& N) (adjective and noun \ and noun)

PI & N(participle I and noun)

PII &N (participle II and noun)

6. __________ - a loose unconsolidated (ɪɵɯɥɵɟ) beach sand deposit can be

7. ____________-there may be harmful substances in ore and gangue

8. ____________- The recovery (ɢɡɜɥɟɱɟɧɢɟ) is the percentage of the total

Grain shape also may be important. An indication of grain shape can be

IV. Reading focus

mineralogical form ore grade

ore character by-products undesirable

substancecommodity prices size and shape of deposits

grain size and shape

1. The percentage of the concentration of a metal in an ore body is expressed

2.5 Evaluate each student’s presentation using the following checklist.

1. Greeting the audience ____________________________________

VII. Assignment task

As you gather your resources, jot down full bibliographical information

Fig. 1 Map features

FeAsS herbicide, alloys,

N & N (noun + noun)

3. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the Passive Voice

1. Discordant orebodies can be subdivided into those orebodies which have

C. Disseminated (ɜɤɪɚɩɥɟɧɧɨɟ) deposits

In these deposits, ore minerals are peppered (ɦɟɥɤɨɪɚɡɞɪɨɛɥɟɧɧɵɣ)

D. Irregular replacement deposits

Many ore deposits have been formed by the replacement of preexisting

III. Focus tasks (1)

Part 2 Concordant orebodies

Fig. 7. Schematic cross section through an idealized volcanic – associated massive

1. Match the synonyms in column A to the one in column B.

1. secondary product a. country rock

1. What are the principal types of deposits found in volcanic rocks?

2. A list of ores (metals) is given in column A. State in what type of ore

Sub-type Host rocks Formation Deposit types

VI. Extended writing

Step IV Writing introduction (SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, pg.140.)

additional \ essential items

2. Read the text «Basic Requirements for Ore Formation».What

Basic Requirements for Ore Formation

Ore deposits are crustal concentrations of useful elements that can be

3. Additional and essential requirements help to understand the ore

Physico-chemical changes Various geological processes

1. Like all crustal rocks, they consist of minerals formed by geological

Ore deposits can be classified on the basis of:

Theory Nature of process Typical deposits

Some gold veins and disseminated nickel

Table 1. Simple classification of the theories of mining deposit gen

1. Associate the terms describing the nature of processes to the theory of

Theory Nature of process Terms

Hydrothermal aqueous solution

Metamorphic processes durable minerals

Residual processes magmatic differentiation

Volcanic exhalative hydrothermal solutions

Sources of the solutions and their contents

1. surface water, including water, commonly referred to as meteoric

Differences in source rocks and differences in leaching conditions will