545371

research-article2014
PRI0010.1177/2046147X14545371Public Relations InquiryGraham

Article

Public Relations Inquiry

2014, Vol. 3(3) 361­–376
Government communication © The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/2046147X14545371
media’s effect on local pri.sagepub.com

government public relations

Melissa W Graham
University of Central Oklahoma, USA

Abstract
Using data collected from interviews with public information officers (PIOs) in
local governments, this study explores the use and perceptions of social media as a
communication tool. It specifically addresses how social media are used as a public
relations function to promote democratic, participatory, and transparency models
in government. Results indicate that social media are highly regarded as a beneficial
communication tool for local governments. Four primary themes emerged from the
data analysis: dialogue promotion, engagement, unconstrained, and barriers. The first
three themes focus on the opportunities that social media provide PIOs to communicate
with citizens and the fourth theme presents the challenges faced by local governments
that utilize social media. The insights shared by PIOs in local governments are useful
for public relations professionals and scholars to help them understand and apply
social media practices to build relationships with citizens and enhance communication
practices.

Keywords
Government, public information officer, social media, transparency

The popularity of social media in recent years has revolutionized the way the world com-
municates. The instantaneous, direct, and interactive communication components that
social media provide can be particularly beneficial to governments at all levels as they
pledge to be more transparent, participatory, and collaborative with their citizens

Corresponding author:
Melissa W Graham, 100 North University Drive, Edmond, OK 73034, USA.
Email: missywgraham@yahoo.com

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362 Public Relations Inquiry 3(3)

(Bertot et al., 2010). Social media usage enhances governments’ ability to interact with
and engage citizens. This more open form of government public relations that social
media usage provides is particularly beneficial to local governments, as it is the local
level of government where citizens often feel the most direct access and potential impor-
tance in governance. Since more and more citizens are going online to get information,
public information officers (PIOs) have to be cognizant of this reality. A recent survey
showed that two-thirds of adults use social media platforms (Smith, 2011). In addition,
40 percent of Internet users go online for information about government operations
(Raine, 2011).
A social media presence has become a trademark of a vibrant and transparent com-
munication strategy, and its growing appeal has changed the practice of public relations.
Because of this, PIOs in government are adjusting their communication strategies and
incorporating social media into their communication plans. Governments have more
opportunities to interact with and engage stakeholders, and social media are an inexpen-
sive and swift communication channel for them to do this. The open, dialogic nature of
social media eliminates many of the barriers in communication that governments have
experienced in the past. Communication with constituents can be more frequent, open,
and targeted. Historically, governments have relied heavily on traditional mass media to
disseminate public information. The advent of blogs, podcasts, and social networks pro-
vides government officials the means to communicate directly with their publics without
the intervention of editors and reporters who can act as gatekeepers. In addition, with the
decline in newspaper readership (Kingsley, 2010), the quality of local coverage of news
and information is waning, thereby forcing officials to find new outlets to reach their
publics. Social media are outlets that hold great promise for governments because of
their ability to foster democracy by allowing for greater citizen participation, knowledge
of government actions, and more opportunities for engagement. This is achieved through
the two-way flow of information that is facilitated through social media use.
The transformative capabilities that social media can bring to governments are sig-
nificant (Bertot et al., 2010). Social media provide governments with the ability to
enhance and improve government–citizen relations; yet, little research exists as to the
extent to which local governments are actually using social media to inform and engage
publics. This exploratory research fills that gap and provides an in-depth analysis of
social media use by local governments in their efforts to inform and engage citizens.

Literature review
Social media and public relations
The benefits of social media use are being recognized by organizations and public rela-
tions professionals across all industries. According to a 2007 survey conducted by the
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) and Dow Jones & Company, the majority
of participating public relations practitioners and students believe social media have
positively impacted the public relations practice; 5 years later, this conviction is no doubt
infinitely stronger. Additionally, the survey results showed the technology-driven chan-
nels that provide the best opportunities for the practice of public relations are online

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Graham 363

news web sites, blogs, and social networking sites – all social media tools. Since more
people are going online to get information, these are all online information channels that
public relations practitioners can utilize. Furthermore, the innovation of online commu-
nication is becoming a necessity for organizations, and they are quickly incorporating
them into their communication and operating plans (Taylor and Doerfel, 2003).
Research has documented that public relations professionals have eagerly adopted the
more established and institutional online tools such as email and the intranet and are
somewhat comfortable with blogs, but they are slower to integrate more technologically
complicated tools such as social networking and text messaging (Eyrich et al., 2008).
Not surprisingly, a diffusion of innovations study by Taylor and Perry (2005) that ana-
lyzed adoption of Internet tools among public relations practitioners by type of organiza-
tion found that high technology firms are among the earliest adopters of an innovation.
Of the adopted social media tools, the one that has been studied the most to date are
blogs. One study showed that public relations practitioners use blogs to enhance their
power within their organizations (Porter et al., 2007). According to a study by Yang and
Kang (2009), blog use can create a personal connection with the user and a favorable
attitude toward the company or organization by the user.
A recent study by Sweetster and Kelleher (2011) examining the motivations for social
media use among public relations practitioners found that those who are more influential
relative to others in the same group are more likely to see the positive benefits of social
media. Leaders in public relations should look at individual motivation factors when try-
ing to cultivate their subordinates. As community leaders, who are most likely also influ-
ential individuals, local government officials would be expected to place high importance
on the use of social media in government.
Social media are being heavily incorporated by public relations practitioners into cri-
sis communication, with 48 percent of participants in a recent survey saying they have
integrated social media into their crisis plans (Wigley and Zhang, 2011). Practitioners
recognize the importance of controlling information and developing and disseminating
key messages to the media, and public information and direction are critical in crisis situ-
ations (Shin and Cameron, 2005). Given the current media landscape where anyone can
post information online, it is important for various publics to have a place to go online to
seek accurate information. This accessibility is especially important for local govern-
ments, which would be a logical source of information in a community crisis.

Governments’ usage of social media

Decades ago, governments began using the Internet to communicate with citizens
through the automation of routine government operations, which later evolved to web
sites, RSS feeds, blogs, and wikis (Dixon, 2010). Commonly referred to as e-government,
these technologies had initially and primarily been used as one-way methods of com-
munication, allowing citizens to access services or retrieve information. In contrast,
social media emphasize interactivity and co-creation of content fostering a two-way
exchange of information (Kingsley, 2010), which offers great potential for enhanced
democratization of information exchange at the local level.

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The use of information technology to transform government operations is not new. In

1993, the US Vice President Al Gore led the Reinventing Government initiative, and dur-
ing the George W. Bush administration, the Office of Management and Budgets initiated
several projects guided by the E-government Act of 2002 (Bertot et al., 2010). The efforts
of the two previous administrations were intended to make government more open and
efficient; however, neither sought to actively engage citizens through new technology to
obtain feedback or to become a part of the government process. The Obama administra-
tion set the current stage for governments at all levels to have open and participatory
government by instructing the Director of Management and Budgets to issue the Open
Government Directive which, among other things, required agencies to create and imple-
ment open government which many government agencies accomplished through social
media (Peter R. Orszag, 8 December 2009, personal communication). Most federal agen-
cies have a social media presence that includes blogs, social networking sites, YouTube
channels, and more (Bertot et al., 2010).
The majority of relevant literature pertains to new media adoption at the federal level
and, to a smaller degree, at the state level. Research on adoption and use of new tech-
nologies at the local level is only recently emerging. Hand and Ching (2011) examined
the use of social media by local governments in the Phoenix metropolitan areas and
found that ‘using social media at the local level government level seems to offer promise
of increased citizen engagement, reaching citizens on a common platform, and allowing
for citizen comments’ (p.379).
Qualitative research by Briones et al. (2011) that analyzed the use of social media by
the American Red Cross found that one of the most frequently cited barriers to using
social media was resources, specifically time and staff. Since local governments are
often operating with limited budgets and competing interests, adequate resources might
not be allocated to conduct public relations using social media effectively. If sufficient
staff is not available to strategically manage social media, it is difficult for organizations
to achieve commitment, which in turn shows whether organizations are dedicated to
online engagement with their publics (Hallahan, 2008). Another challenge that partici-
pants face in adopting social media to build relationships is getting the ‘buy-in’ from
executive leadership (Briones et al., 2011). This could also be an issue for local govern-
ments that need support from management to successfully implement social media
relations.
The size of the community may impact the rate of adoption of social media, as dem-
onstrated in an analysis of local public health departments. Public relations practitioners
in health departments have been slower to adopt social media technologies than practi-
tioners in other industries, and there are significant differences depending on the size of
the community (Avery et al., 2010). Specifically, research has found that urban commu-
nities exhibit the highest adoption rates, followed by suburban, large town, and rural
communities because although rural communities were making progress in achieving
Internet services, they still lag behind both urban and suburban communities in wireless
services (Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2004). Additionally, among those who
used social media to disseminate health information, the most commonly used tools were
social networking sites (Avery et al., 2010). One of the reasons offered for these dispari-
ties is that resources may be more difficult to obtain in more rural areas than in cities. A
2004 Pew study concluded that rural communities were making progress in achieving

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Internet services, but they still lag behind both urban and suburban communities in wire-
less services. This study will assess whether there are differences in the use of social
media by local governments serving different sized communities and whether the find-
ings are similar to the practice of social media use among community health
departments.

Democratic theory and dialogic theory

Joint theoretical lenses – democratic theory and dialogic theory – are used here to ana-
lyze the meaning of social media to PIOs in local governments. Concise and purposeful
communication between a government and its citizens is a pragmatic practice as well as
a moral obligation that derives from the principles of democracy (Viteritti, 1997).
Democratic theory emphasizes open, interactive, and participatory government. To
address this need for transparency in public organizations, Fairbanks et al. (2007) devel-
oped a model for transparency in government communications. The model can be visual-
ized best as a three-dimensional triangle. The base of the model is a commitment to
transparent communication processes. The key elements of the model, or the three sides,
are communication practices, organizational support, and the provision of resources. The
most important part of a public communication model, according to Heise (1985), is for
governments to communicate in an open, honest, and timely way with their publics,
without manipulating the information they share.
E-government initiatives involve all online communication and activities by govern-
ments. The e-government paradigm is well suited for this era of networking and govern-
ance with an emphasis on users as partners in governance (Anttiroiko, 2004). A key
component of e-government is e-democracy, which is particularly strengthened by social
media’s ability to interact directly with citizens. E-democracy is an emerging concept
that denotes the transformation of citizen involvement in democratic and purposeful pro-
cesses mediated by social networking media. The classic theories of democracy distin-
guish among pluralist, representative, and direct theories of democracy. Norris (2004)
outlines the differences in the competing democratic theories and their relation to e-gov-
ernment and e-democracy. The key attributes of pluralist theory illustrate that elections
are important to garner accountability and legitimacy of government and that a robust
civil society is the key to the resilience and effectiveness of a democracy. New technolo-
gies reduce the cost of information. Under the representative theory of democracy, dem-
ocratic governance occurs through citizen representatives. New technologies can
improve representation by allowing citizens the ability to evaluate the records of govern-
ments and elected officials by providing the means for citizens to interact directly with
government officials. Direct theory proposes that democracy works best when people are
directly involved in policy debate, actions, and decisions. Citizens who are disengaged
can become reengaged through the use of new technologies. E-democracy can ‘over-
come space and time constraints on public involvement, as well as those associated with
status differentials, such as age, gender, ethnicity, and wealth’ (Scott, 2006: 344).
A strategic framework for creating dialogic relationships with publics through the
Internet was provided by Kent and Taylor (1998, 2002) more than a decade ago. Dialogue
is ‘any negotiated exchange of ideas and opinions’ (Kent and Taylor, 1998: 325) and
represents efforts by those involved in a relationship to participate in an open and honest

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366 Public Relations Inquiry 3(3)

exchange. This perspective is attuned with the current thinking about the role communi-
cation plays in relationship-building, where healthy relationships between an organiza-
tion and its stakeholders are cultivated through communication managed by public
relations practitioners (Ledingham, 2003). This ‘socially informed’ generation calls for
and expects dialogue as governments shift their view of citizens from consumers, allow-
ing citizens to contribute online to the development of government (Azyan, 2012). One
unique advantage of social media tools in public relations practitioners’ outreach efforts
is their ability to engage many constituents in two-way communication even when an
organization has a limited funding structure (Pew Internet and American Life Project,
2004). This premise follows the tenets of dialogic theory and is a compelling character-
istic to justify the active use of social media by local governments.
A recent study by Kent (2013) asserted the need for public relations professionals to
end the practice of using stakeholders to justify organizational ends, instead focusing on
rebuilding democratic ideals and awareness. This can be accomplished by using technol-
ogy dialogically. The following suggestions put forth by Kent (2013) can help organiza-
tions be successful in these endeavors:

1. When social spaces are constructed for individuals and publics, the conversation
should focus on what stakeholders and publics want to discuss.
2. Social media is different than social marketing. It needs to be used socially and
symmetrically or not at all.
3. Public spaces and collective decision making need to be revived. Public relations
practitioners can push for more inclusiveness, transparency, and input through
the use of social media.
4. Public relations practitioners need to have a solid understanding of the big picture
so that they can act as counselors to their organization.
5. Focus on the long term rather than on the short term.

Social media technologies can help to stimulate democracy, and public relations
activities can help achieve this end.
This study is an attempt to better understand the impact that social media have on
political public relations at the local level of government. Specifically, it addresses the
perceptions and usage of social media by PIOs. This is especially important to consider
since citizens are increasingly offered the chance to communicate with local govern-
ments in a variety of online arenas including social media. This revelation opens new
communication channels for government officials to communicate with their key stake-
holders, the citizens they represent. Nearly one-third of online adults report using online
social media sites to get information about government agencies or officials (Pew
Research Center, 2010). To obtain an in-depth understanding of how and why social
media are being adopted by local governments, the following research question is asked:

RQ: What is the meaning of social media to local government PIOs?

This study expands existing literature and makes an important contribution for public
relations practitioners, government officials, analysts, and scholars.

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Methodology
Using qualitative research methods, 13 in-depth interviews with PIOs, or officials with
similar titles, were conducted to explore the meaning of social media to local govern-
ment officials. Because it ‘properly seeks answers to questions by examining various
social settings and the individuals who inhabit these settings’, qualitative research is
ideal (Berg, 2009: 8). The goal in participant recruitment is to achieve redundancy in the
themes (McCracken, 1988). Once this crucial point is reached, no additional themes
emerge in the interviews. Participants were recruited through snowball sampling that
was initiated from personal contacts of the researcher. An email was sent to potential
participants asking for their participation. After the initial email, follow-up emails and
phone calls were used to schedule the interviews.
A wide continuum of participants was sought, from those who were early adopters
and those who had only been using social media for a short time, to provide a compre-
hensive picture of social media efforts of local governments. Participants’ titles included
PIO, communications director, and director of special services. Total time working for
their local government ranged from 5 to 23 years. In all, 10 of the participants had a col-
lege education: 5 in communication, 1 in business administration, 1 in hospitality man-
agement, 2 in political science, and 1 in elementary education. Data collection was
concluded after reaching data saturation.
The lived experiences of PIOs in local governments were central to the research
objective, making interviews the appropriate research method (Appendix) (Lindlof and
Taylor, 2002). Telephone interviews were conducted with all 13 participants. After being
read a statement of informed consent, the researcher used a semi-structured interview
guide to follow when conducting the interviews. All interviews were audio recorded and
the tapes were transcribed shortly following each interview. The interviews lasted
between 17 and 27 minutes. Drawing from the information presented in the literature
review, the interview transcripts were analyzed using Pardun and Krugman’s (1994) pro-
cedure of open coding to identify emerging themes and classifications. Axial coding was
then used to fit the data into categorical themes and identify data that expounded on the
concepts presented in the literature review.

Analysis
Four primary themes emerged from the data analysis about the meaning of social media
to PIOs working in local government: dialogue promotion, engagement, unconstrained,
barriers. The first three themes focus on the opportunities that social media provide PIOs
to communicate with citizens and the fourth theme presents the challenges faced by the
local governments that utilize social media. All of the participants did personally use
social media and all believed that this made incorporating social media into their job
duties much easier since they were already familiar with it.

Dialogue promotion
The participants discussed common strategies for open communication and relationship
development with key stakeholders using social media. They talked about the value of

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368 Public Relations Inquiry 3(3)

having a two-way dialogue and how this was an essential component to building rela-
tionships. ‘We find people going to our Facebook page because they can actually interact
with me and ask me questions’, said one participant. Similarly, another participant
affirmed,

I believe with Facebook you can provide details and explanations … it is like you are personally
talking to someone without having to write all of these facts and I think that is what people
enjoy about it is just being able to say something and get a quick answer back. They say well
now I understand, or I did not realize that or now I see why you are doing it when inquiring
about activities or projects that are happening in the community.

These comments illustrate how local governments are using social media dialogically,
representing Taylor and Kent’s (1998) dialogic theory principles through their active
response to posts and their allowance for the open exchange of information and ideas
online. Online interactions can allow governments to build relationships with stakehold-
ers, solve problems, and set forth socially responsible goals (Kent, 2013).
The social media tools that local governments use the most to connect with citizens
are Facebook and Twitter. A participant from a state in the southeast said, ‘I post to our
Facebook and Twitter accounts at least a couple of times a day’, and added, ‘we use it
[social media] to put out everything that is happening in our community and at our town
hall’. The majority of local governments use it as an announcement board for programs
and events, bridge and road closures, community issues, and the like. Providing informa-
tion about government actions and activities promotes and encourages democracy
(Bertot et al., 2010). An interview participant remarked,

So that is what we are using Facebook and Twitter for as another way to let folks know what is
going on. This [social media] is part of our community involvement [efforts] because that is
what we are all about, having our community engaged in what we are trying to do and making
our community a better place.

In addition, these statements follow the premise of democratic theory that suggests gov-
ernments must be actively involved with its citizenry (Viteritti, 1997). One participant
declared that social media allow citizens to be part of the local government process even
if they cannot physically attend meetings. ‘We put our Board of Mayor and Alderman
and our Regional Planning Commission meetings online, so folks can go back and watch
them if they were not able to be present at the actual meeting’, she said. Allowing citizens
to be partners in government without constraints or restraints is a product implementing
e-government initiatives (Anttiroiko, 2004), which helps to promote democracy.

Engagement
Unanimously, local government PIOs felt that their citizens expect them to have a social
media presence. Furthering democratic ideals, citizens expect that online government
initiatives must attend to issues of transaction, transparency, and interactivity in order to
garner trust (Welch et al., 2004). For instance, one participant said,

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Citizens expect us to be on Facebook and Twitter or some sort of social media. They are using
it a lot and they kind of expect you to be on there so they can get timely information from their
government.

Another participant made a concurring statement: ‘I do think it is a necessary part of

today’s world and it is not going away and I hope we can continue to utilize it the way
our citizens expect’. Furthermore, one respondent said that she was utilizing social media
as a sort of ‘customer service tool’ for the citizens in her community. They could post
information about issues and concerns and government officials can investigate and
properly respond to citizens. This finding is congruent with Scott’s (2011) assertion that
citizens expect an open government more today than ever before and demand accounta-
bility and transparency through direct input on the issues that affect them. PIOs in local
governments are mindful of this and of the perceived effectiveness of utilizing social
media tools, which demonstrates their understanding of how well their publics are
responding to their social media use.
Moreover, the steady increase in the number of ‘friends’ or ‘fans’ on social media
pages of local governments supports the idea that citizens expect a government presence
online and are seeking it out to be a part of it. One of the research participants stated, ‘we
continue to get friends daily that shows people want the information and are seeking it’.
As the popularity of social media increases, it is probable that the increase in participa-
tion on social media sites of local governments will also increase. Another participant
reported,

I do not think you can ignore social media any more. I know a lot of companies still probably
try to do that but you know just for us getting 700 fans or likes or whatever we have I think that
that shows that it is important to citizens … why would we not do that it is another way to let
people know what we are doing and another way to get people engaged.

The value and importance of social media are being recognized by the public, and organ-
izations at all levels, including local governments, are also recognizing the positive ben-
efits of social media and utilizing their many features, thereby meeting citizen
expectations.

Unconstrained
Several of the participants felt that they had greater control over their message through
the use of social media. ‘There are so many ways you can control what is posted on your
page’, said one participant, ‘There are so many ways you can direct and lead the conver-
sation’. Another participant noted that there are only two communication vehicles that
she has direct control over regarding what information gets posted, ‘I can control our
website and our Facebook page’, she said. Since most Americans rely on a blend of both
new and traditional sources to get their information (Rosenstiel et al., 2011), it is not
surprising that PIOs in local governments embrace the freedom and control of informa-
tion that they have on their social media sites. ‘I do not need the general media anymore
to get messages out’, one participant proclaimed.

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370 Public Relations Inquiry 3(3)

Much of the research on government use of social media has focused on the use of
social media during a crisis. Local governments are also utilizing this medium to com-
municate with key publics during crisis. Social media played a large part in the commu-
nication efforts of one community in the southeast after the historic flooding in May
2010. Since the floods affected the entire region, our community ‘was pretty low on the
totem pole in terms of getting information to our residents … the media focused on the
“larger communities”’, said one participant. ‘That is when people turned locally to get
information … and as people around here know, we don’t have many media outlets and
it provided us with an outlet to drive people to get information about the recovery efforts’,
she said. She felt like social media proved its worth during that crisis and started the
boom in social media following of the community by interested parties. Utilizing social
media during a crisis allows for PIOs to control and direct the messages being commu-
nicated during a crisis situation (Shin and Cameron, 2005).
In addition, a PIO from a medium-size community in the Midwest believed that citi-
zens are getting their information from social media and are reading the newspaper ‘less
and less’:

I think our young people want the news to fit them and I don’t think they want to go out and
look for the news. I think social media for local government is the perfect avenue for getting the
message out. We do not have to rely on the newspaper to tell our story. We can tell our own
story in our own words and it’s delivered to the people that want to hear it.

Another participant had similar comments while discussing a current revitalization pro-
ject in the community. ‘This is a different population that is on Facebook’, she said,
‘People aren’t reading the newspaper anymore and we have to make all of our announce-
ments and road closures and we direct them to our website and Facebook’. As newspaper
readership declines (Kingsley, 2010), citizens are turning to online channels to get
information.

Barriers
In addition to the enormous potential that social media bring to local governments, the
participants also highlighted several of the challenges they face in incorporating it into
their communication strategies. The most frequently cited barrier to using social media
was resources, specifically money, time, and staff. Facebook was the most widely used
social media tool, and participants revealed that budgetary issues were the main reason
why they have not taken advantage of other social media tools, especially YouTube:

We are not really in the world of video at this point and that is really because of staff limitations
and budget limitations because I am the only one doing public relations and we really don’t
outsource anything. We try to do everything we can with our small staff.

With YouTube, there are restrictions on the length of videos and the amount of ‘space’
that is allowed per person/organization. To have adequate ‘space’ and be able to post all

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Graham 371

of the videos that would be of interest to the citizens, local governments would have to
purchase additional space on YouTube. ‘We do things on the free and cheap’, said a PIO
who had been an employee of her local government for over 23 years, ‘if it cost any type
of money we have to look at it very carefully and decide if it would be a valid use of tax
payer money’. Another PIO proclaimed that if social media did require a large invest-
ment of time and money, his government would probably not have the resources and
would not use it at the capacity they currently are.
With so much going on in local communities and so many things that could poten-
tially be posted on social media, many communities simply do not have enough time
and/or staff to manage it all. For example, a PIO from a medium-sized community
pointed out, ‘There are times when we have so many things going on and so much to talk
about that not everything makes it to our social media sites’. Not having sufficient
resources to strategically manage social media makes it difficult for organizations to
achieve commitment from their publics and illustrates a lack of dedication on the part of
the organizations (Hallahan, 2008).
Another challenge to implementing social media that local governments face is the
acceptance of this still relatively new technology by management. Several of the partici-
pants noted that when they first approached their municipality leadership about incorpo-
rating social media into their communication efforts, many leaders were skeptical. ‘It
was a hard sell to management because I was selling to a generation that had never seen
the benefits of social media and [they] did not really see a need’, said one participant. She
went on to say that while there is still hesitation about the use of social media by some
city officials, the majority have embraced it and see its value. An analogous comment
came from another participant who stated that when she originally approached the City
Manager about using social media, the City Manager thought that people would visit the
social media page once and never look at it again:

He thought this because we were not selling something per se, but we actually are, we’re
actually trying to make sure our citizens know what we are doing and where we are at … most
of that was in the [news] paper and still is, but now a lot of people are looking at the news
online, so, if you want to be connected and know what is going on with your city, you have to
get it online.

Convincing management of the benefits and potential of social media was a real issue for
some PIOs in local governments. Similar challenges were reported by the American Red
Cross in a 2011 qualitative study that found resources and management ‘buy-in’ to be a
concern for them as well (Briones et al., 2011).

Conclusion
Results of this research yielded several considerations for social media use in local gov-
ernments and raises several pressing considerations for promoting democracy and
encouraging dialogue through social media use. It is evident that the study’s participants
realize the importance of social media and how these tools can be used to provide

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372 Public Relations Inquiry 3(3)

information and build relationships with citizens. Facebook and Twitter were the most
widely used social media tools and both were seen as a way for local governments to
promote programs and activities, communicate in a crisis, and engage and interact with
various publics.
Through the use of social media, local governments are enabling democracy through
the open, transparent, and interactive ways they are utilizing this new medium. Citizens
are given another channel to learn about and participate in government activities. In addi-
tion, local governments are taking advantage of the interact features of social media and
allowing for dialogue with citizens about information, questions, and ideas related to
their local government.
By having a two-way dialogue through social media, PIOs in local government report
being able to quickly address citizen concerns and mitigate negative feelings and com-
ments. This encouragement of both positive and negative feedback makes the govern-
ment’s efforts to provide transparency and accountability more plausible. Moreover,
local governments’ social media undertakings seem to support democratic and participa-
tory citizen engagement. This is in line with Kent’s proposition that effective dialogic use
of social media by organizations can contribute to democracy (Kent, 2013). This research
shows local governments are promoting democracy with their citizenry through their
social media use.
Since two-thirds of the world’s Internet population had visited a social networking or
blogging site and that the time individuals were spending on these sites was growing at
more than three times the rate of overall Internet growth (Nielsen, 2009), it is not surpris-
ing that a social media presence is believed to be an expectation of citizens. Through the
use of social media, local governments are fostering government transparency by inform-
ing, educating, and reporting about government activities, policies, and community
issues on their social media pages. Providing this type of transparency builds trust and
accountability in government (Bertot and Jaeger, 2010).
With social media, local governments are able to publish information that the more
traditional news establishments might not deem newsworthy or relevant and they are
able to get information out instantaneously. Furthermore, one-third of online adults get
information about government agencies or officials from social media sites (Pew
Research Center, 2010), which highlights the importance of a social media presence.
In terms of barriers to social media implementation and effectiveness in local govern-
ments, resources were reported to be the primary barrier. Specifically, PIOs reported they
often lack the money, time, and staff to utilize social media to its greatest capacity. In
addition, lack of management support of social media efforts can greatly hinder the
achievement of the positive aspects that can result from social media use by local
governments.
One of the biggest takeaways from this study is that PIOs in local governments are
able to be more efficient and their jobs have become streamlined and somewhat easier
through the use of social media. It is clear that social media have made PIOs’ jobs easier
in many regards by allowing them more opportunities to communicate with citizens and
have given them more control over when, how, and what message gets disseminated. In
addition, a social media presence is an expectation of citizens, and local government
officials recognize the need to be online where many of their citizens get information.

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Graham 373

Furthermore, while barriers to social media use do exist, PIOs have found ways to miti-
gate this challenge and are making the most of their social media efforts in spite of these
barriers.

Limitations and implications for future research

Although these findings are important in a practical and theoretical sense, there are limi-
tations that must be considered. First, the results are specific to the local level of govern-
ment. It illustrates the success that local governments have with social media and could
be used as a model for other levels of government. Also, only municipalities in two states
participated in this research, which would not reveal geographic trends or issues faced by
local governments in their use of social media. Finally, the lack of experience by the
researcher in conducting qualitative interviews is a limitation of this study.
To further extend this research, a larger sample size should be used to further explore
this issue. In addition, state and federal levels of government can also be studied to see
whether their social media usage and perceptions are comparable to that of local govern-
ments. Focusing on one particular type or community size of local government would
help narrow the focus of the research and might more accurately answer the research
question. Local governments are demonstrating how social media can benefit and
advance government communication efforts, and public relations professionals and
scholars alike can learn from their example.
This study illustrates the many opportunities and consequential challenges that local
governments face in incorporating social media into their communication strategies.
These same opportunities and challenges could be applied to governments of all struc-
tures and levels. The impact that social media has on the practice of public relations
cannot be ignored. One of this study’s participants emphasized this point by saying, ‘I do
think it is a necessary part of today’s world and it is not going away and I hope we can
continue to utilize it the way our citizens expect’.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or
not-for-profit sectors.

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Author biography
Melissa W Graham (PhD, University of Tennessee, USA) is an assistant professor in the College
of Business at the University of Central Oklahoma where she teaches courses in business com-
munication. Her research interests include organization–public relationships, interactivity and
digital engagement, crisis/risk communication, and corporate reputation and identity. Her research
has been presented at academic conferences and published in public relations and strategic com-
munication journals. Prior to entering academia, Dr Graham spent over a decade practicing public
relations in both the government and non-profit sectors.

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Appendix
Local government public information officers – interview guide
What is the meaning of social media to local government public information officers?

•• How they use it and why, as well as whether it is used in a relationship-building

dialogue platform
•• Focus on interaction – symbolic interactionism perspective

Interviewees: Local government public information officers who use social media as part
of their job function.

1. Tell me about your professional experience?

Prompts:
How long have you been in your current position?
How long have you worked for this organization?
Probe if necessary to find out education, previous positions, etc.
2. Tell me about working in public information for local governments?
Prompts:
What do you do – duties and responsibilities?
3. Tell me about your personal use of social media?
4. Tell me about working with social media in your job?
5. Is there anything else you would like to tell me about your experience with social
media?

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