Lithosphere – Solid part of the physical environment

Geomorphological process

-Driven by solar energy and the force of gravity. Are exogamic processes that shape the
earth’s surface eg weathering, erosion and mass movements. Facilitated by agents like water,
wind, and glacier.

- Role of endogenic and exogamic factors in rock decay

- Weathering process
- Weathering in different climatic regions
- Place of weathering in man’s activities.

Weathering – Exogenic process on earth’s surface. It’s a process of denudation lead to rock
decay, breaking and disintegration near or at earth surface, to form debris. Caused by chemical or
physical processes. The debris are moved by agents of erosion, transportation and deposition ie
water, wind and ice.

It’s an equilibrium process through which rocks adjust to their environmental conditions ie
physical – chemical conditions.

Factors for Rock Weathering

-Factors that lead to rock decay/disintegration.

-They could be endogenic or exogenic factors

-Endogenic factors are internal characters of rocks operation within the rock eg its mineral
composition, rock structure and rock texture.

-Rock structure – Presence of joints, faults, bedding plane, cracks or creevases within rocks.
Through them minerals dissolve in water, reach internal layers of rocks as well as increased the
rocks surface area exposed to agents of weathering. They are exposed to atmospheric gases
through joints. Weathered debris are also removed through the same joints by agents of erosion.
Exposing the inner layers to weathering.

Rock texture – particle size – small particles provide a wider area for weathering than rocks with
large particles, and are therefore weathered faster.

Rock composition – Mineral grains of a rock

-Type of minerals making a rock determine its rate of weathering. Some are easily weathered,
and different minerals are subjective to different weathering processes eg calcium carbonate
solution etc. rock salt is affected by solution process while calcite rocks are affected by
carbonation.

Exogenic factors – factors external to the rock are environmental factors eg climate, vegetation,
slope, lime, activities of man.

Climatic factors – provide water for both physical and chemical weathering. It provides soil
temperature and atmospheric pressure. Temperature accelerates physical and chemical
weathering.. decaying vegetation releases organic acids/humic acids that lead to chemical decay
of rocks. Vegetation cover protects rocks from direct solar radiation which would lead to
physical weathering. Open vegetation or its scarcity explores rock to direct sunshine facilitating
physical and chemical weathering.

-Steep slopes experience faster weathering than lowlands because agents of erosion are very
active in removing the broken rock debris exposing the inner layers to agents of weathering. On
gentle slope debris form thick layer, protecting inner layers of rock from weathering.

-Time – the longer a rock has been exposed to weathering, the higher the rate of weathering.

Types of weathering

i) -Physical and chemical weathering.

Physical – Rock disintegration by mechanical means this is caused by stress acting on the rock
or within the rock. It’s not affected chemically.
ii) Chemical weathering – Rock minerals are decomposed by organic acids, C02, oxygen, water
etc into new minerals and new appearances.

iii) Biotic weathering – Caused by biotic factors of expanding roots of plants (physical ) or
rotting of rock due to humic acids (chemical).

i) Physical weathering – Also called mechanical weathering. Breaking up of rocks without

altering their chemical composition.eg
a) Thermal weathering – Expansion and contraction of rocks due to heating & cooling. This
causes stress in rocks hence breaking.
b) Freeze-thaw – In high altitude and high latitude areas. It’s caused by ice – crystals in
joints and cracks in rocks. Water in cracks expand on freezing which cause stress in the
rock leading to disintegration.

Biological weathering can be chemical or physical eg

-Roots of plants – chemical + physical

-Moving animals – physical

-quarrying by man – physical

-Waste from animals (humic acid) lead to chemical weakening

-Barrowing animals – Physical + chemical

-Acidic rains – chemical

c) Wetting and drying – hydration – when wet the rock expand and when dry the slime and
break.
d) Pressure release – When top materials on a rock are moved by agents of erosion or
activities of man, pressure on the rock is reduced and the rock expand leading to crack
up.
 e) Crystal growth – In arid areas, minerals enter rock joints in solution form. When water
evaporates, mineral crystals remain the cracks. They create stress on the cracks making
them to widen – physical weathering.

Chemical Weathering – Involve chemical reactions between rock minerals, atmospheric gases,
and minerals dissolved in water eg reaction with organic acids. From decaying vegetation or
animal’s waste. This occurs when

(i) ions from rock minerals are removed and enter water.

(iii) ions from water enter and combine with the rock minerals

(iii) Exchange of ions take place

The original mineral components are transferred into new components weakening the
rock eg

i) Solution – Rock minerals are solvable in water and are removed in solutions eg
alkaline water removes silica and aluminum weakening the rock.
ii) Hydrolysis – Hydrogen ions in water enter a rock and create a new compound.
iii) Hydration – Rocks absorb water and expand. This creates physical stress in rocks
causing fracturing.
iv) Carbonation – A weak solution. Carbon dioxide and water (Carbonic acid)
changes calcium carbonate into calcium bicarbonate which is easily removed by
water in solution form.affects mostly calcareous and limestone rocks. CaCo3 +
H20 = Ca (HCo3)
v) Oxidation and reduction – Oxygen reacts with rock minerals especially rocks
containing iron. The rock takes an extra molecule of oxygen which makes it weak
and turns yellow or brown, which readily crumbles causing rock disintegration.

Ferrous Oxide + Oxygen = Ferric Oxide

FeO + O2 = FEO3

Effects of Climate on Weathering

Type of weathering affecting rocks and the rate of weathering vary from one
climatic zone to another eg in equatorial climates that are characterized by high
temperature, high rainfall and high humidity the main type of weathering is
chemical.
 ASALS Climates that experience high diurnal temperature ranges are
characterized by physical/mechanical weathering. This is caused by
differential expansion and contraction of rocks causing stress and breakages..

-Tropical climates is mainly characterized by wet and dry seasons. Chemical

weathering eg oxidation and physical weathering during the dry season.

-Mid latitude and polar regions are affected by physical weathering especially
frost action/freeze and thaw.

-Areas covered by calcareous rocks in wet climates experience chemical

weathering through the process of solution.
 Ground Water

-It’s the sub surface H20 in soil and rocks that are fully saturated with water.

-May be used by plants

-May be held under tension in the saturated zone

-May be subjected to lateral flow

-May perculate vertically filling up the porous volume of the geologic layers forming ground
H20.

-Rock formations bearing underground H20 are called aquifers.

-The boundary between the saturated and the unsaturated layers of rock is called the water table
or the phreatic surface.

-It’s subjected to gravity and flow along the land gradient. When the ground water intersect with
the ground surface, it forms streams.

-Ground H20 is recharged from rainfall through permeable rocks and soils.

-When aquifers are located between two impermeable rock layers, they are called confined
aquifers.

Aquifers

-These are geological formations made of rocks in unconsolidated deposits that contain sufficient
saturation to yield significant water quantities. Most of them are sedimentary because igneous
and metamorphic have few pole spaces to hold H20.

-Can be confined or unconfined.

-Confined aquifers get water through an opening to the ground H20s that recharge it through
infiltration and percolation.

Recharge
-All ground H20 is derived from ppt through infiltration seepage through beds and banks of
surface H20 bodies and inflow from adjacent aquifers and artificial recharge from irrigation an
leakage from H20 supply pipelines.

Discharges

Through evaporation, natural discharge through spring effluent seepage into surface H20 bodies,
ground H20, leakage & outflow into adjacent aquifers & artificial abstraction through walls and
boreholes.