International Journal of Crashworthiness

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/tcrs20

Crashworthiness analysis and optimisation of

a multi-level bionic multi-cell tube under axial
dynamic impact

Xiaofei Ma, Ce Guo, Jingyu Shen, Caiji Hu, Haojun Gao & Hongqian Wang

To cite this article: Xiaofei Ma, Ce Guo, Jingyu Shen, Caiji Hu, Haojun Gao & Hongqian
Wang (22 Jun 2024): Crashworthiness analysis and optimisation of a multi-level bionic
multi-cell tube under axial dynamic impact, International Journal of Crashworthiness, DOI:
10.1080/13588265.2024.2367298

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/13588265.2024.2367298

Published online: 22 Jun 2024.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS
https://doi.org/10.1080/13588265.2024.2367298

Crashworthiness analysis and optimisation of a multi-level bionic multi-cell tube

under axial dynamic impact
Xiaofei Maa,b, Ce Guoa,b, Jingyu Shena,b, Caiji Hua,b, Haojun Gaoa,b and Hongqian Wanga,b
a
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China; bInstitute of
Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

In this study, a multi-level bionic multi-cell tube (MBMT-n) is proposed, inspired by the horsetail’s Received 23 December 2022
cross-sectional structure, and the multi-cell tube shape and distribution characteristics of bamboo vas­ Accepted 4 June 2024
cular bundles. A systematic crashworthiness analysis of MBMT-n under axial dynamic impact was con­
KEYWORDS
ducted using LS-DYNA. The findings indicate that MBMT-n can enhance crashworthiness while
Bionic; multi-level; multi-
maintaining the same mass. Additionally, the impact of wall thickness and bionic unit cell’s length– cell; crashworthiness;
width ratio was investigated. Furthermore, a theoretical prediction model for mean crushing force simplified super folding
(MCF) was established using the simplified super-folding unit theory. Lastly, to further enhance the element theory
structure’s crashworthiness, multi-objective optimisation of MBMT-3 was performed using the NSGA-II
algorithm. The several optimal structures were subsequently identified under various peak crushing
force (PCF). This study offers a novel approach to the design of energy-absorbing structures.

Abbreviations: MBMT: multi-level bionic multi-cell tube; MCF: mean crushing force; SEA: specific
energy absorption; CFE: crushing force efficiency; PCF: peak crushing force; EA: energy absorption;
NMT: novel multiwall tube; LVBCT: leaf vein branched circular tube; BMT: bionic multi-cell tube; BST:
bionicshell thin-walled tube; HCT: hierarchical circular tube; BHMH: bio-inspired hierarchical multicell
hexagonal; TBCT: traditional double-tube circular tube; GHMC: gradient hierarchical multicellular col­
umns; BHMS: bionic hierarchical multi-cell square; BHMB: bio-inspired hierarchical multi-cell bi-tubular;
FEM: finite element model; SSFE: Simplified super folding element; NSGA II: Non-Dominated Sorting
Genetic Algorithm II

Focal/ˈfəʊ.kəl/ (a) trung tâm, trọng tâm, tiêu (cự)

Era /ˈɪə.rə/ (n) thời đại đại, kỷ nguyên
1. Introduction Secondary /´sekəndəri/ (a) thứ cập, phụ, ko quan trọng cross-sections has drawn considerable attention [10,11].
The passive safety of transportation, including vehicles [1],
high-speed rail [2] and aircraft [3,4], has always been a focal
point, in the modern era of rapid development of autono­
mous driving technology. Notably, collisions are categorised
as the most common type of accident. To enhance post-col­
lision structural safety and reduce personal injury, metal
thin-walled structures have been widely researched as crash­
worthy structures since the 1970s [5–7]. Metallic thin-walled
structures, through plastic bending and friction, can trans­
form energy irreversibly, thereby preventing potential sec­
ondary damage to both individuals and surrounding
structures. Simultaneously, these structures can be designed
to exhibit stable and repeatable deformation patterns, which
enhance structural reliability. However, as transportation
speeds increase, traditional circular tubes [8] and square
tubes [9] are becoming inadequate due to their low crash­
worthiness, particularly in terms of specific energy absorp­
tion (SEA) and crushing force efficiency (CFE). Therefore,
improving the crashworthiness of thin-walled structures has
captivated substantial scholarly attention.
To augment the crashworthiness of structures, the pro­
posal of multi-cell thin-walled structures with complex
Chen and Wierzbicki [12] pioneered research on the com­
pressive strength of double-cell and triple-cell square tubes
under axial compression using analytical and numerical
methods. The investigation deduced that the SEA of bicellu­
lar and triplet square tubes saw an approximate increase of
15% compared to single-cell square tubes. To investigate the
impact of cell number on SEA, Fang et al. [13] conducted a
comprehensive analysis of the crushing behaviour of square
tubes with varying cell numbers under axial and oblique
loads. Their findings indicated a gradual increase in the
structure’s energy absorption (EA) capacity as the number
of cells increased. Pirmohammad et al. [14] delved into the
fracture behaviour of a series of multicellular tubes, featur­
ing a unique cross-section design, under axial and oblique
loading. Jin et al. [15] systematically studied the EA proper­
ties of polygonal multi-cell tubes with varying cross-sec­
tional shapes under quasi-static axial crushing. It
demonstrated that incorporating a cross-shaped inner plate
enhances EA more effectively than adding X-type or Y-type
inner plate structures. Li et al. [16] developed a novel multi-
wall tube (NMT) design, featuring octagons and nested
quadrilaterals. The results shown that the NMT with more
complex cross-section has the best EA effect. Taken

CONTACT Ce Guo guozc@nuaa.edu.cn

� 2024 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 Relentless /rɪˈlent.ləs/ (a) không ngừng, tàn nhẫn, ko thương xót
Reminiscent /ˌrem.ɪˈnɪs.ənt/ (a) nhớ lại, gợi lại, làm nhớ lại
2 X. MA ET AL. Convey /kən'vei/ (v) truyền đạt, chuyển.
Pivotal /´pivətl/ (a) nòng cốt, mấu chốt
Drawing upon = dựa vào
together, the above research results indicate that enhancing
the complexity of the thin-walled structure’s cross-section
can bolster its crashworthiness.
Throughout their evolutionary journey, animals and
plants have invariably been exposed to diverse types and
intensities of impact loads. This relentless environmental
pressure, governed by natural selection, has led them to
evolve unique structures. Recently, by combining traditional
design methods with biomimetic approaches, researchers
have devised numerous thin-walled structures that mimic
biological architectures such as fractal structures reminiscent
of trees [17], bamboo [18,19], horsetail grass [20], beetle ely­
tra [21,22], among others. For instance, Zou et al. [23]
designed wall thickness and bionic cell number according to
bamboo mass density and vascular bundle quantity distribu­
tion. Their findings revealed that the SEA of the bionic tube
surpassed that of the traditional single-cell and four-cell
structure in various scenarios, including axial impact, trans­
verse impact and bending simulation. Inspired by the
branch structure of lotus veins, He et al. [24] proposed the
leaf vein branched circular tube (LVBCT) and conducted
parametric studies. The results indicated that the LVBCTs
with N ¼ 6 and a c value between of 0.5 and 0.7 have super­
ior crashworthiness. Delving into the intricate designs of
nature, Huang and Xu [25] studied a three-layer cylindrical
bionic multi-cell tube (BMT) inspired by the mantis shrimp
finger structure. They reported that the number of bionic
elements significantly influenced the structure’s crashworthi­
ness, with optimal results observed when the number was
five. More recently, Huang et al. [26] devised a new type of
fractal multicellular tube, drawing inspiration from the
Fibonacci spiral structure found in veins and shellfish. Their
studies posited that the incorporating a spiral cross-section
can enhance the crashworthiness of the structure. Qin et al.
[27] engineered a bionic-shell thin-walled tube (BST) based
on the shell’s geometric cross-section, boasting exceptional
crashworthiness. The results demonstrated that the BST of
six ribs is 35.15% higher than that of double circular tube
SEA under the same mass. It becomes evident that incorpo­
rating biomimetic principles can indeed optimise the design
paradigm for crashworthy structures.
Lately, bio-inspired hierarchical designs have garnered
significant attention in the realm of scientific research. For
example, taking cues from the intricate structure of skeletal
muscle tissue, Tsang et al. [28,29] proposed innovative bio-
inspired tubular sections with structural hierarchy. Their
assessments showcased an exceptional load-bearing and EA
capability inherent to the structure. Zhang et al. [30] devised
new bio-inspired hierarchical circular structures, incorporat­
ing self-similar sub-circles iteratively at the main rib
connection. The finite element analysis revealed that the
second-order HCT significantly excels in absorption effi­
ciency. Gao et al. [31] introduced a bio-inspired hierarchical
multi-cell hexagonal structure and conducted numerical
study on the crushing behaviour of BHMH tubes, consider­
ing various grading orders and wall thicknesses. Their dis­
covery highlighted that the peak crushing force (PCF) of all
BHMH tubes was less than that of each group of hexagonal
tubes. Gong et al. [32], inspired by the evolutionary trajecto­
ries of plant stems, designed a spectrum of bio-inspired
hierarchical circular tubes. Their goal was to explore the
improved design of the internal configuration of the trad­
itional double-tube circular tube (TBCT). Their data accen­
tuated that PmLnBTs outperform traditional double-tubes
in terms of crashworthiness. Deng et al. [33] proposed gra­
dient hierarchical multicellular columns (GHMC) merging
the gradient grade distribution of bamboo vascular bundles
with a spatial folding strategy. Numerical simulations con­
veyed that the GHMC level can enhance the structure’s EA
capacity, with its EA showing an increase of 10.1–72.44%
compared to the square tube. Ha et al. [34] pioneered a
unique bionic hierarchical multi-cell square tube (BHMS),
emulating the gradient distribution of cell size found in bio­
logical structures like bone and bamboo. The numerical
results proved that the SEA of the third-order BHMS tube
surpasses that of the 0-order BHMS tube by 178.4%.
Further, Ha et al. [35] offered a novel bio-inspired hierarch­
ical multi-cell bi-tubular (BHMB), modelled after tree-like
structures. The finding shows that the SEA of the second-
order BHMB is 81% higher than that of the circular tube.
The studies referenced above underscore that strategic
material allocation in bionic hierarchical structures can
indeed yield enhanced crashworthiness.
In conclusion, the integration of bionic ideologies and hier­
archical design methodologies plays a pivotal role in designing
multi-cell tubes with superior crashworthiness. Thus, drawing
upon the foundational principles of bionics and hierarchical
design, this research introduces a series of innovative multi-
level biomimetic multicellular tubes (MBMT-n) inspired by
the cross-sectional structure of the horsetail and the shape
and distribution characteristics of bamboo vascular bundles.
The remainder of this article is structured as follows: Section 2
introduces the MBMT design concept and the key crash­
worthiness index. Section 3 establishes and validates the
numerical model of MBMT through experiments. Section 4
delves deeply into the influence of the hierarchical configur­
ation on crashworthiness and the associated deformation
mechanisms of the structure. And parameter analysis was
conducted to investigate the effects of wall thickness and bio­
mimetic unit parameters on structural crashworthiness.
Section 5 constructs the theoretical model. In Section 6, the
NSGA-II genetic algorithm was used to optimise the struc­
ture, culminating in the extraction of an ideal combination of
structural parameters that has the best crashworthiness. Some
major conclusions are listed in Section 7.
2. Thin-walled tube design
2.1. Structure description
Bamboo and horsetail are structurally similar to thin-walled
structures owing to their high slenderness ratios. To accli­
matise to the inherent axial load from its own weight, as
well as the oblique loading due to wind forces, bamboo has
evolved remarkable tensile and bending strengths. Such
attributes has functional similarity and load similarity with
thin-walled structures [36]. It is imperative to note that the
Acclimatise /əˈklaɪ.mə.t̬aɪz/ (vi) thích nghi với mô trường
(ve) làm thích nghi
Inherent /ɪnˈhɪə.rənt/ (a) vốn có, cố hữu

Figure 1. (a) Bamboo vascular bundle shape and distribution [37], (b) horsetail cross-section, (c) MBMT.
Figure 2. Evolution law of multi-level bionic multi-cell tube.
volume fraction of vascular bundles decisively influences
the rigidity and robustness of bamboo. As depicted in
Figure 1(a), the cross-sectional volume fraction of bamboo’s
vascular bundles escalates progressively from the inner to
the outer layers [37], leading to the outermost layer possess­
ing maximum strength and the innermost layer exhibiting
the least [38]. Moreover, the ratio of length to width of
bamboo vascular bundles gradually decreased from inside to
outside along the radial direction. Concurrently, the fibre
sheath undergoes a transition from being openly structured
to semi-open, accompanied by a tapering of tensile strength
[39]. Consequently, the morphology of the vascular bundles
also exerts a discernible impact on the structural strength.
In a parallel fashion, the horsetail grass, in its bid to accli­
matise to its surroundings, has evolved a distinct morpho­
logical adaptation. As illustrated in Figure 1(b), the stem
diameter of the horsetail grass manifests a nested tubular
architecture. Furthermore, these dual tubes are intercon­
nected via a rib structure, augmenting their resistance to
lodging. The structures of both bamboo vascular bundles
and horsetail grass ribs are acknowledged for their superior
mechanical attributes, offering invaluable insights for inno­
vating thin-walled energy-absorbing structural designs.
Drawing upon the nested tube of horsetail grass stem, the
shape of bamboo vascular bundle was extracted as the rein­
forced fibre structure, and the volume fraction gradient distri­
bution characteristics of small inside and large outside of the
vascular bundle were considered. Combined with the top­
ology strategy of hybrid hierarchical structure, this study
designed a series of multi-level BMTs (MBMT-n), as shown
Manifest /'mænifest/(v) Biểu lộ, biểu thị, bày tỏ, chứng tỏ, chứng minh
Draw upon = sử dụng kiến thức, kỹ năng, thông tin cho một mục đích cụ thể
Stem /stem/ (n) thân, cuống, họng, lá
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS 3
Fraction /´frækʃən/ (n) một phần
Rigidity /ri´dʒiditi/ (n) tính cứng (bền vững)
Robustness = strength = bền
Outermoust /ˈaʊ.t̬ɚ.moʊst/ (a) phía ngoài cùngi
Escalate /,eskəleit/ (v) => phóng đại
Analogy /əˈnæl.ə.dʒi/ (a) sự tương tự, sự giống nhau
in Figure 1(c). The outer diameter r1 and the inner diameter
r0 are 30 and 15 mm, respectively. The length of the bionic
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
unit cell is a ¼ ðr1 − r0 Þ2 =2: Figure 2 presents the evolution
of multi-level biomimetic multi-tubes: (i) the 0th level is to
put the bionic element into the circular tube directly;(ii) the
1th level is to set two layers of circular tubes, which are con­
nected by four bionic elements;(iii) the 2th level is to add
another layer of circular tube in the centre of the above two
circular tubes, and the number of bionic unit cells in the outer
ring is twice that in the inner ring;(iv) by analogy, the nth
level bionic structure can be obtained. Each round tube is
arranged in equal spacing, from inside to outside in turn 0th
layer round tube to nth layer round tube. The side length of
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the bionic elements can be denoted as a ¼ ðrn − rn−1 Þ2 =2,
and the aggregate count of these elements is 4 ∙ ð2n − 1Þ:
2.2. Key crashworthiness index
For a precise and objective assessment of the crashworthiness
attributes of MBMT-n, an EA evaluation index system was
delineated. The specific indices are enumerated as follows [40]:
EA: The total energy absorbed by the structure within
the compression stroke (SE ).
ð SE
EA ¼ FðsÞds (1)
0
SEA: The ratio of the total EA absorbed by the structure
within the effective compression stroke SE to the total mass
4 X. MA ET AL.
m of the structure [41].
EA
SEA ¼
m
Mean crushing force (MCF): The average crushing force
of structural crushing. It is the ratio of total EA to effective
compression stroke SE :
EA
MCF ¼
SE
PCF: PCF at initial yield stage. The index ought to
remain minimal, approximating the mean force, to guaran­
tee gradual deceleration during the collision’s onset.
CFE: Ratio of PCF to average crushing force to character­
ise the stability of crushing force during deformation.
MCF
CFE ¼ � 100%
PCF
3. Finite element analysis
3.1. Finite element model (FEM)
To investigate the crushing behaviours of MBMT, a collab­
orative simulation was executed employing the modelling
tool SolidWorks, meshing utility Hypermesh, and the expli­
cit finite element analysis platform LS-DYNA. As shown in
Figure 3, MBMT-n was positioned on a fixed rigid plate. A
moving rigid plate, weighing 500 kg and moving at a uni­
form speed of 10 m/s, crushed the top of the tube. The pre­
determined crush displacement was fixed at 75 mm. The
BMT was modelled using the Belytschko-Tsay shell element.
In the direction of thickness, five integration points are
established. Two types of contacts were used in the Finite
element analysis. To simulate the interaction between the
Figure 3. Finite element analysis model.
MBMT-n and the moving rigid wall, the ‘Automatic surface
to surface’ contact algorithm was utilised. An ‘Automatic
(2) single surface’ contact algorithm was implemented to
address the self-contact of MBMT-n, to avoid potential self-
penetration. Both the static and dynamic frictional coeffi­
cients for the contacts were set at 0.2 [42].
In LS-DYNA, the constitutive model for the thin-walled
tube was represented using MAT_PIECEWISE_LINEAR_
(3)
PLASTICITY (024). The material of MBMT is aluminium
alloy AA6061 O [32]. The associated mechanical properties
include: Young’s modulus E ¼ 68:2GPa, density q ¼
2:7 � 103kg=m3 , Poisson’s ratio l ¼ 0:3, yield stress r ¼
80MPa: The stress–strain curves of the AA6061 O, which
were collected through the axial tensile tests, as depicted in
Figure 4 [32]. Given that the aluminium alloy exhibits
insensitivity to strain rates, the effect of strain rate has been
(4)
omitted [27].
As depicted in Figure 5, a mesh convergence analysis was
executed, aiming to minimise the computational time without
compromising accuracy. Figure 5 illustrates the progressive
convergence of the EA as the mesh size diminishes. There’s a
mere 0.93% discrepancy in the MCF between the 0.5 and
1 mm mesh size. While, what can be clearly seen in Figure 5 is
Mere /mɪr/ (a) chỉ là, chẳng qua
He is a mere boy = nó chỉ là một đứa trẻ con.
Figure 4. The stress–strain curves and test specimens of AA6061 O [32].
Diminish /dɪˈmɪn.ɪʃ/ (v) bớt, giảm, giảm bớt, thu nhỏ
Figure 5. Convergence analysis of the FEM.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS 5

Figure 6. Comparison of experimental and simulation results: (a) circular tube, (b) deformation modes of circular tube, (c) P6L1BT [32], (d) 2-NHMT-1 [43].

that the figcalculation time gradually decreases, as the Table 1. Mass and wall thickness of MBMT-n and conventional circular tube.
mesh size increases. The most significant variation is t(mm)
observed between the 0.5 and 1 mm mesh sizes. Conclusively, Group m(g) Circular MBMT-0 MBMT-1 MBMT-2 MBMT-3
taking into account the equilibrium between simulation preci­ Group_1 76.34 1.5 0.8 0.64 0.43 0.3
sion and computational time, a mesh size of 1 mm was Group_2 101.79 2 1.07 0.85 0.57 0.41
selected. Group_3 127.23 2.5 1.35 1.07 0.75 0.51
Ascertain /ˌæs.ɚˈteɪn/ (v) biết chắc, xác định, tìm hiểu chắc chắn Group_4 152.68 3 1.62 1.29 0.87 0.62
Juxtapose /ˌdʒʌk.stəˈpoʊz/ (v) to put things that are not similar next to each other = Để (hai hoặc nhiều vật) cạnh nhau, để kề nhau
3.2. Validation of the FEM
experimentally tested in reference [32,43], Their reliability
The accuracy of finite element analysis outcomes is directly was ascertained through juxtaposing results from finite
contingent upon the reliability of the finite element model. element analysis with those from quasi-static compression
A quasi-static compression test on a circular tube has been experiments. The sample of P6L1BT was constructed using
performed to evaluate the reliability of the devised finite the AA 6061 O, consistent with the materials used in this
element model. The circular tubes were fabricated from alu­ study. The 2-NHMT-1 are made of Aluminium alloy
minium alloy AA6063, with the following mechanical prop­
AA6060. The basic mechanical properties are as follows:
erties: E ¼ 68:2GPa, density q ¼ 2:7 � 103kg=m3 , Poisson’s
E ¼ 68:2GPa, density q ¼ 2:7 � 103 kg=m3 , Poisson’s ratio
ratio l ¼ 0:3, yield stress r ¼ 230MPa: The length and
l ¼ 0:3, yield stress r ¼ 100MPa: In the quasi-static com­
outer diameter of the specimen were 100 and 50 mm,
pression experiment, the sample undergoes a compression
respectively, and the wall thickness was 1 mm. The loading
rate was set at 3 mm/min. of 60 mm at a rate of 2 mm/min. Figure 6 displays both the
Figure 6(a) shows the finite element model and the FEM and the reference experimental force–displacement
experimental force–displacement curve. The force–displace­ curve. The simulated curve aligns well with the experimental
ment curve and deformation patterns of both methodologies curve. The deviation between the FEM analysis results for
align well. The errors for EA and PCF are, respectively, EA and the experimental results is less than 5%. Potential
4.79% and 3.7%, both lying within the permissible limits. reasons for this discrepancy might be inherent material
Figure 6(b) illustrates that the deformation modes of the defects or variations in manufacturing precision. Moreover,
experiment and finite element model are similar, with 7 Figure 6 indicates a pronounced similarity between the
folds generated in the circular tubes, underscoring the structural deformation mode from the finite element ana­
dependability of the finite element simulation. lysis and the experimental observations, particularly in the
To bolster the validation of the devised finite element interlaced folding patterns. Consequently, the FE model is
model, this study established two models that were reliable and can be used for subsequent analysis.
Contingent /kənˈtɪn.dʒənt/ (a) ngẫu nhiên, tình cờ, bất ngờ
Particularly /pə´tikjuləli/ (adv) đặcthù, cá biệt, riêng biệt
To be contingent upon = To be dependent on = phụ thuộc vào
Interlaced /ˌɪn.t̬ɚˈleɪst/ (a) được đan xen, được xen kẻ
Bolster /ˈbəʊl.stər/ (v) đỡ, nâng đỡ, ủng hộ, bên vực
6 X. MA ET AL.
4. Simulation results analysis
To explore the impact of hierarchical levels on the struc­
ture’s crashworthiness, four MBMT-n groups of identical
quality were created and analysed based on the evaluation
indexes outlined in Section 2.2. Based on the masses of cir­
cular tubes with wall thicknesses t of 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 mm,
the wall thickness of MBMT-n was adjusted to ensure uni­
form mass across each group. The detailed parameters can
be found in Table 1.
4.1. Deformation modes and force–displacement curves
For structures designed to be crashworthy, stable deform­
ation modes are more desirable. As depicted in Figure 7, the
deformation mode of MBMT-n tubes within Group_4 is
illustrated at the compression distance of 75 mm, since the
deformation patterns exhibit similarity among the groups.
Within Group_4, MBMT-0 exhibits a mixed deformation
pattern: the upper segment undergoes axisymmetric deform­
ation, whereas the lower segment demonstrates non-
axisymmetric deformation. The outer circular tube has five
folds, as indicated within the red-circled region of Figure 7;
the inner square tube has three folds, highlighted in the area
encircled by the orange box in Figure 7. Nevertheless,
MBMT-1, MBMT-2 and MBMT-3 have always been stable
Figure 7. The deformation mode of MBMT-n tubes in Group_4.
axisymmetric deformation modes. The outer circular tubes
for MBMT-1, MBMT-2 and MBMT-3 possess 5, 6 and 7
folds, respectively, while their corresponding inner square
tubes have 6, 10, and 14 folds. Notably, the inner square
tube of MBMT-3 contains twice the number of folds as its
outer tube. This observation clarifies why the crashworthi­
ness of MBMT-0 is not as good as other MBMT-n.
Evidently, as the increase of levels, the deformation pattern
of the tube becomes more stable, and the number of folds
in the outer circular tube and the bionic cell gradually
increases. The increase of plastic deformation leads to the
increase of crashworthiness of the structure. In addition, as
the number of bionic unit cells increases, the interaction
between the tube walls increases, further enhancing the
crashworthiness of the structure.
The force–displacement curves for each group of the cir­
cular tube and MBMT-n under 75 mm compression dis­
placement are shown in Figure 8. Clearly, post the initial
buckling phase, tubes from all groups transitioned into the
plateau stage. In particular, within Group_1, MBMT-2 and
MBMT-3 progressed to the densification stage due to their
limited effective compression lengths. The circular tube
exhibits the most pronounced load fluctuations during the
plateau stage. Notably, certain peaks even surpass the initial
peak load, with the overall count of peaks being minimal.
with the overall count of peaks being minimal = với tổng số đỉnh là rất nhò
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS 7

Figure 8. Force–displacement curves of each group of circular tube and MBMT-n, (a) group_1, (b) Group_2, (c) Group_3, (d) Group_4.

Figure 9. MBMT-n crashworthiness indexes: (a) EA, (b) SEA, (c) MCF, (d) PCF, (e) CFE.

As the level n ascends, MBMT-n’s platform load fluctuation the fluctuation of MBMT-2 and MBMT-3 is relatively stable,
sees a decline, curve stability improves, the number of peaks with the variation in platform stress being approximately
rises, and there’s a gradual elevation in MCF. Specifically, 10% of the initial peak load, which fully reflects the
Ascend /əˈsend/ (vi) lên, thăng
(ve) trèo lên, lên ==> To ascend a mountain = leo núi
and there’s a gradual elevation in MCF. = và có sự gia tăng dần dần trong MCF
 Exert /ɪɡˈzɝːt/ (v) hành xử, dùng, sử dụng
8 X. MA ET AL. Tham khảo section 4.2 viết
so sánh các chỉ số
excellent EA stability of the structure. The main reason is maximum PCF deviations between various MBMT-n and
that in order to ensure consistent structural quality, the wall the traditional circular tubes across four groups are 8.81%,
thickness of high-level MBMT is thinner. The thinner the 5.28%, 7.22% and 12.48%, respectively. Hence, the multi-
wall thickness, the shorter the folding wavelength and the hierarchical structure, when holding the same mass, exerts
more the number of folds caused by deformation. little influence on the PCF. This observation aligns with
Pivotal /´pivətl/ (a) nòng cốt, chủ chốt, then chốt, mấu chốt prior research on GHMC [33]. The PCF formula, as derived
by Marshall [45], also provides an explanation for this.
4.2. Crashworthiness analysis
Given that each tube in a group shares the same weight,
Figure 9 presents the EA, SEA, MCF, PCF and CFE for they possess identical volume and height. Therefore, accord­
each group of circular tubes and MBMT-n. SE of all tubes ing to the formula PCF ¼ r0 V=H (r0 is the material flow
was set to 75 mm, which is the SE of MBMT-3 in Group_1. stress, V is the structural volume, H is the tube height), the
The capacity for EA is a pivotal consideration in designing structural PCF remains unchanged under the same material
crashworthy structures. The higher the EA, the greater the and cross-sectional area.
ability to crash worthiness. As shown in Figure 9(a), within Higher EA efficiency is the direction of researchers’
the same group, the EA of MBMT-n progressively increases efforts. The structure exhibits superior EA efficiency when
with the hierarchy level n. Additionally, except for MBMT- its CFE approaches 1. Figure 9(e) displays the CFE for each
0, the EA of MBMT-n surpasses that of the circular tubes. tube. As the hierarchy level n ascends, the CFE of MBMT-n
This illustrates that MBMT-0 is an inefficient energy consistently increases. In Group_1, the CFE of MBMT-3
absorbing structure, and other MBMT-n exhibit superior increased by 54.86%, 10.49%, 3.24% and 37.55% compared
EA ability. Furthermore, as the mass of each group to MBMT-0, MBMT-1, MBMT-2 and Circular tubes,
increases, there is a marked improvement in the EA for respectively. Notably, in Group-4, the CFE of MBMT-3
tubes of the same hierarchical level across different groups. reaches an impressive 82.72%.
It shows that the quality of each tube has a direct impact on To summarise the preceding analysis, it is evident that,
its EA. Covet /ˈkʌv.ət/ (v) ham muốn, thèm thuồng Coveted /ˈkʌv.ətid/ given constant mass and height, elevating the hierarchy level
SEA is the primary indicator of people’s efforts to enhances the EA, SEA, MCF and CFE of the MBMT-n
improve. A high SEA denotes robust EA ability and low structure without raising the PCF, thereby bolstering the
mass, making it coveted in sectors like aerospace and auto­ structure’s crashworthiness.
motive that prioritise lightweight structures. As can be seen Emerge /i´mə:dʒ/ (v) xuất hiện, nổi lên, hiện/lòi ra
Elevation /ˌɛləˈveɪʃən/ Sự nâng lên, sự đưa lên
from Figure 9(b), the SEA of the MBMT-n tube progres­
4.3. Comparison of crashworthiness with other
sively rises with each ascending hierarchical level n.
multicellular thin-walled structures
Specifically, within Group_1, there’s an elevation in SEA by
34.12%, 9.27% and 4.43% for each tube when compared to Previous research has emerged a variety of complex cross-
its preceding hierarchical level. Notably, the SEA of the sections for multicellular tubes. This section evaluates the
MBMT-3 tube surpasses the circular tube by 29.37%. performance of MBMT-n by comparing it comprehensively
Under axial loading conditions, the MCF stands as a piv­ with other multicellular tubes, each weighing 100 g. Figure
otal metric in assessing the crashworthiness of thin-walled 10(a) depicts the bio-inspired hierarchical multicellular
tubes [44]. The MCF of each group of circular tubes and square tubes conceived by Ha et al. Figure 10(b) presents
MBMT-n is shown in Figure 9(c). It is evident that within the circular multi chamber thin-walled tube designed by
each group, the MCF of each tube follows a growth trend Albak et al. Figure 10(c) illustrates the multicellular tube
similar to that of the EA. This relationship can be deduced designed by Jin et al. bearing a cross-section resemblance to
from Equation (4) which indicates that the MCF varies in a horseshoe. Figure 10(d) presents a biomimetic thin-walled
tandem with EA for a constant crushing distance. tube, taking inspiration from the evolutionary patterns of
The PCF can indicate the peak deceleration experienced plant stems. Figure 10(e) showcases the MBMT-3 intro­
by an impacted object. Ideally, the PCF should be moderate, duced in this study.
aligning closely with the MCF. Figure 9(d) displays the PCF The numerical simulation analysis is performed for these
for various MBMT-n configurations. Specifically, the different tubes while maintaining the same mass, and the
Prioritise /praɪˈɔːr.ə.taɪz/ (v) dành ưu tiên Robust /roʊˈbʌst/ (a) thiết thực, mạnh, ngon In tandem = cùng lúc, đồng thời

Figure 10. Cross sections with different structures: (a) circular multicellular thin-walled tubes, (b) bio-inspired hierarchical multicell square tubes, (c) multicell tubes
resembling housetail structures, (d) biomimetic thin-walled tubes inspired by plant stem evolution laws, (e) MBMT-3.
Elevation /ˌɛləˈveɪʃən/ (n) mặt chiếu, phép chiếu thẳng góc
Stand /stænd/ (ve) giữ vững, chịu đựng
the MCF stands as a pivotal metric in assessing the crashworthiness of thin-walled tubes = MCF đóng vai trò là thước đo quan trọng trong việc đánh giá khả năng
chịu va chạm của các ống có thành mỏng

Figure 11. Crashworthiness data analysis of different structures: (a) force–displacement curve, (b) SEA and MCF, (c) IPF and CFE.
results are shown in Figure 11. The force–displacement
curves for tubes of varying structural designs are shown in
Figure 11(a). It is evident from Figure 11(a) that the plateau
force of MBMT-3 is substantially higher than its counter­
parts, signifying its superior EA capability. Figure 11(b) pro­
vides a comparison of SEA and MCF across these five
structural designs. Clearly, the MBMT-3 proposed in this
study boasts the highest SEA and MCF values. Figure 11(c)
contrasts the PCF and CFE metrics among these five struc­
tures. When compared to other configurations, the PCF for
MBMT-3 remains consistent, while it exhibits the highest
CFE, reaching 76.24%. Thus, while maintaining the same
quality, MBMT-3 exhibits a comparable PCF to other con­
figurations but stands out with higher SEA, MCF and CFE
values, highlighting its enhanced crashworthiness.
4.4. Parametric analysis
4.4.1. Effect of wall thickness
To investigate the impact of wall thickness on crashworthi­
ness, the MBMT-n and circular tubes with wall thicknesses
ranging from 0.5 mm to 2 mm in increments of 0.25 mm
were constructed. The change of EA evaluation index with
wall thickness is shown in Figure 12. Clearly, with the
increasing wall thickness, there is a linear growth trend
observed in the EA, PCF and MCF of each tube. At a wall
thickness of t ¼ 2 mm, the EA, MCF and PCF of MBMT-3
saw increments of 520.07%, 438.90% and 522.74%, respect­
ively, in comparison to when t ¼ 0.5 mm. The DSEA is the
difference between the SEAs of two adjacent wall thick­
nesses. With the increment in wall thickness, there’s a con­
sistent rise in the structure’s SEA; however, the DSEA
diminishes. The reason is that the multiplication of wall
thickness increases the overall mass of the structure, and the
multiplication of EA is less than the increment of structural
mass. With the growth in wall thickness, the CFE of
MBMT-n correspondingly rises. Referring to Figure 12(e), it
is evident that with a wall thickness t � 1:5mm, the CFE
values for MBMT-1, MBMT-2 and MBMT-3 converge, sta­
bilising at around 88%, indicating a prominent EA efficiency
all. The aforementioned outcomes underscore the pivotal
role of wall thickness in influencing the crashworthiness of
MBMT-n. As the wall thickness increases, the crashworthi­
ness of the structure increases, and the effect of wall
Diminish /di´miniʃ/ (n) bớt, giảm bớt, hạ bớt
Underscore /¸ʌndə´skɔ:/ = Underline (v) nhấn mạnh
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS 9
thickness on EA, MCF and PCF is greater than that on SEA
and CFE.
4.4.2. Effect of uniform bionic unit cell length–width ratio
The length–width ratio of bamboo vascular bundles
increases gradually from inside to outside in the radial dir­
ection, which has a certain influence on the structural per­
formance of bamboo. Herein, in order to study the effect of
bionic unit cell length–width ratio R ¼ L/W on the energy-
absorbing performance of MBMT structure, MBMT-3 was
taken as the prototype and designed five n/n-MBMT-3
models, as shown in Figure 13.
Figures 14 and 15 show the deformation patterns and
crashworthiness indices of n/n-MBMT-3 across varied R
values. As illustrated in Figure 15, there is a descending
trend in SEA and CFE of n/n-MBMT-3 with the escalation
of the length–width ratio of the bionic cell. This phenom­
enon can be ascribed to bionic cells with lower length–width
ratios producing a higher number of folds, as highlighted in
the orange section of Figure 14. Furthermore, the EA and
MCF of n/n-MBMT-3 initially rise and subsequently decline,
reaching a turning point when R equals 3/2. The reason is
that with an increasing R value, the effective compression
distance of the MBMT-n structure reduced. Interestingly,
the PCF of n/n-MBMT-3 shows a monotonically increasing
trend, because the cross-sectional area of n/n-MBMT-3
increases monotonously with the increase of the aspect ratio
of the bionic cell.
Specifically, in terms of crashworthiness design, we aim
for a lower PCF and higher values of SEA, MCF and CFE.
Comparing 3/2-MBMT-3 with 1/2-MBMT-3, the differences
in EA, SEA, PCF, MCF and CFE are 5.66%, −13.29%,
27.09%, 11.91% and −9.82%, respectively. The EA values
between the two structures are relatively close; however, the
1/2-MBMT-3 boasts a lower PCF and superior SEA and
CFE values. Thus, a strategic reduction in the length–width
ratio of the bionic cell can optimise the crashworthiness of
the structure.
Escalation /¸eskə´leiʃən/ (n) sự leo thang. bước leo thang
Escribe /əˈskraɪb/ (v) đổ tại, đổ cho, gan cho, quy cho
4.4.3. Effect of gradient length–width ratio of bionic unit
cell
The radial direction of bamboo vascular bundles exhibits a
decreasing length–width ratio from the inside to the outside,
necessitating an investigation into the effects of a gradient
10 X. MA ET AL.

Figure 12. Crashworthiness of MBMT-n and conventional circular tube with different wall thicknesses: (a) EA, (b) SEA, (c) MCF, (d) PCF, (e) CFE.

Figure 13. n/n-MBMT-3 with different length–width ratios.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS 11

Figure 14. Deformation modes of n/n-MBMT-3 with different length–width ratios.

Figure 15. Crashworthiness index of n/n-MBMT-3 with different R.

Figure 16. c MBMT-3 with different gradient length–width ratios.

12 X. MA ET AL.

Figure 17. Crashworthiness index of c-MBMT-3 with different gradient c.

Figure 18. Simplified super folding element.

Intricate /ˈɪntrɪkɪt/ (a) rắc rối, phức tạp khó hiểu, rối beng
length–width ratio in bionic unit cells. As depicted in (SSFE) theory. In the theoretical model of SSFE, the SSFE is
Figure 16, this study designs MBMT-3 with five distinct gra­ a panel element composed of an extensible triangle and a
dient distributions for the cell length–width ratio. Gradient static plastic hinge line, as shown in Figure 18. The shaded
variation parameters, denoted as c, are established at 0.5, area in the diagram represents three extensible triangular
0.66, 1, 1.5 and 2, dictating the length–width ratio changes elements, with one triangle in the middle being in a tensile
from the outer to the inner ring. state and the upper and lower triangles in a compressive
From Figure 17, it is observed that as c rises, the EA, state. The three static plastic hinge lines are at the upper,
SEA and MCF of c-MBMT-3 initially increase but subse­ middle and lower positions of the panel unit, and the corre­
quently decline. In particular, when c equals 1, c-MBMT-3’s sponding rotation angles are h, 2h and h: Each folding
SEA reaches its maximum, suggesting that introducing a wavelength of the MBMT is assumed to be the same during
gradient can diminish the structure’s SEA. In conjunction folding.
with the analysis from Figure 17(a), it is evident that the The energy dissipation during axial crushing of thin-
length–width ratio exceeding 1 result in decreased SEA for walled tubes is divided into two categories: membrane
multi-level bionic cells. Additionally, the CFE trend for deformation energy dissipation and bending deformation
c-MBMT-3 is more intricate. While CFE experiences little energy dissipation. According to the instantaneous energy
changes at c values of 0.5–1.5, its general trend is a decline. balance of the system:
Concretely, when evaluating crashworthiness, the gradi­
MCFn � d_ ¼ W_ bþW _ m (6)
ent change parameter c exhibits a minor impact on both EA
and MCF, with their maximum differences being just 7.94%where W _ b and W _ m m represent the energy dissipation rate of
and 7.38%, respectively. Moreover, c-MBMT-3 with a c bending deformation and membrane deformation,
value less than 1 boasts a higher SEA and CFE, and a respectively.
reduced PCF when compared to c-MBMT-3 with c exceed­ Integrating Equation (6) in a folded wavelength 2H, the
ing 1. Therefore, drawing a parallel to the natural evolution energy balance equation of the system is:
of organisms, a gradient variation parameter of c less than 1 MCFn � 2H ¼ Wb þ Wm (7)
can somewhat enhance the crashworthiness of c-MBMT-n.
Obviously, the actual crushing length of the structure
5. Theoretical analysis cannot reach 2H, so the effective crushing length SE ¼
l � 2H is adopted, l usually takes 0.7–0.75. The formula can
To analyse the crashworthiness of high-order MBMT-n be rewritten as:
more effectively, the MCF theoretical model of MBMT-n is MCFn � l � 2H ¼ Wb þ Wm (8)
constructed based on the simplified super folding element
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS 13

5.1. Bending deformation energy 5.2.1. Corner element

The corner element has two compression deformation
The bending deformation energy Wb can be obtained by
modes: extended deformation mode and non-extended
calculating the total energy dissipation of the three static deformation mode, as shown in Figure 21 [45]. Usually, the
plastic hinge lines of the panel element. Assuming that the compression of the corner element is non-extended deform­
axial crushing length of the panel element is 2H, that is, ation. Only the extended deformation occurs in the thick
the panel element is completely flattened, as shown in square tube with a small width-to-thickness ratio c=h: It can
Figure 19, the rotation angles of the three static plastic hinge be seen from Figure 22 that the corner element in this study
lines are p=2, p and p=2 respectively, and the bending is non-extensional deformation mode. The membrane
deformation energy Wb is deformation energy of the corner element in a period can
be expressed by [47]:
X
3
Wb ¼ M0 hi b ¼ 2pM0 b (9) H2
1 Wmc−inex ¼ 4M0 (12)
t
M0 ¼ r0 t 2 =4 (10) H2
Wmc−ex ¼ 8M0 (13)
t
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r0 ¼ ry ru =ð1 þ sÞ (11)
5.2.2. K-shape element
where b is the cross-section perimeter, M0 is the plastic The K-shape element can be regarded as composed of two
limit bending moment per unit length, t is the wall thick­ edge plates and a corner element, and the deformation mode
ness of MBMT, r0 , ry and ru represent the flow stress, is an extended deformation mode, as shown in Figure 23.
yield stress and limit stress of the material, respectively, s is Therefore, the membrane deformation energy of the K-shape
the material hardening index and the value is 0.23 [46]. element can be obtained by adding the membrane deform­
ation energy of the corner element and the two edge plates
5.2. Membrane deformation energy [34]. The edge plate membrane deformation energy can be
described as:
The cross-section of MBMT-n is complex. To simplify the
H2
calculation of the membrane deformation energy, the whole Wma−4panel ¼ 4M0 (14)
tcos b
cross-section is divided into three basic components: corner
element, K-shape element and 6-panel element, as shown in The angle between the edge plate and the corner element
Figure 20. The arc plate is replaced by the arc tangent is b ¼ p=4, so the membrane deformation energy can be
straight plate at the intersection of each unit [30]. defined as follows [47]:

Figure 19. Bending hinge line and hinge line rotation angle. Figure 21. Compression deformation mode of the typical corner element.

Figure 20. Typical element division.

14 X. MA ET AL.

Figure 22. Compression deformation mode of the MBMT-n’s corner element.

Figure 23. Compression deformation mode of the MBMT-n’s K-shape element.

Figure 24. Compression deformation mode of the MBMT-n’s X-shape element.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRASHWORTHINESS 15

� �
H2 1 5.3. Mean crushing force
Wm4−panel ¼ 2Wma−4panel þ Wmc−ex ¼ 8M0 1þ
t cos b
Substituting Equations (9), (20), (21) and (22) into Equation
(15) (8), the average crushing force of MBMT-n can be obtained
M0 H 2 as follows:
WmK−shape ¼ 19:314 (16) 8
t >
> M0 H 2
>
> MCF n � l � 2H ¼ 2pM 0 b þ 77:256 ðn ¼ 0 Þ
>
> t
<
M0 H 2
5.2.3. 6-panel element MCFn � l � 2H ¼ 2pM0 b þ 186:512 ðn ¼ 1Þ
>
> t
As can be seen from Figure 24, the 6-panel element has >
>
>
> 32M0 H 2
morphological symmetry characteristics. Similar to the : MCFn � l � 2H ¼ 2pM0 b þ ð3:424 � 2n Þ ðn � 2 Þ
t
K-shape element, the 6-panel element can be seen as com­
posed of two edge plates and two corner units. The deform­ (22)
ation mode is also an extended deformation mode. The According to the stationary condition @MCFn =@H ¼ 0,
membrane deformation energy of the edge plate can be H can be expressed as:
described as: 8 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> pbt
H2 >
> H¼ ðn ¼ 0 Þ
>
>
Wma−6panel ¼ 8M0 (17) >
< rffi38:628
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
tcos b pbt
H¼ ðn ¼ 1 Þ (23)
So, the membrane deformation energy of the 6-panel >
> 77:256
>
> rffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffiffi
element within a folded wavelength can be obtained as fol­ >
> pbt
>
:H ¼ ðn � 2 Þ
lows: 3:424 � 2nþ4
� �
H2 1 Substituting Equation (23) into Equation (22), the theor­
Wm6−panel ¼ 2Wma−6panel þ 2Wmc−ex ¼ 16M0 1þ
t cos b etical model of MCF n can be obtained as follows:
8 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
(18) >
> 3
> MCF ¼ r0 38:628 � p � b � t ðn ¼ 0Þ
>
The angle between the edge plate and the corner element >
> n
>
>
< pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2l ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
is b ¼ p=4:Thus, r0 77:256 � p � b � t 3
MCFn ¼ ðn ¼ 1 Þ (24)
M0 H 2 >
> 2l
Wm6−panel ¼ 38:627 (19) >
> p ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi
ffi
>
> 2r0 3:424 � 2n � p � b � t3
t >
>
: MCFn ¼ l
ðn � 2Þ
The total membrane deformation energy of MBMT-n is
obtained by adding each component as follows: Equation (24) is the theoretical model of average crush­
Wm ¼ Nc−ex Wmc−inex þ NK−shape WmK−shape þ N6−panel Wm6−panel ing force under quasi-static compression. The condition of
this finite element simulation is dynamic compression under
(20)
the speed of 10 m/s. Therefore, in order to consider the
where Nc−ex , NK−shape and N6−panel represent the number of the influence of dynamic compression on the theoretical model,
corner element, the K-shape element and the 6-panel elem­ the dynamic enhancement kd [48] is introduced, kd ¼ 1:3 �
ent, respectively. The number of three basic components of 1:6: Thus,
different MBMT-n is given in Table 2. Obviously, the num­
ber of basic units is related to n. Table 3. Comparison of theoretical prediction and finite element analysis
Equation (20) can be rewritten as: results.
8 MCF (kN)
>
> M0 H 2 Absolute mean
>
> W m ¼ 77:256 ðn ¼ 0 Þ Group Tube Theo Num Error (%) error (%)
>
> t
< Group_1 MBMT-0 13.85 12.77 8.46 5.20
M0 H 2
Wm ¼ 186:512 ðn ¼ 1Þ (21) MBMT-1 17.31 17.26 0.29
>
> t MBMT-2 18.44 18.89 −2.38
>
> 2
>
> 32M0 H MBMT-3 17.55 19.43 −9.68
: Wm ¼ ð3:424 � 2n Þ ð n � 2Þ Group_2 MBMT-0 21.42 20.65 3.73 5.46
t MBMT-1 26.49 27.31 −3.00
MBMT-2 27.31 28.94 −5.63
MBMT-3 28.04 30.98 −9.49
Group_3 MBMT-0 30.36 29.89 1.57 5.02
MBMT-1 37.41 38.45 −2.70
Table 2. Different MBMT-n contains the number of basic units. MBMT-2 38.77 41.17 −5.83
N 0 1 2 3 4 n MBMT-3 38.9 43.21 −9.97
Group_4 MBMT-0 39.91 39.95 −0.10 4.31
Nc−ex 0 8 24 56 120 8 ∙ ð2n − 1Þ (n � 0)
MBMT-1 49.52 52.04 −4.84
NK−shape 4 8 12 28 60 4 ∙ 2n−1 (n � 1)
MBMT-2 51.5 54.48 −5.47
N6−panel 0 0 4 8 16 4 ∙ 2n−2 (n � 2)
MBMT-3 52.15 55.98 −6.84
 16 X. MA ET AL.

8 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> r0 kd 38:628 � p � b � t 3
>
> MCFn ¼ ðn ¼ 0 Þ
>
>
>
> p ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi 2l
ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi
ffi
<
r0 kd 77:256 � p � b � t 3
MCFn ¼ ðn ¼ 1 Þ (25)
>
>
>
> pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2l ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffinffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> 2r0 kd 3:424 � 2 � p � b � t3
>
>
: MCFn ¼ l
ðn � 2 Þ

5.4. Theoretical model validation

To verify the reliability of the theoretical model, the com­
parison between the theoretical model results and the finite
element simulation results is summarised in Table 3. The
maximum error between the finite element analysis and the
theoretical model is 9.97%, and the maximum absolute aver­
age error is 5.46%. It is proved that the proposed theoretical
model can be used to predict the MCF of MBMT-n. Figure 25. The Pareto front of MBMT-3.

6. Multi-objective optimisation design Table 4. Comparison of simulation value and optimisation value.
MCF(kN) PCF(kN)
6.1. Description of optimisation problem
T (mm) R Optimisation Simulation Error Optimisation Simulation Error
In engineering design, multiple rules interact with each 0.4986 0.5703 36.86 38.36 3.91% 43.35 45.26 4.22%
other, often resulting in the need to consider two or more
conflicting goals. Optimising one goal often comes at the
expense of others, complicating the search for an unequivo­ Dominated Sorting Approach, substantially minimising the
cal optimal solution. Instead, a balanced approach involving algorithm’s computational duration. Concurrently, it inte­
both coordination and compromise is employed to most grates an elite strategy, ensuring that superior individuals
effectively realise the overarching goal. Generally, multi- possess a heightened likelihood of retention. Compared to
objective optimisation problems can be written as the fol­ the NSGA algorithm, NSGA II emerges as superior, both in
lowing mathematical models: terms of its optimisation efficacy and computational effi­
8 ciency. Moreover, its proficiency in addressing crashworthi­
< min f ðxÞ ¼ ½f1 ðxÞ, f2 ðxÞ, :::, fn ðxÞ, �
s:t:x 2 X (26) ness challenges has been empirically validated [49]. As such,
: we leverage the NSGA II algorithm to delineate the Pareto
X � Rm
front for both MCF and PCF.
where f ðxÞ symbolises the objective functions that need mini­
Sought /sɔ:t/ -> seek /si:k/ (v) tìm kiếm, tìm cho được
misation. x denotes the decision variable vector. X repre­ Overlook /,ouvə'luk/ (v) bỏ qua, giám sát, nhìn kỹ
sents the definition domain. 6.2. Results of multi-objective optimisation
In the context of crashworthiness, a high MCF is highly
sought after, yet the PCF serves as a pivotal safety metric that Figure 25 presents the Pareto front of MBMT-3. Clearly, at
cannot be overlooked. Drawing from prior analyses, it’s evi­ the turning point (highlighted in red), the Pareto front’s slope
dent that the wall thickness, denoted as t, and the aspect ratio on the left is smaller than that on the right. This signifies a
of the bionic cell, represented by R, jointly influence the struc­ muted escalation in PCF to the left and a pronounced ascent
ture’s crashworthiness. The overarching challenge in optimis­ in MCF. Contrarily, in the subsequent section, the trend
ing MBMT-n revolves around selecting suitable values for t reverses. Given specific design considerations, researchers can
and R to maximise MCF while minimising PCF. Given that select an optimal solution aligned with their requirements.
MBMT-3 outperforms other structures in the MBMT-n series Should the researchers mandate precise PCF constraints, they
(namely, n ¼ 0,1,2,3) in terms of crashworthiness, we spotlight can efficiently identify a suitable solution by plotting a dashed
MBMT-3 for our multi-objective optimisation. This optimisa­ line perpendicular to the Y-axis. Here, select the turning point
tion conundrum can be encapsulated as follows: as the optimal solution. Table 4 provides detailed parameters
8 for the optimisation results. The discrepancy between the
< min½−MCF ðt, RÞ; PCFðt, RÞ� results from the finite element analysis and those derived
s:t:0:3mm � t � 0:5mm (27)
: from the NSGA-II-based optimisation is observed to be less
0:5 � R � 2
than 5%, a margin considered acceptable in engineering con­
Both MCF and PCF formulas in the equation have been texts. In comparison to the preliminary findings (t ¼ 0.4 mm,
given in the previous text. The Non-Dominated Sorting R ¼ 1), the refined results exhibit a 26.33% elevation in MCF,
Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA II) employs the Fast Non- while only registering a 13.23% increment in PCF.
Jointly /ˈdʒɔɪntli/ (adv) cùng nhau, chung, cùng chung Ascent /əˈsent/ (n) sự đi lên, sự lên
Overarching /ˌəʊ.vəˈrɑː.tʃɪŋ/ (a) bao quát toàn bộ Escalation /¸eskə´leiʃən/ (n) sự leo thang
Delineate /di´lini¸eit/ (v) vạch ra, mô tả, phác họa margin /ˈmɑːr.dʒɪn/ (n) số dư, mép, tìa, giới hạn, lề
==> On the margin of a lake = trên bờ hồ

7. Conclusion
In this study, the EA behaviour of MBMT-n which was
inspired by the cross-section structure of sage stem and the
shape and distribution characteristics of bamboo vascular
bundle was systematically studied by finite element simula­
tion under axial impact. The main conclusions can be sum­
marised as follows:
1. Given identical qualities, the crashworthiness of
MBMT-n significantly surpasses that of both MBMT-0
and the circular tubes. Compared to MBMT-0 and trad­
itional circular tubes, the SEA of MBMT-3 has risen by
53.05% and 29.37%, respectively. The CFE of MBMT-3
increased by 54.86% and 37.55% compared to MBMT-0
and circular tube, respectively.
2. With the increase in wall thickness, the EA, SEA and
MCF of MBMT-n demonstrate a consistent linear
growth trend. When t ¼ 2.00 mm, the EA, SEA and
MCF of MBMT-3 increased by 520.07%, 55.03% and
438.90%, respectively, compared to t ¼ 0.50 mm.
3. Employing a reduced aspect ratio in bionic cells enhan­
ces the EA performance of MBMT. Compared to 1/2-
MBMT-3, the SEA and PCF of 3/2-MBMT-3 exhibited
variations of −13.29% and 27.09%, respectively.
4. A theoretical model for reliably predicting MBMT-n in
MCF has been established. The disparity between the
finite element analysis outcomes and the theoretical
model’s computations exhibits a maximum absolute
average error of 5.46%.
5. The crashworthiness of the structure has been enhanced
utilising the NSGA-II optimisation algorithm. For
MBMT-3, the optimal structural parameters determined
are a wall thickness of 0.4986 mm and a bionic cell
aspect ratio (R) of 0.5703. This optimisation resulted in
a 26.33% increase in MCF relative to the initial
configuration.
Disclosure statement
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 51875282).
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