Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Full length article

Bionic design of thin-walled tubes inspired by the vascular structure of

bamboo
Yansong Liu a , Yingchun Qi a , Hao Sun a , Na Han a , Jianfei Zhou a , Jiafeng Song b , Meng Zou a ,∗
a
Key Lab of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
b
Tsinghua Univ, State Key Lab Automot Safety & Energy, Beijing 100084, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In order to improve the crashworthiness and energy absorption of thin-walled tubes, this work proposes a
Bionic design novel design inspired by the vascular fiber sheath flap (VF) and central through-hole characteristics of bamboo
Thin-walled structure vascular bundles. The energy absorption of the bionic structure is verified by experiments and theoretical
Energy absorption
analysis. Numerical simulations are used to analyze the effect of bionic unit structure and connection settings
Vascular bundle
on various crashworthiness indexes. The results show that the bionic tube achieves the optimal energy-
Fractal
absorbing structure when the VF unit is a semicircle and the ratio of the circle core’s radius to the straight
Vascular fiber sheath flap = Bao sợi mach
panel’s length is 3:7. Further, the effect of connection between the bionic unit and the outer tube on
Bamboo vascular bundle = bó mạch tre.
crashworthiness is also explored, and the optimal 𝛼 𝛽-connection is obtained. Finally, both parallel fractal(PF )
Fractal /fræktl/ (a) hệ chiết hình
and rotational fractal(RF ) approaches are introduced to improve the crashworthiness of thin-walled tubes based
on the optimal structures obtained. And the crashworthiness of PF tube is better than that of the RF tube under
the same level.

1. Introduction
Any energy-absorbing device must meet two main requirements: the
lower initial peak load and excellent energy absorption capacity [1].
Among many energy absorbers [2,3], thin-walled aluminum tube [4]
is widely used in the energy absorption system of automobile and
aviation industry [5] because of its excellent above performance [6],
low price and light structure. Circular tubes [7], square tubes [8],
triangular tubes [9], polygonal tubes [10], conical tubes [11], origami
tubes [12,13], corrugated tubes [14,15], dents [16,17] and convex–
concave tubes [18,19] are used by researchers to study their deforma-
tion modes and energy absorption efficiency, such as axial extrusion,
transverse compression, tube inversion and tube splitting [20]. At
present, the multicellular thin-walled tube has been proved to absorb
more energy than the single cell tube of the same weight [21–26], and
the multicellular tube also shows higher energy absorption performance
compared with the foam filled tube [27]. Any multi-cell structure
is obtained by unit component array [28] or fractal [29–33]. Xia
et al. [34]studied and found the optimal spacing and fractal parameters
of each cell, thus maximizing the energy absorption performance of
the structure. Miroław et al. [35] studied the impact of the relative
depth and shape of single dent on crashworthiness index, and the
obtained optimal parameter increased the crash load efficiency by
28% and reduced the peak load by 30%. Therefore, it is important
to maximize energy absorption and minimize peak load by setting the
optimal design of unit components.
In recent years, nature-inspired designs have been introduced into
the design of energy-absorbing structures. Like faux durian thorn struc-
tures applied in packaging cushioning structures or impact resistant
helmets [36], fractal tree-like structures imitating water lilies and
dragon blood trees [37], faux reed and corn stalk structures [38], rice
stalks [39], sugar cane stalks [40], pine cones [41], horsetails [42],
lotus flowers [43], lotus leaf veins [44], plant stems [45], mantle
cacti [46], trumpets [47] coconut tree [48], like microstructures im-
itating beetle sheath wings [49,50], corrugated microstructures imi-
tating horseshoe walls [51], antlers [52], cow-consuming horns [53],
bird feather shafts [54], human tibiae [55], roach shrimp [56], hon-
eycomb [57], etc. The results of all these bionic studies show that
nature-inspired design approaches can effectively improve the energy
absorption capacity of thin-walled tubes.
Bamboo has been applied to energy-absorbing components in many
studies [58,59], as it with good mechanical properties in nature
[60–62]. Researchers have mainly investigated in bamboo gradient
thickness [63], bamboo nodes [64] or distribution patterns of vascular
bundles [65,66], but there are fewer bionic designs for microstructural
morphology. In this paper, an energy-absorbing device is designed
bionically inspired by the fibrous sheath flaps and through-hole features
of vascular bundles in the microstructure of bamboo cross-sections.

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zoumeng@jlu.edu.cn (M. Zou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2023.110689
Received 17 September 2022; Received in revised form 7 March 2023; Accepted 7 March 2023
Available online 23 March 2023
0263-8231/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al.
Bionic design of thin-walled tubes inspired by the vascular structure of bamboo
Using this groove
Fig. 1. Coupled bionic design inspiration.
Experimental tests and theoretical analysis are conducted to verify the
accuracy of the finite element model, and optimization is explored
by simulation to achieve the optimal crashworthiness. In addition,
the effect of the connection method between the bionic unit and
the outer circle on the crashworthiness is investigated. Finally, two
fractal approaches are introduced to continue the investigation of new
structures to improve the crashworthiness of thin-walled tubes based
on the optimal structures obtained.
Four fibrous sheath flaps of the vascular bundle = Bốn lớp mô xơ của bó mạch
2. Bionic design method
Fibrous (a) có sợ, có thớ, có xơ, có dạng sợi
2.1. Structure of bamboo vascular bundles
Scatter /ˈskætər/ (v) phân tán, tung, rải, rắc, gieo
The energy absorption capacity of bamboo is influenced by the
vascular bundles, nodes and their distribution density [67]. In order
to improve the energy-absorption ability of thin-walled tubes, a bionic
structure simulating the characteristics of vascular bundles is designed.
As shown in Fig. 1(a∼c), the vascular bundles of bamboo are scat-
tered in bundles within the thin-walled tissues of the epidermis. The
vascular bundles on the outer wall are small and closely arranged in
cross-section, then inwardly from small to large, from dense to sparse,
the ring spacing of the ring where they are located gradually increases.
The vascular bundle mainly plays a load-bearing role, and the four
fibrous sheath flaps of the vascular bundle are regularly arranged in
the tissue, with a circular through-hole (Fig. 1e) present in the center
of each fibrous strand (Fig. 1d,e) of the fibrous sheath flap.
The bionic design references to the features of the vascular fiber
sheath flap (VF) and the central through-hole, and the optimal energy-
absorbing structure is obtained in the following analysis.
Epidermis /ˌep.ɪˈdɜː.mɪs/ (n) biểu bì.
2.2. Evaluation indexes
Inwardly /ˈɪn.wɚd.li/ (adv) ở bên trong
In order to quantitatively evaluate the crashworthiness of the bionic
tubes, the following crashworthiness evaluation indexes are introduced:
EA represents the total energy absorbed by the structure during the
crushing process, which is defined as:
𝑑
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (1)
∫ 0
Where, 𝐹𝑥 is the crushing force and d is the effective crushing distance.
PCF represents the peak crushing force, 𝑃 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐹max .
SEA represents the energy absorbed per unit mass of the structure
and is defined as:
𝐸 and the stress–strain characteristics of the material are obtained as
𝑆𝐸𝐴 = 𝐴 (2)
𝑚𝑖
The vascular bundles on the outer wall are small and closely arranged in cross-section, then inwardly from small to large, from dense to sparse, the ring spacing of
2
the ring where they are located gradually increases. = Các bó mạch ở thành ngoài nhỏ, xếp khít nhau theo mặt cắt ngang, vào trong từ nhỏ đến lớn, từ đặc đến
thưa, khoảng cách giữa các vòng mạch nơi chúng phân bố tăng dần.
Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689
Where, 𝑚𝑖 is the mass of each structure.
MCF (or 𝑃𝑚 ) represents the crushing force per unit compression
distance, that is the mean crushing force, which is defined as:
𝐸𝐴𝑖
𝑀𝐶𝐹 (𝑃𝑚 ) = (3)
𝑑
CFE represents crushing force efficiency, and the larger the value,
the more stable the loading-bearing capacity of the structure, which is
defined as:
𝑀𝐶𝐹
𝐶𝐹 𝐸 = (4)
𝑃 𝐶𝐹
𝜔 represents the platform volatility coefficient, the larger its value,
the more violent the volatility of the force curve and the less stable the
load-bearing capacity, defined as:
𝐹max − 𝐹min
𝜔= (5)
𝑀𝐶𝐹
3. Finite element model and material calibration
Nonlinear finite elements are an effective tool to simulate the energy
absorption of thin-walled tubes under impact loading. In this section, a
finite element model of the bionic structure is developed and validated
by experimental and theoretical analysis.
3.1. Finite element model
A finite element model of the bionic tube is built using the nonlinear
dynamic analysis software Abaqus/Explicit, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The
upper rigid wall compresses the tube at 10 m/s, and the bottom surface
of the tube is constrained to be fixed on the lower rigid wall. The results
of the mesh convergence analysis (in Fig. 2(b)) show that the mesh of
0.8 mm size can obtain the simulation results accurately and efficiently.
Two types of contact are used in the numerical analysis: for the tube
itself, automatic contact is used in the simulation, and node-to-surface
contact is applied between the rigid wall and the tube. The Coulomb
friction coefficient between all contact surfaces is set to 0.2 [68].
3.2. Calibration of AA6061t4 material
The standard dumbbell-shaped experiment specimens of AA6061t4
are cut by wire-cutting technique. Then, tensile experiments are per-
formed according to ASTM E8 standard [69] at a speed of 3 mm/min
shown in Fig. 3. It is worth mentioning that the stretching speed does
 Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al.
Fig. 2. Finite element analysis: (a) Established finite element model; (b) Convergence analysis for mesh size. The size of 0.8 mm has converged.
Fig. 3. Mechanical properties test of AA6061t4.
Neat /niːt/ (a) gọn gàng, rõ ràng, ngăn nắp
not seem to have a significant effect on the stress–strain of 6061t4 [70].
Without considering the failure of the aluminum alloy [71,72], the
mechanical properties obtained are: mass density 𝜌 is 2700 kg/m3 ,
Young’s modulus E is 70.0 GPa, initial yield stress 𝜎𝑦 is 141.34 MPa,
the ultimate stress 𝜎𝑢 is 257.83 MPa, Poisson’s ratio 𝜇 is 0.31.
3.3. Verification of finite element modeling
3.3.1. Compression experiment
As shown in Fig. 4(a), the bionic tubes are also cut using CNC
technology. The impact experiment is carried out on a drop hammer
test bench, as shown in Fig. 4(b), with a maximum drop height of
6.6 m and equipped with a hammer of 36 kg–225 kg. The energy
absorption of the bionic tube carrying the integral of the compression
distance is first calculated by a quasi-static compression experiment, as
shown in Fig. 4(a). The compression speed is set at 3 mm/min and the
dynamic load is collected in real time by the software operating system
during the experiment, and the force–displacement response curve of
the specimen is obtained by data processing. According to the law
of conservation of energy and practical experience, the weight of the
hammer is determined to be 150 kg, the height of the hammer release
3
Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689
to be 2 m and the initial velocity of the hammer to be 0 m/s. Therefore,
the impact velocity of the hammer is calculated to be 6.26 m/s. A
remotely controlled release hammer is dropped in free fall and an
acceleration sensor mounted on the hammer measures the gravitational
acceleration of the hammer to obtain the impact load of the specimen
by calculation, and a high-speed camera system and a dynamic image
sequence system are used to capture images of the impact deformation
of the specimen. Defect /ˈdiː.fekt/ (n) thiếu sót, nhược điểm, khuyết điểm
Fig. 5 shows the deformation process of the bionic tube with com-
pression displacement. It can be found that the bionic tube under both
experiments and simulation show a progressive folding deformation
pattern. Fig. 6 shows the tubes after compression, the only difference
is caused by the processing defects in the wire cutting process, which
makes the folding deformation of the sample not so neat and regular
compared with the simulation results. As can be seen from Fig. 7, the
force–displacement curves in the experiments are in general agreement
with the FEM simulation results. It is worth noting that the load-bearing
capacity of the tube under the drop hammer impact experiment is
greater than in quasi-static compression.
By calculating the ratio of energy absorption to compression dis-
placement, the MCF for the quasi-static compression experiment is
75.36 kN, an error of 1.5% from the simulation (MCFsimulation = 76.50
kN). The MCF for the drop hammer impact experiment is 79.63 kN, an
error of 3.93% from the simulation. And the load-bearing capacity of
the bionic tube obtained under the impact is increased by 5.67% com-
pared to the quasi-static compression, indicating that the level of strain
rate has a large effect on the load-bearing capacity of the bionic tube.
In addition, the theoretical prediction of the MCF in the next section is
76.59 kN, which is within 5% error control, confirming the accuracy
of the finite element model. Therefore, the finite element modeling
method used in the study can be used for the next crashworthiness
parameter study.
3.3.2. Theoretical analysis
Since 1960, researchers have devoted themselves to studying the
fracture behavior and impact load of thin-walled structures through
analytical and experimental methods [73]. Wierzbicki and Abramow-
icz [74] proposed an approximate formula to predict the axial com-
pression response of aluminum thin-walled tubes. Abramowicz and
Jones [75,76] and Langseth and Hopperstad [77] verified the analytical
predictions through experiments.
According to the energy balance principle, the external work done
to force the thin-walled tube to compress is consumed by the material
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 4. Compression experiment on C-VF-C-𝛼𝛽 specimens manufactured by wire cutting: (a) Quasi-static compression tester; (b)Drop hammer impact tester.

Fig. 5. Deformation with compression displacement: (a) Quasi-static compression experiment; (b)Drop hammer impact experiment; (c) Impact simulation.

Table 1
Length of each corner unit.
√ ( )
𝜋𝑅 ( 2 − 1)𝑟 1 sin(45◦ + 𝛹 )
𝑎1, 2 = 𝑏1, 2 = 𝑎3 = 𝑐3 = 𝑏3 = 𝑒 3 = × 𝑅−𝑟
8 2 2 sin(45◦ )
(𝛹 + 45◦ )𝜋𝑟 𝜋 3𝑟 sin(45◦ + 𝛹 ) 7 𝑟 sin(45◦ + 𝛹 )
𝑐1, 2 = 𝑒1,2 = 𝑑1, 2 = × × 𝑑3 = 𝑒4 = × ×
2 × 180◦ 4 10 sin(45◦ ) 10 2 sin(45◦ )

bending energy 𝐸𝑏 and the plastic deformation energy 𝐸𝑚 of the R is the radius of the outer wall of the tube, r is the radius of the
membrane. That is: vascular bundle unit, and 𝛹 is the angle between the connection line

𝐸𝐴 = 2𝜇𝑒 𝑃𝑚 𝐻 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐸𝑚 (6) of the vascular bundle unit and the horizontal direction.

Where H is the wavelength of the fold obtained by compression. 𝑃𝑚 is The bending energy 𝐸𝑏 can be expressed as:
the average crushing force, and 𝜇𝑒 represents the ratio of the effective
∑
𝑒
compression distance to the total height of the tube, the coefficient 𝜇𝑒 𝐸𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑀0 (𝑁𝑖 𝐿𝑖 ) (7)
is taken as 0.75 in this study. 𝑖=𝑎

The symmetrical thin-walled structure can be seen as a combination

of some representative corner units. As can be seen in Fig. 8, the corner
elements in C-VF-C-𝛼𝛽 have three-panel corner units (A,B,C,D) and
four-panel corner units E. The panel lengths of each corner unit in
relation to the radius 𝑟 are shown in Table 1. .
Where 𝑀0 denotes the fully plastic bending moment, 𝑀0 = (𝜎0 𝑡2 )∕4,
𝜎0 denotes the material flow stress, 𝜎0 = (𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑢 )∕2, where 𝜎𝑦 and
𝜎𝑢 denotes the yield strength and ultimate strength, respectively. 𝐿𝑖
denotes the total length of each corner element, Hence, the 𝐸𝑏 of five

4
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 6. Comparison of deformation modes after compression.

Fig. 7. Comparison of force–displacement curves for quasi-static compression experiment, drop hammer impact experiment and simulation. The MCF obtained by the numerical
method (76.50 kN), the quasi-static compression method (75.36 kN), the drop hammer impact method (79.63 kN) and the theoretical method (76.59 kN) are also shown in the
figure.

corner units can be expressed as: The membrane energy 𝐸𝑚 is closely related to the shape of the

√ different corner units. All the arc panel are replaced by straight panels
⎧ 2−1
⎪2𝜋𝑀0 ( 𝜋𝑅 + 𝑟) (𝐴) in this paper. The corner unit A-D can be regarded as a symmetric
⎪ 4 2
⎪ (𝜋 + 2)𝑅 𝑟 sin(45◦ + 𝛹 ) three-panel corner unit. The membrane energy absorption of the three-
⎪2𝜋𝑀0 ( −
2 sin(45◦ )
) (𝐵)
⎪ √ 4 panel corner unit is influenced by the central angle 𝜃 [78]. In the corner
◦
⎪ 2−1 (45 + 𝛹 )𝜋𝑟
𝐸𝑏𝑖 = ⎨2𝜋𝑀0 ( 𝑟+ ) (𝐶) (8) unit A and B, 𝜃𝑎,𝑏 < 90◦ , the membrane energy is calculated as (where
2 180◦
⎪ (3𝜋 + 7)𝑟 sin(45 ◦ + 𝛹)
⎪2𝜋𝑀0 × × (𝐷) 𝜑𝑖 = 360◦ − 2𝜃𝑖 ) :
⎪ 20 sin(45◦ )
⎪ 𝑅 3𝑟 sin(45 + 𝛹 ) (45◦ + 𝛹 )𝜋𝑟
◦
( )
⎪2𝜋𝑀0 ( − × + ) (𝐸) 4𝑀0 𝐻 2 tan 𝜑𝑖 𝜑
⎪ 2 20 sin(45◦ ) 180◦ 𝐸𝑚𝑖 = + 2 tan( 𝑖 ) (9)
⎩ 𝑡 (tan 𝜑𝑖 + 0.05∕ tan 𝜑𝑖 )∕1.1 2

5
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 8. Constituents of C-VF-C-𝛼𝛽 & Simplified 3-panel corner unit and 4-panel corner unit.

Fig. 9. Tubes of different ratios (𝑙𝑐 : 𝑟𝑐 ).

(√ √ )
In the corner unit C and D, 105◦ ≤ 𝜃𝑐,𝑑 ≤ 180◦ , the membrane energy The relationships between 𝜑𝑖 , 𝛹𝑖 and 𝜔 are: 𝛹𝑖 = arcsin 2 𝑅− 2𝑟
⋅ ,
2 𝑟
is calculated as: 45◦ +𝛹 𝜑
𝜑𝑖 = 180◦ − 2 𝑖 , 𝜔 = 2𝑖 .
2𝑀0 𝐻 2 ( 𝜑 𝜑 )
𝐸𝑚𝑖 = 4 tan( 𝑖 ) + 2 sin( 𝑖 ) + 3 sin 𝜑𝑖 (10) Substituting Equation ((12) into Equation ((6), the 𝑃𝑚 can be ob-
𝑡 4 2 tained:
In the corner unit E, we can see it as the splicing of two three- 2𝜋𝑀0 8𝜋𝑀0 𝐻
panel corner units, so the membrane energy should be twice that of the 𝑃𝑚 = [𝛾] + [𝜁] (15)
1.5𝐻 1.5𝑡
three-panel corner unit. The symmetrical two three-panel corner units
Then H can be obtained from the hydrostatic condition as follows:
itself are asymmetrical, and the membrane energy in the corner unit √
E during the fragmentation process is obtained from the calculation of 𝜕𝑃𝑚 1 𝜋
=0⇒𝐻 = [𝛾] [𝜁] (16)
the asymmetrical three-panel corner unit in [78] as: 𝜕𝐻 2 𝑡
16𝑀0 𝐻 2 ( 𝜑 𝜔 𝜑 𝜔
)
Zhang [23] introduced dynamic coefficients to counteract inertial
𝐸𝑚𝑒 = tan( 𝑒 + ) + tan(| 𝑒 − |)
𝑡 4 2 4 2 effects and defined a dynamic coefficient of 1.3. Substituting into
8𝑀0 𝐻 2 ( 𝜑 𝜑 ) (11)
+ sin( 𝑒 + 𝜔) + sin(| 𝑒 − 𝜔|) equation ((15), the mean crushing force 𝑃𝑚 in the compression process
𝑡 2 2
is obtained as:
Therefore, the EA can be expressed as follows: √
∑𝑒 1.3 × 8𝑀0 𝜋
𝑃𝑚 = [𝛾] [𝜁] (17)
𝐸𝐴 = (𝑁𝑖 𝐸𝐴𝑖 ) = 4(𝐸𝐴𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴𝐵 + 𝐸𝐴𝐶 + 𝐸𝐴𝐷 + 𝐸𝐴𝐸 ) 1.5 𝑡
𝑖=𝑎 [ √
√ When 𝑅 = 40∕ 2 mm, r=11.716 mm, 𝑡 = 1 mm, 𝑃𝑚 is calculated as:
= 2𝜋𝑀0 (2𝜋 + 4)𝑅 + 4( 2 − 1)𝑟 √
√ √ ] 𝑃𝑚 =
1.3 × 8 × 199.58 𝜋
468.83 × 33.28 ≈ 76.589 kN (18)
3 2𝜋 − 6 2 2(45◦ + 𝛹 )𝜋𝑟 (12) 1.5 × 4 𝑡
+ 𝑟 sin(45◦ + 𝛹 ) +
5 45◦
4. Crashworthiness parameters
8𝑀0 𝐻 2 [ ( 𝜑 𝜑 )
+ 17.6 + 4 tan( 𝐶 ) + 2 sin( 𝐶 ) + 3 sin 𝜑𝐶
𝑡 4 2
𝜑 ] 4.1. Effect of the bionic unit
+ 8 tan( 𝑒 ) + 4 sin(𝜑𝑒 )
2
4.1.1. Circular core unit
Make the following substitutions:
In order to explore the spatially optimal ratio of the circular core
√ √
√ 3 2𝜋 − 6 2 2(45◦ + 𝛹 )𝜋𝑟 and the straight panel, this section conducts a comparative analysis
𝛾 = (2𝜋 + 4)𝑅 + 4( 2 − 1)𝑟 + 𝑟 sin(45◦ + 𝛹 ) + through crashworthiness indexes. Equal material usage is ensured for
5 45◦
(13) the inner core units consisting of the circular core barrel and straight
( 𝜑𝐶 𝜑𝐶 ) 𝜑𝑒 panel in Fig. 9. Due to the regularity of shell mesh element thickness
𝜁 = 17.6 + 4 tan( ) + 2 sin( ) + 3 sin 𝜑𝐶 + 8 tan( ) + 4 sin(𝜑𝑒 ) given by Hypermesh, it is equivalent to that the cross-sectional area of
4 2 2
(14) core element is equal. Taking 𝑙10 𝑟10 as reference and setting its thickness

6
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Table 2
The relationship between 𝑙𝑐𝑖 , 𝑟𝑐𝑖 and 𝑡𝑖 (mm).
𝑙𝑐𝑖 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 20
𝑟𝑐𝑖 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 0
𝑡𝑖 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.13 1.15 1.29

Fig. 10. Deformation of tubes with varies ratios between 𝑙𝑐 and 𝑟𝑐 .

Fig. 11. Comparison of crashworthiness indexes under axial impact for different circular core sizes.
Concave /'kɔnkeiv/ (a) lõm, hình lòng chảo
𝑡10 to 1.0 mm, then the thickness 𝑡𝑖 of each core unit can be expressed
as:
𝑚10
𝑡𝑖 = (19)
4𝑙𝑖 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑖
Where, 𝑚10 is the inner core unit mass of 𝑙10 𝑟10 . The calculated thickness
of tubes are shown in Table 2.
Fig. 10 compares the deformation of tubes with varies ratios ob-
tained by numerical simulation. The deformation modes of the whole
inner unit are irregular when 𝑙𝑐 : 𝑟𝑐 ≤ 3 ∶ 2, due to folds concaves too
much in the circular core unit. While the deformation of the inner unit
is gradually regular and compact as 𝑟𝑐 decreases, which is a prerequisite
in good energy absorption for thin-walled tubes. However, when the
𝑟𝑐 is too small, as in the case of 𝑙16 𝑟4 , the deformation of the circular
core unit is no longer compact but shows an overall bending, which
reduces the SEA in the analysis below. This suggests that a suitable
circular core unit can improve the deformation mode of tube in order
to increase energy absorption capacity, thus the deformation mode of
the 𝑙12 𝑟8 –𝑙15 𝑟5 tubes show the potential for good energy absorption
capacity.
Fig. 11(a) shows the comparison of SEA and PCF for each tube
under axial impact. The PCF gradually increases with decreasing of 𝑟𝑐
under the same mass, which is obviously positively correlated with the
thickness. The SEA of 𝑙8 𝑟12 ∼l16 𝑟4 tubes are significantly better than that
of ordinary square tube. Among them, the 𝑙12 𝑟8 ∼l15 𝑟5 tubes with good
deformation modes show better energy absorption than the rest of the
tubes, the 𝑙14 𝑟6 tube shows the greatest SEA, which is 12.72% higher
than the ordinary square tube, and a 1.48% reduction in PCF.
Compact /kəmˈpækt/ (a) kết, đặc, chặt, rắn chắc, chắc nịch
(n) sự thỏa thuận, giao kèo, khế ước
Fig. 11(b) shows the variation of MCF, CFE and platform volatility
coefficient 𝜔. Since the masses and compressed distances of the tubes
are the same, the MCF (EA/d) and SEA (EA/m) follow the same trend.
In fact, either the CFE or 𝜔 of the tube reflects the loading-bearing
stability of the tube, the larger the CFE or the smaller the 𝜔, then
the more stable the tube will be in the deformation phase for loading-
bearing. The CFE of ordinary square tube is too small and 𝜔 is too large,
while the CFE and 𝜔 of 𝑙4 𝑟16 ∼l5 𝑟15 and 𝑙12 𝑟8 ∼l15 𝑟5 tubes are more in line
with the requirements of crushing stability, and the CFE are increased
by 9.45%–12.72% and 𝜔 are reduced by 12.42%–14.39% compared to
ordinary square tube 𝑙20 𝑟0 .
Comprehensive analysis of the above, 𝑙14 𝑟6 tube shows more ex-
cellent crashworthiness performance both in deformation mode and in
the comparison of various indexes. Therefore, it is considered that the
tube’s crashworthiness performance is optimal when 𝑙𝑐 :r 𝑐 = 7 ∶ 3.
4.1.2. Fibrous sheath flap unit
Similarly, in order to obtain the optimal structure of the fibrous
sheath flap unit in the bionic tube, different radius (r) of the fibrous
sheath flap unit are designed in this subsection, and the crashworthi-
ness of the bionic tube is compared in detail by combining the optimal
circular core unit size from the previous section. As shown in Fig. 12,
the thickness of the tubes is uniformly 1.00 mm, and the mass of each
tube is obtained after varying r as shown in Table 3. Where b denotes
the angle of circularity formed by the bionic fiber sheath unit, and b
decreases as r increases.
Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 show the vertical and axial deformation modes
of the VF and VF-C tubes under r (b) differences, respectively. It
7
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 12. Cross-section of the bionic fibrous sheath flap tube at different radius.

Fig. 13. Deformation modes-vertical.

Fig. 14. Deformation modes-axial.

Table 3
Mass of the tube at different radius.
r(mm)/mass b (◦ ) VF-C VF r(mm)/mass b (◦ ) VF-C VF
(g) (g)
10 270 50.80 40.70 15.716 122 48.45 28.82
11.716 180 48.55 31.79 16.716 113 48.29 28.39
12.716 160 48.56 30.65 17.716 105 48.08 28.00
13.716 145 48.57 29.89 18.716 98 48.08 27.62
14.716 132 48.54 29.31 20 90 47.37 27.14

can be seen that the VF tube exhibits a folded-waist bending when
132◦ ≤b≤180◦ . After analysis, it was concluded that the tubes with
the folded-waist deformation occurred due to the greater stiffness at
the interface between the bionic fiber sheath flaps causing the overall
collapse. In contrast, the VF-C tubes all exhibit progressive folding de-
formation and that the deformation becomes progressively more stable
and the number of folds becomes greater as the b increases. Therefore
indicating that the exist of the circular core unit acted as a support
for the deformation and prevented the overall bending deformation of
tubes.
Fig. 15(a) and Fig. 15(b) show the comparison of SEA and PCF for
the VF-C and VF tubes under axial impact, respectively. The PCF of both
tubes gradually decreases with decreasing b. The bionic tubes’ PCF are
significantly higher than that of the ordinary circular tube (b = 90◦ ),
indicating that the bionic structure is more resistant to compression.
The SEA of the VF tubes with occurring bending folding are apparently
very small, while the SEA of the VF-C tubes are larger and more stable.
The SEA of the VF-C tubes are calculated to be on average 60% higher
than that of the VF tubes with the same r, which again demonstrates the
circular core unit can significantly improve the crashworthiness. When
b = 160◦ , the SEA of the VF-C tube is a maximum of 46.23 J/g, which
is 1.33 times higher than that of the ordinary circular tube (b = 90◦ ).
VF-C tubes with b = 180◦ and b = 160◦ have the higher SEA than the b
= 270◦ tube, but the PCF is significantly lower, so the optimum energy
absorbing structure can be considered from these two tubes from the
point of view of reducing the peak load.
Fig. 16 shows the variation of MCF, CFE and 𝜔. Compared to the VF
tubes, the VF-C tubes demonstrate the larger MCF, and this apparent
increase in pressure-bearing ability is brought about by the coupled
circular core unit supporting a stable progressive folding deformation.
The CFE and 𝜔 for the VF-C tubes are relatively stable, with a range
of 0.72–0.76 for CFE and 0.43–0.56 for 𝜔, demonstrating good load-
bearing stability. VF tubes, on the other hand, have the lower crushing
efficiency and more dramatic load fluctuations, with CFE are only
45.31%–88.48% of VF-C tubes; and load fluctuation is increased by
1.36–5.77 times, indicating a poorer pressure-bearing stability as well.
When b = 270◦ , the MCF of VF-C tube is a maximum of 38.56 kN,
as its mass is maximum under controlled thickness conditions, which
makes the MCF obtained by the same distance limited by the mass
factor and does not show the advantages of its structure in terms
of crashworthiness. Therefore, for the selection of the optimal bionic
fiber sheath flap structure, the above SEA analysis is focused on. Here,
the VF-C tubes with b = 180◦ and b = 160◦ also have the largest
CFE and the smallest 𝜔, demonstrating not only their excellent energy
absorption performance but also their better load-bearing stability.
4.1.3. Different connection with circular outer wall
The circular outer wall is often used as an external shape for bionic
design elements because of its stable deformation mode [45]. In this
section, we explore the effect of the different connections between the
bionic unit and the outer circle on the crashworthiness performance.

8
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al.
Fig. 15. SEA and PCF of tubes with different r of bionic fiber sheath flap units.
Fig. 16. MCF, CFE and 𝜔 of tubes with different r.
Specifically, the way in which the nodes of the bionic fiber sheath
unit connects to the outer circular wall is defined as 𝛼-connection; the
fiber sheath unit connects directly to the outer wall is defined as 𝛽-
connection; and the coexistence of the two connection modes is defined
as 𝛼𝛽-connection. The outer circle is the vertex circle of the square
quadrilateral enclosed by the tangent line of each sheath flap unit, and
the specific structural configuration is shown in Fig. 17. The thickness
of each tube is set to 1.0 mm, and the mass information of tubes are
shown in Table 4. (C-VF-C tubes are indicated as VF-C tubes with outer
circular walls.).
Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 show the vertical and axial deformation modes
of the C-VF-C and C-VF tubes under different connections, respectively.
It is noteworthy that the deformations of C-VF tubes show compact
and progressive folding under both 𝛼𝛽 and 𝛼 connection methods, but
some C-VF tubes show irregular and non-compact deformation under
𝛽 connection. Regardless of the connections, the deformation of the
C-VF-C tubes show a compact and progressive folding.
9
Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689
Fig. 20 shows the comparison of the crashworthiness indexes of
tubes under 𝛼 and 𝛽 or 𝛼𝛽-connection modes. The same legend mark-
ings (Fig. 20(a)) are used to describe the SEA (Fig. 20(b)), PCF
(Fig. 20(c)), MCF (Fig. 20(d)), CFE (Fig. 20(e)) and 𝜔 (Fig. 20(f)) of
each tube. It can be obtained that the SEA and PCF of the C-VF-C tubes
under different connections both show: 𝛼𝛽> 𝛽> 𝛼-connection, while
the C-VF tubes are 𝛼𝛽> 𝛼> 𝛽-connection. The trend of SEA increases
and then decreases, SEAmax is concentrated at 160◦ ≤b≤180◦ , and the
PCF decreases by 10.90% on average compared to the b = 270◦ tube,
while this coincides with the results in Section 4.1.2, indicating that the
connection of the bionic unit to the outer circular wall does not change
its crashworthiness caused by the structural parameters. The SEA of the
C-VF-C tubes are larger under the same connection, with an average
increase of 5.74% (𝛼𝛽 connection), 8.99% (𝛼 connection) and 19.36%
(𝛽 connection) respectively compared to the C-VF tubes. Notably, the
SEA of the C-VF-𝛼𝛽 tube is on average 5.61% higher than the C-VF-C-𝛼
(and 𝛽), but the PCF is on average 7.94% lower, demonstrating the
more significant crashworthiness advantage of the 𝛼𝛽 connection.
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 17. Different connection with circular outer wall.

Fig. 18. Deformation modes-vertical.

Fig. 19. Deformation modes-axial.

The mean crushing force(MCF) decreases with decreasing b, which have the largest MCF for both tubes: with C-VF-C-𝛼𝛽 tubes increas-
is mainly related to the reduction in material. The 𝛼𝛽-connections ing by an average of 19.99% and 20.27% compared to 𝛼-connection

10
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 20. Influence of difference in connection with outer circle on crashworthiness of bionic tube.

Table 4
Mass of each tube.
r(mm)/mass(g) 10 11.716 12.716 13.716 14.716 15.716 16.716 17.716 18.716 20
/b 270◦ 180◦ 160◦ 145◦ 132◦ 122◦ 113◦ 105◦ 98◦ 90◦
C-VF-C-𝛼𝛽 108.60 101.20 100.60 100.30 100.20 100.10 100.10 100.10 100.00 100.10
C-VF-C-𝛼 105.00 97.05 96.08 95.43 94.93 94.51 94.12 93.75 93.34 92.91
C-VF-C-𝛽 92.76 91.12 91.49 91.87 92.19 92.46 92.66 92.80 92.89 92.91
C-VF-𝛼𝛽 98.46 84.49 82.73 81.66 80.96 80.50 80.20 80.01 79.85 79.84
C-VF-𝛼 94.88 80.30 78.18 76.75 75.70 74.88 74.22 73.67 73.15 72.68
C-VF-𝛽z 82.66 74.37 73.59 73.18 72.96 72.83 72.76 72.72 72.70 72.68

11
 Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 21. (a) Parallel fractal design schematic; (b) Structural configuration with varies fractal level n; (c) Rotational fractal design schematic.
Inflection /in´flekʃən/ (n) võng, uống => Inflection point = điểm uốn Stratification /ˌstræt.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/ (n) sự phân tầng, phân lớp
Table 5 bionic fractal unit, so as to give full play to the best energy absorption
Mass of the bionic fractal tubes under PF and RF. effect of the bionic fiber sheath unit.
PF Mass (g) RF Mass (g) Fig. 23(a-b) show the force–displacement curves of the bionic fractal
𝑛𝑝 =1 67.60 𝑛𝑟 =1 67.60 tubes respectively, and it can be seen that whether it is PF or RF,
𝑛𝑝 =2 86.03 𝑛𝑟 =2 85.58 the force–displacement curves show obvious stratification phenomenon
𝑛𝑝 =3 100.70 𝑛𝑟 =3 98.29
with the increase of 𝑛𝑝 or 𝑛𝑟 , and the gap between the layers shows a
𝑛𝑝 =4 114.30 𝑛𝑟 =4 107.30
𝑛𝑝 =5 127.60 𝑛𝑟 =5 113.60 gradually decreasing trend.
Fig. 24(a-b) and Fig. 24(c-d) show the main crashworthiness indexes
Level-by-level = at each level of the VF unit under PF and RF, respectively. The level-by-level incre-
Incremental /,inkri'mentəl/ (a) gia tăng mental rate for SEA and MCF have been marked on the figures, which
and 𝛽-connection, respectively; and C-VF-𝛼𝛽 tubes are correspondingly represents the energy absorption capacity and load-bearing capacity,
increased by 25.38% and 38.58%, respectively. This indicates that respectively. Under PF, the incremental rate of SEA and MCF decreases
the bionic tube has the highest load-bearing capacity with the 𝛼𝛽- first and then increases, with the inflection point occurring at 𝑛𝑝(3) to
connection, meanwhile the MCF of the C-VF-C-𝛼𝛽 tubes increase by 𝑛𝑝(4) . And the rate max occurs at 𝑛𝑝(1) to 𝑛𝑝(2) , 9.86% (SEA) and 39.81%
29.40% compared to the C-VF-𝛼𝛽 tubes. (MCF) respectively. Under RF, the incremental rate of SEA increases
It can be observed from Fig. 20(e-f) that both CFE and 𝜔, which first and then decreases, rate max is 5.77% occurs at 𝑛𝑝(3) to 𝑛𝑝(4) ; while
symbolize the load-bearing stability of the structure, show extreme the incremental rate of MCF gradually decreases, with the maximum
values at the same position: the CFE(max) as well as the 𝜔(min) , with lift occurring from 𝑛𝑝(1) to 𝑛𝑝(2) , is 32.31%. The CFE increases with n
160◦ ≤b≤180◦ . Considering that the C-VF-𝛽 tubes have the worst crash- for both PF and RF, ranging from 0.71–0.85 for CFE(𝑃 𝐹 ) and 0.71–
worthiness indexes at b = 160◦ , so the optimum bionic unit is chosen 0.83 for CFE(𝑅𝐹 ) ; 𝜔 decreases with n, ranging from 0.60–0.25 for 𝜔(𝑃 𝐹 )
to b = 180◦ (i.e. when the bionic fiber sheath unit is semi-circular) with and 0.60–0.32 for 𝜔(𝑅𝐹 ) , which together indicate a gradual increase in
a good and stable crashworthiness for all connections. The C-VF(b=180◦ ) - load-bearing stability.
C-𝛼𝛽 tube has the best crashworthiness with an SEA of 45.36 J/g, MCF In order to compare the crashworthiness of two fractal modes
of 76.50 kN, CFE of 0.77 and 𝜔 of 0.40. PF and RF under the same fractal level, a comparison of the main
crashworthiness indexes is carried out in Table 6. Where the lift rate
4.2. Fractal in the table is calculated as: [𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥(𝑛𝑝 ) − 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥(𝑛𝑟 )]∕𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥(𝑛𝑟 ). It is
clear that the crashworthiness indexes of PF are significantly better
In the above analysis, the optimal structure of the bionic unit tube than those of the RF in the same level. It is worth noting that 𝑛𝑝(3) has
and the optimal connection between the bionic unit and the outer the largest improvement in SEA over 𝑛𝑟(3) at 6.10%, and also has the
circular wall were obtained. In this section, we will introduce the largest improvement in CFE and 𝜔 at 6.07% and 29.85% respectively.
fractal approach to continue our investigation of novel structures to
5. Conclusions
improve the impact resistance of thin-walled tubes based on the optimal
structures analyzed above. Fractals are classified as parallel fractals(PF )
A thin-walled structural design with fiber sheath flaps and through-
and rotational fractals(RF ). The specific schematic diagram is shown in
hole features imitating bamboo vascular bundles is proposed to greatly
Fig. 21, where the C-VF-𝛼𝛽 tube is named C-VFF-𝛼𝛽 tube after fractal:
improve the crashworthiness of thin-walled energy absorbers. The es-
the fractal level n is 𝑛𝑝 under parallel fractals, as shown in Fig. 21(a),
tablished theoretical model effectively predicts the mechanical perfor-
where 𝑟𝑝(max) ∕𝑟𝑝(min) = 𝑛𝑝 , i.e. the VF units are equally spaced. The
mance of the bionic tube under axial impact, and consistent with the
reason for choosing 𝛽-connection in the internal VF units here is to results of finite elements and experiments. The following conclusions
reduce the complexity of the structure. And the better crashworthiness can be drawn:
of the VF-𝛽 than the VF-𝛼 is obtained in Fig. 20. The fractal level n (1). The thin-walled structure with vascular bundle cross-section is
is 𝑛𝑟 under
√ rotational fractals, as shown in Fig. 18(c), where 𝑟𝑟𝑛 = found to have a great potential for improving the crashworthiness. The
𝑟𝑟(1) × ( 2∕2)𝑛−1 . The thicknesses are all set to 0.8 mm, and the masses structure has optimal crashworthiness when the ratio of the radius of
of the bionic fractal tubes under the variation of n are shown in Table 5. the bionic through-hole unit 𝑟𝑐 to the length of the connecting straight
Fig. 22(a-b) show the axial and vertical central section deforma- panel 𝑙𝑐 is 3:7, and when the bionic fiber sheath flap unit is semicircular
tion modes of the VF unit under both PF and RF, respectively. The (b= 180◦ ).
deformations of the bionic fractal tubes all show progressive folding (2). The difference of the connection between the bionic unit and
and gradually exhibit a more stable and compact collapse pattern as the outer circle will have a large effect on the energy absorption and
fractal level n increases, relying on more folds to absorb more energy. efficiency, especially the C-VF-𝛼𝛽 tube has the best crashworthiness.
It is noteworthy that the internal bionic fractal unit cannot form regular (3). The crashworthiness of VF cells after parallel fractal and rota-
folds, but the folds at the connection between the bionic unit and the tional fractal both gradually increases with 𝑛𝑝 or 𝑛𝑟 . And the crashwor-
outer circular wall are very regular, indicating that the outer circular thiness of the parallel fractal tube is better than that of the rotational
tube can provide stable support for the deformation of the internal fractal tube under the same level.
Rely on/upon /ri´lai/ (v) tin vào, tin cậy vào, tin tưởng vào
12
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al. Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689

Fig. 22. Axial and vertical central section deformation modes of the bionic unit after fractal; (a). Parallel fractal; (b). Rotational fractal.

Fig. 23. Force–displacement curves of the bionic fractal tubes under the fractal level n; (a) Parallel fractal; (b) Rotating fractal.

Table 6
Comparison of crashworthiness indexes under PF and RF modes.
Level SEA (J/g) PCF (kN) MCF (kN) CFE 𝜔
𝑛𝑝 = 1 38.10 60.59 42.92 0.71 0.60
\ \ \ \ \
𝑛𝑟 = 1 38.10 60.59 42.92 0.71 0.60
𝑛𝑝 = 2 41.85 78.74 60.01 0.76 0.45
5.11% 0.53% 5.67% 5.11 −19.21%
𝑛𝑟 = 2 39.82 78.32 56.79 0.73 0.56
𝑛𝑝 = 3 44.55 92.99 74.77 0.80 0.32
6.10% 2.48% 8.70% 6.07 −29.85%
𝑛𝑟 = 3 41.99 90.74 68.79 0.76 0.46
𝑛𝑝 = 4 45.55 106.39 86.76 0.82 0.36
2.55% 6.92% 9.24% 2.17 −3.45%
𝑛𝑟 = 4 44.41 99.50 79.43 0.80 0.37
𝑛𝑝 = 5 47.48 118.97 100.98 0.85 0.25
2.05% 12.64% 14.63% 1.76 −21.73%
𝑛𝑟 = 5 46.53 105.62 88.09 0.83 0.32

13
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al.
Fig. 24. Crashworthiness indexes of the bionic fractal tubes in two fractal modes; Under PF : (a).SEA, PCF and (b) MCF, CFE, 𝜔; Under RF : (c). SEA, PCF and (d) MCF, CFE, 𝜔.
(4). In order to study the deformation mode and crashworthiness of
thin-walled metal tubes more accurately, we will refer to the material
damage models to improve the finite element modeling in our future
work.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yansong Liu: Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology.
Yingchun Qi: Writing – review & editing. Hao Sun: Data curation. Na
Han: Project administration. Jianfei Zhou: Supervision. Jiafeng Song:
Resources. Meng Zou: Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China: Research on dynamic interaction behavior and model
of quadruped robot and complex lunar surface (52075217); Biolog-
ical rolling vibration reduction mechanism and elastic wheel bionic
research of planetary vehicle (51775233).
14
Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689
References
[1] A.G. Olabi, E. Morris, M.S.J. Hashmi, Metallic tube type energy absorbers: A
synopsis, Thin-Walled Struct. 45 (2007) 706–726.
[2] A. Baroutaji, M. Sajjia, A.-G. Olabi, On the crashworthiness performance of thin-
walled energy absorbers: Recent advances and future developments, Thin-Walled
Struct. 118 (2017) 137–163.
[3] A. Alghamdi, Collapsible impact energy absorbers: An overview, Thin-Walled
Struct. 39 (2001) 189–213.
[4] T. Chung, Y. Lee, C. Kim, H. Kim, Design of Aluminum Space Frame for
Crashworthiness Improvement, SAE Paper (960167), 1996.
[5] X.W. Zhang, T.X. Yu, Energy absorption of pressurized thin-walled circular tubes
under axial crushing, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 51 (2009) 335–349.
[6] Yaozhou Li, Zhiqiang Fan, Shuangqi Hu, Fei Zhang, Lishuang Hu, Zhongqing Xue,
Dynamic enhancement mechanism of energy absorption of multi-cell thin-walled
tube, Thin-Walled Struct. 178 (2022) 109449.
[7] S.R. Guillow, G. Lu, R.H. Grzebieta, Quasi-static axial compression of thin-walled
circular aluminium tubes, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 43 (2001) 2103–2123.
[8] W. Abramowicz, N. Jones, Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes, Int. J. Impact
Eng. 2 (1984) 179–208.
[9] Wu Hong, Hualin Fan, Zhicheng Xia, Fengnian Jin, Qing Zhou, Daining Fang,
Axial crushing behaviors of multi-cell tubes with triangular lattices, Int. J. Impact
Eng. 63 (2014) 106–117.
[10] X. Zhang, H. Zhang, Experimental and numerical investigation on crush resis-
tance of polygonal columns and angle elements, Thin-Walled Struct. 57 (2012)
25–36.
[11] X. Xu, Y. Zhang, J. Wang, F. Jiang, Chun H. Wang, Crashworthiness design of
novel hierarchical hexagonal columns, Compos. Struct. 194 (2018) 36–48.
[12] K. Yang, S.Q. Xu, J.H. Shen, S.W. Zhou, Y.M. Xie, Energy absorption of
thin-walled tubes with pre-folded origami patterns: Numerical simulation and
experimental verification, Thin-Wall Struct.. 103 (2016) 33–44.
[13] L. Yuan, H. Shi, J. Ma, Z. You, Quasi-static impact of origami crash boxes with
various profiles, Thin-Wall Struct. 141 (2019) 435–446.
[14] Wenqian Hao, Jiamiao Xie, Fenghui Wang, Theoretical prediction of the progres-
sive buckling and energy absorption of the sinusoidal corrugated tube subjected
to axial crushing, Comput. Struct. 191 (2017) 12–21.
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al.
[15] Z.F. Liu, W.Q. Hao, J.M. Xie, J.S. Lu, R. Huang, Z.H. Wang, Axial-impact buckling
modes and energy absorption properties of thin-walled corrugated tubes with
sinusoidal patterns, Thin-Wall Struct. 94 (2015) 410–423.
[16] Ru-yang Yao, Guan-sheng Yin, Wen-qian Hao, Zhen-yu Zhao, Xuan Li, Xiao-li
Qin, Axial buckling modes and crashworthiness of circular tube with external
linear gradient grooves, Thin-Wall Struct. 134 (2019) 395–406.
[17] A. Darvizeh, A. Meshkinzar, M. Alitavoli, R. Rajabiehfard, Low velocity impact
of empty and foam filled circumferentially grooved thick-walled circular tubes,
Thin-Wall Struct. 110 (2017) 97–105.
[18] Dinh Gia Ninh, Vu Ngoc Viet Hoang, Vu Le Huy, A new structure study:
Vibrational analyses of FGM convex-concave shells subjected to electro-thermal-
mechanical loads surrounded by Pasternak foundation, Eur. J. Mech. A Solids
86 (2021).
[19] Dinh Gia Ninh, Habib Eslami, Vu Ngoc Viet Hoang, Dynamical behaviors of
conveying-fluid nanocomposite toroidal shell segments with piezoelectric layer
in thermal environment using the Reddy’s third-order shear deformation shell
theory, Thin-Walled Struct. 159 (2021).
[20] A. Baroutaji, M. Sajjiab, On the crashworthiness performance of thin-walled
energy absorbers: Recent advances and future developments, Thin-Walled Struct.
118 (2017) 137–163.
[21] X. Zhang, H. Zhang, Energy absorption of multi-cell stub columns under axial
compression, Thin-Walled Struct. 68 (2013) 156–163.
[22] A.A. Nia, M. Parsapour, Comparative analysis of energy absorption capacity of
simple and multi-cell thin-walled tubes with triangular, square, hexagonal and
octagonal sections, Thin-Walled Struct. 74 (2014) 155–165.
[23] X. Zhang, G. Cheng, H. Zhang, Theoretical prediction and numerical simulation of
multi-cell square thin-walled structures, Thin-Wall Struct. 44 (2006) 1185–1191.
[24] H.-S. Kim, New extruded multi-cell aluminum profile for maximum crash energy
absorption and weight efficiency, Thin-Wall Struct. 40 (2002) 311–327.
[25] Z. Tang, S. Liu, Z.H. Zhang, Analysis of energy absorption characteristics of
cylindrical multi-cell columns, Thin-Wall Struct. 62 (2013) 75–84.
[26] J. Song, F. Guo, A comparative study on the windowed and multi-cell square
tubes under axial and oblique loading, Thin-Wall Struct. 66 (2013) 9–14.
[27] X. Zhang, G. Cheng, A comparative study of energy absorption characteristics
of foam-filled and multi-cell square columns, Int. J. Impact Eng. 34 (2007)
1739–1752.
[28] Z. Wang, J. Liu, S. Yao, On folding mechanics of multi-cell thin-walled square
tubes, Compos. PART B-Eng. 132 (2018) 17–27.
[29] J. Wang, Y. Zhang, N. He, C. Wang, Crashworthiness behavior of Koch fractal
structures, Mater. Des. 144 (2018) 229–244.
[30] J. Wu, Y. Zhang, F. Zhang, Y. Hou, X. Yan, A bionic tree-liked fractal structure
as energy absorber under axial loading, Eng. Struct. 245 (2021).
[31] H. Tang, J. Zhu, Z. Xi, et al., Impact factors of fractal analysis of porous structure,
Sci. Chin. Technol. Sci. 53 (2010) 348–351.
[32] Ngoc San Ha, Thong M. Pham, Hong Hao, Guoxing Lu, Energy absorption
characteristics of bio-inspired hierarchical multi-cell square tubes under axial
crushing, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 201 (2021).
[33] Yong Zhang, Jin Wang, Chunhui Wang, Yi Zeng, Tengteng Chen, Crashworthiness
of bionic fractal hierarchical structures, Mater. Des. 158 (2018) 147–159.
[34] S.X. Xia, B. Yao, Q.P. Chen, X.H. Yu, Q.L. Wu, Composites with Koch fractal
activated carbon fiber felt screens for strong microwave absorption, Compos.
PART B-Eng. 105 (2016) 1–7.
[35] Mirosław Ferdynus, Maria Kotełko, Mariusz Urbaniak, Crashworthiness perfor-
mance of thin-walled prismatic tubes with corner dents under axial impact -
numerical and experimental study, Thin-Walled Struct. 144 (2019).
[36] Ngoc San Ha, Guoxing Lu, DongWei Shu, T.X. Yu, Mechanical properties and
energy absorption characteristics of tropical fruit durian (Durio zibethinus), J.
Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 104 (2020).
[37] Ngoc San Ha, Thong M. Pham, Wensu Chen, Hong Hao, Guoxing Lu, Crashwor-
thiness analysis of bio-inspired fractal tree-like multi-cell circular tubes under
axial crushing, Thin-Walled Struct. 169 (2021).
[38] Jiafeng Song, Shucai Xu, Lihan Xu, Jianfei Zhou, Meng Zou, Experimental study
on the crashworthiness of bio-inspired aluminum foam-filled tubes under axial
compression loading, Thin-Walled Struct. 155 (2020).
[39] J.L. Huang, X.L. Deng, W.Y. Liu, Bionic design of bend-twist coupled thin-walled
beam based on the structure of rice stem, Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct. (2021)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15376494.2021.1950244.
[40] Q. Estrada, E. Reynoso, D. Szwedowicz, A. Rodriguez-Mendez, E. Coutiño, T.
De la Mora, L. Wiebe, J. Silva, C. Torres, Bending crashworthiness of bionic
thin-walled structures inspired by sugar cane stalks, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. (2022)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2412/1/012003.
[41] J.F. Song, S.C. Xu, S.F. Liu, M. Zou, Study on the crashworthiness of bio-inspired
multi-cell tube under axial impact, Int. J. Crashworthiness 27 (2020) 390–399.
[42] H. Yin, Y. Xiao, G. Wen, Q. Qing, X. Wu, Crushing analysis and multi-objective
optimization design for bionic thin-walled structure, vol. 87, 2015, pp. 825–834.
[43] C. Gong, Y. Hu, Z.H. Bai, Crashworthiness analysis and optimization of
lotus-inspired bionic multi-cell circular tubes, Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct. (2022).
[44] Y.H. Wang, Q. He, X.N. Shi, J.L. Zhong, Crashworthiness analysis and multi-
objective optimisation of a novel circular tube under three-point bending, Int.
J. Crashworthiness 27 (2021) 1337–1350, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13588265.
2021.1926860.
15
Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689
[45] Chao Gong, Zhonghao Bai, Jiyuan Lv, Linwei Zhang, Crashworthiness analysis
of bionic thin-walled tubes inspired by the evolution laws of plant stems,
Thin-Walled Struct. 157 (2020).
[46] C. Wang, G. Lu, W. Zhao, et al., Modeling and multi-objective optimization of a
bionic crash box with folding deformation, Struct. Multidisc. Optim. 61 (2020)
283–299, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00158-019-02360-1.
[47] F.X. Xu, K.J. Yu, L. Hua, X.Q. Niu, Crashworthiness design of crash box filled
with negative Poisson’s ratio based on horn structure, Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct.
(2021) http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15376494.2021.1978594.
[48] Ngoc San Ha, Guoxing Lu, Xinmei Xiang, High energy absorption efficiency of
thin-walled conical corrugation tubes mimicking coconut tree configuration, Int.
J. Mech. Sci. 148 (2018) 409–421, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2018.08.
041.
[49] L. Zhang, Y. Zhong, W. Tan, C. Gong, Y. Hu, Z. Bai, Crushing characteristics of
bionic thin-walled tubes inspired by bamboo and beetle forewing, Mech. Adv.
Mater. Struct. 29 (2021) 2024–2039.
[50] J. Du, P. Hao, M. Liu, et al., Multi-cell energy-absorbing structures with hollow
columns inspired by the beetle Elytra, J. Mater. Sci. 55 (2020) 4279–4291,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-04190-4.
[51] Wen Ma, Suchao Xie, Zhixiang Li, Mechanical performance of bio-inspired
corrugated tubes with varying vertex configurations, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 172
(2020).
[52] Peng Huo, Xiaowen, FanXin Yang, Han Huang, Jianping Li, Shucai Xu, Design
and optimization of equal gradient thin-walled tube: Bionic application of antler
osteon, Latin Am. J. Solids Struct. 18 (2021).
[53] Shengfu Liu, Shucai Xu, Jiafeng Song, Guomin Liu, Meng Zou, A bionic method
for the crashworthiness design of conical tube structures inspired by Yak horn,
in: The 6TH International Conference of Bionic Engineering, Chang chun, 2019.
[54] Y. Liu, Y. Q, L. Xu, N. Han, M. Zou, Q. Zhang, Study on energy absorption
behavior of bionic tube inspired by feather shaft of bean goose, Rendiconti
Lincei-Scienze Fisiche E Naturali 33 (2022) 363–374.
[55] ChunYan Wang, Yan Li, WanZhong Zhao, SongChun Zou, Guan Zhou, YuanLong
Wang, Structure design and multi-objective optimization of a novel crash box
based on biomimetic structure, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 138–139 (2018) 489–501,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2018.01.032.
[56] Han Huang, Shucai Xu, Crashworthiness analysis and bionic design of multi-
cell tubes under axial and oblique impact loads, Thin-Walled Struct. 144 (2019)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2019.106333.
[57] Xiang Xu, Yong Zhang, Xin Wang, Jianguang Fang, Jiawei Chen, Jixiang
Li, Searching superior crashworthiness performance by constructing variable
thickness honeycombs with biomimetic cells, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 235 (2022)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2022.107718.
[58] Honghao Zhang, Zhongwei Huang, Tao Li, Chonghua Bao, Liang Zhang, Multiple
performance evaluation of bionic thin-walled structures with different cross
sections considering complex conditions, 2022.
[59] K. Liu, Z.H. Yu, K.Y. Wang, L. Liu, Crashworthiness of bamboo-inspired circular
tubes used for the energy absorber of rail vehicles, Acta Mech. Sinica 38 (2022)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10409-022-22014-9.
[60] H.P.S. Abdul Khalil, I.U.H. Bhat, M. Jawaid, et al., Bamboo fibre reinforced
biocomposites: A review, Funct. Compos. Struct. 4 (2022) http://dx.doi.org/10.
1088/2631-6331/ac5b1a.
[61] Shigeyasu Amada, Yoshinobu Ichikawa, Tamotsu Munekata, Yukito Nagase,
Hiroyuki Shimizu, Fiber texture and mechanical graded structure of bamboo,
Composites B 28 (1997) 13–20.
[62] A. Ray, S. Mondal, S. Das, et al., Bamboo—A functionally graded composite-
correlation between microstructure and mechanical strength, J. Mater. Sci. 40
(2005) 5249–5253, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-4419-9.
[63] Jiafeng Song, Shucai Xu, Jianfei Zhou, Han Huang, Meng Zou, Experiment and
numerical simulation study on the bionic tubes with gradient thickness under
oblique loading, Thin-Walled Struct. 163 (2021).
[64] Hongyu Liang, Wenqian Hao, Hao Sun, Yongfeng Pu, Ying Zhao, Fangwu Ma,
On design of novel bionic bamboo tubes for multiple compression load cases,
Int. J. Mech. Sci. 218 (2022).
[65] B.C. Chen, M. Zou, G.M. Liu, J.F. Song, H.X. Wang, Experimental study on energy
absorption of bionic tubes inspired by bamboo structures under axial crushing,
Int. J. Impact Eng. 115 (2018) 48–57.
[66] Dayong Hu, Yongzhen Wang, Bin Song, Linwei Dang, Zhiqiang Zhang, Energy-
absorption characteristics of a bionic honeycomb tubular nested structure
inspired by bamboo under axial crushing, Composites B 162 (2019) 21–32.
[67] M. Zou, S. Xu, C. Wei, H. Wang, Z. Liu, A bionic method for the crashworthiness
design of thin-walled structures inspired by bamboo, Thin-Walled Struct. 101
(2016) 222–230.
[68] Shutian Liu, Zeqi Tong, Zhiliang Tang, Yang Liu, Zonghua Zhang, Bionic design
modification of non-convex multi-corner thin-walled columns for improving
energy absorption through adding bulkheads, Thin-Walled Struct. 88 (2015)
70–81.
[69] E8/E8M, AI, Standard test methods for tension testing of metallic materials, US,
2015.
[70] Heng Li, He Yang, Yuli Tian, Kaipeng Shi, Experimental study on bendability of
thin-walled 6061-T4 tube under different bending velocities, Appl. Mech. Mater.
184–185 (2012) 196–200.
Y. Liu, Y. Qi, H. Sun et al.
[71] Quirino Estrada, Dariusz Szwedowicz, Alejandro Rodriguez-Mendez, Milton Elías-
Espinosa, Jesús Silva-Aceves, Jorge Bedolla-Hernández, Oscar A. Gómez-Vargas,
Effect of radial clearance and holes as crush initiators on the crashworthiness
performance of bi-tubular profiles, Thin-Walled Struct. 140 (2019) 43–59.
[72] Quirino Estrada, Dariusz Szwedowicz, Alejandro Rodriguez-Mendez, Oscar A.
Gómez-Vargas, Milton Elias-Espinosa, Jesús Silva-Aceves, Energy absorption
performance of concentric and multi-cell profiles involving damage evolution
criteria, Thin-Walled Struct. 124 (2018) 218–234.
[73] J. Alexander, An approximate analysis of the collapse of thin cylindrical shells
under axial loading, Q. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 13 (1960) 10–15.
16
Thin-Walled Structures 186 (2023) 110689
[74] T. Wierzbicki, W. Abramowicz, On the crushing mechanics of thin-walled
structures, J. Appl. Mech. 50 (1983) 727–734.
[75] W. Abramowicz, N. Jones, Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes, Int. J. Impact
Eng. 2 (1984) 179–208.
[76] W. Abramowicz, N. Jones, Dynamic progressive buckling of circular and square
tubes, Int. J. Impact Eng. 4 (1986) 243–270.
[77] M. Langseth, O.S. Hopperstad, Static and dynamic axial crushing of square
thin-walled aluminium extrusions, Int. J. Impact Eng. 18 (1996) 949–968.
[78] X. Zhang, H. Zhang, Numerical and theoretical studies on energy absorption of
three-panel angle elements, Int. J. Impact Eng. 46 (2012) 23–40.