Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

In-Plane crushing performance of bionic glass Sponge-Type

honeycomb structures
Yuyang Wang a, Guoxing Lu a, *, Ngoc San Ha b, Li Wang c, *
a
School of Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
b
Center for Innovative Structures and Materials, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne 3001, Australia
c
School of Mechanical, Electrical and Information Engineering, Shandong University (Weihai), Weihai 264209, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Honeycomb structures are commonly adopted due to their superior energy absorption capacity. In this study, a
In-plane loading new bionic glass sponge–type honeycomb structure (BSH) with a quadrilateral octagonal mesh microstructure
Bionic glass sponge–type honeycomb structure inspired by the sea sponge structure was proposed. The in-plane crushing performance of the BSH with different
Energy absorption
geometrical parameters under different crushing speeds was investigated by ABAQUS/Explicit. The numerical
findings suggested that the BSH displayed stronger energy absorption in contrast to the square, hexagonal and
hierarchical honeycombs at both quasi-static and dynamic crushing conditions. More plastic hinges and more
unit walls involved in deformation resulted in a high energy absorption capacity. In addition, three typical
deformation modes of the BSH under different loading speeds were discussed, and the empirical model to predict
the plateau stress of the BSH was established based on the shock wave theory. Finally, the effect of boundary
segmentation parameter m on crushing performance was also illustrated. The energy absorption capacity reaches
a maximum at m = 3 for quasi–static loading, whereas at m = 5 for dynamic loading. These findings provide
valuable insights into the optimization of bionic honeycombs.

1. Introduction
Honeycomb structures are extensively applied for a multitude of
industries such as automotive, nuclear, aerospace and defense because
of their outstanding characteristics such as lightweight, good strength,
superior compression performance and excellent energy absorption ca­
pacity. Traditional honeycomb structures are gradually failing to meet
the requirements of multifunctional applications in industrial develop­
ment, so it is vital to explore new honeycomb structures with excellent
performance [1–8]. In different natural environments, natural selection
and evolution have produced a large number of multifunctional bio­
logical materials. These materials usually contain many hierarchies and
gradients at different scales, which show excellent functions and provide
broad design ideas for structural optimization [9–16]. To increase the
performance of honeycomb structures, multifunctional hierarchical bi­
onic design and graded bionic design have attracted great attention
[17–19].
Hierarchical honeycombs can significantly improve material prop­
erties while achieving lower densities and better stability. Chen et al. [1]
proposed that hierarchical honeycombs exhibited improved stiffness
and energy absorption under uniaxial compression. High shape integrity
and energy dissipation were also identified under cyclic loading. Lim­
mahakhun et al. [2] successfully manufactured a hierarchical honey­
comb structure with a delicate internal structure. The results showed
that octahedral props had greater stiffness and strength, which provided
more theoretical support for the optimization of hierarchical bone im­
plants. Oftadeh et al. [4] revealed that the self-similar hierarchical
honeycomb exhibited better plastic properties than the single-stage
honeycomb. Liang et al. [5] discovered an advanced self-similar hier­
archical honeycomb with excellent energy absorption capacity, which
further illustrated the important role of hierarchical arrangement in the
design of honeycomb structures.
Besides the hierarchical design, graded design has always been an
important topic. Ajdari et al. [6] indicated that the effective elastic
modulus and energy absorption could be increased by graded design.
Wang et al. [7,8] established a relationship to resolve the plateau stress
for the segmental-graded honeycomb. The cyclic-graded design is
adopted to further improve energy absorption. Liu et al. [9] suggested
that the functionally graded honeycomb structure greatly enhanced the
energy absorption capacity. Li et al. [11] found that the energy

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: glu@swin.edu.au (G. Lu), wanglihxf@sdu.edu.cn (L. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2024.118201
Received 8 January 2024; Received in revised form 22 March 2024; Accepted 7 May 2024
Available online 11 May 2024
0263-8223/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 In-Plane crushing performance of bionic glass Sponge-Type
honeycomb structures
Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 1. The constructive process and representative unit of the BSH. (a) Porous glass sponge [27]. (b) A part of the glass sponge [31]. (c) The macrostructures and
microstructures [31]. (d) The bionic glass sponge–type honeycomb with the loading schematic diagram.
dissipation and impact resistance of graded sandwich panels were much
better than that of uniform sandwich panels under explosive loading.
The double-shock model of the graded structure was also studied by
analytical and experimental methods [12,13]. Studies have shown that
the graded design exhibited significant effects on the loading
performance.
The availability of honeycomb structures with excellent performance
is critical in engineering applications. The hierarchical design and
graded design can greatly improve mechanical performance. In recent
years, the application of bionic method has provided extremely valuable
insights into the generation of novel honeycomb structures with excel­
lent performance [14–16]. Ha et al. [20] presented a new bionic hon­
eycomb sandwich panel inspired by the woodpecker beak, which was
characterized by wavy walls of the core bionic honeycomb. It indicated
that the bionic panels had better energy absorption capacity than con­
ventional honeycomb sandwich panels. They also proposed a bionic
conical bellows structure that mimicked the profile of a coconut tree
[21]. The results indicated that the initial peak stress was significantly
reduced compared to that of a circular tube or tapered tube. Zhang et al.
[22] developed a re-entrant arcuate honeycomb model inspired by the
turtle shell. The in-plane impact resistance was numerically studied.
Better crushing load uniformity was revealed because of the application
of arc-shaped structures. Song et al. [23] introduced two new energy
absorption tubes inspired by the crush-resistant properties of the lotus
petiole. The quasi-static results indicated that the specific energy
2
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
absorption and crushing force efficiency were significantly enhanced
and the peak crushing force was significantly reduced compared to
hollow square and circular tubes. These investigations have provided
valuable recommendations and guidance for the subsequent develop­
ment of honeycomb structures.
Based on the success and insights gained from previous bionic porous
structure designs, further research has been conducted on glass sponge
structures to explore their potential applications in engineering. The
porous glass sponge is an ancient species living in the deep seabed [24].
The skeletal bone needles are intricately connected, creating a network
that has developed into an incredibly resilient, high-strength and high-
stability structure [25,26]. Some studies have been conducted on the
sponge structure. Aizenberg et al. [24] investigated the structure of glass
sponges and they found that the main skeleton was formed by longitu­
dinal and transverse bone needles, and a part of the bone needles is
interwoven in a spiral ± 45◦ pattern so that the main skeleton forms an
open–closed interlaced microstructure. Weaver et al. [27] showed that
the bone of porous glass sponges was not a two-dimensional structure.
They investigated the ± 45◦ ridges of porous glass sponges. Their results
indicated that the spiral rise of wall ridges increased the torsional
resistance, effectively preventing the structure from failure due to tor­
sion or buckling. Bacheva et al. [28] concluded that the ± 45◦ fibres of
the porous glass sponge combined with the main skeleton to form a
unique mesh structure, thus increasing the ability of the entire skeleton
to withstand bending, shear and torsion. Chen et al. [29] observed the
Y. Wang et al.
internal structure of porous glass sponge bone needles. They found that
the structure could increase the toughness. Sven et al. [30] created a
bionic circular tube design based on seven biological structures, such as
glass sponges, hedgehog spines, algae, rice stalks, regular honeycombs
and snail shells. The torsion, compression and bending performance
were compared with those of ordinary circular tubes. The experimental
results were consistent with the simulation results. Li et al. [31] intro­
duced two innovative bio-inspired lightweight structures based on the
microstructure of the glass sponge. The results showed that the light­
weight coefficients of torsion, bending and compression were improved
by 222.8 %, 96.0 % and 47.6 % compared with the regular honeycomb,
which suggested that the new structure had great potential in engi­
neering applications. Recently, Sharma and Hiremath [32] investigated
the loading performance of lattice structures inspired by the skeletal
system of deep-sea sponges. They found that the bio-inspired lattice
structures exhibited a form of local buckling, as opposed to global
buckling during deformation, leading to enhanced energy absorption.
Inspired by the glass sponge, Sun et al. [33] designed a new diagonal-
enhanced honeycomb core (BSHC) sandwich panel. Compared to hex­
agonal and square honeycomb core sandwich panels, the BSHC exhibi­
ted outstanding energy absorption performance and impact resistance
under low-speed loading conditions. Furthermore, a theoretical analysis
was conducted to explore the energy absorption mechanism, providing
valuable insights into its energy absorption capabilities. Mimicking the
glass sponge, Li et al. [34] proposed a novel bionic multicell tube
(UCGS). The simulation results showed that the specific energy ab­
sorption (SEA) of the UCGS was improved by 32.2 % to 53.1 % over the
conventional multi-cell tubes under axial compression. Moreover, the
energy absorption capacity can be further optimized. Ha et al. [16]
investigated the energy absorption capability of a new bio-inspired cy­
lindrical sandwich structure, where the core was designed to mimic the
skeletal system of deep-sea glass sponge. They revealed that the SEA of
the new bio-inspired cylindrical sandwich structure was 31.2 % higher
than that of the conventional cylindrical sandwich structure with the
kagome core.
Although some scholars have carried out research into the bionic
sponge structures, their energy absorption characteristics are still not
fully understood. Most studies have focused on the bionic glass sponge
tubes, such as the bending performance, torsional resistance and energy
absorption capacity [27,28]. Apart from tubular structures, recently,
there have been a few studies focusing on planar honeycomb structures
composed of such bio-inspired glass sponge units [32,33]. However,
these studies mainly concentrate on sandwich structures subjected to
out-of-plane loading. For in-plane loading conditions, there is a signifi­
cant lack of systematic and comprehensive research about the effects of
relative density, loading speed and microstructure on the crushing
behavior. In this paper, a planar bionic glass sponge–type honeycomb
structure (BSH) with a quadrilateral octagonal mesh microstructure is
established to explore the in-plane loading compression characteristics
and energy absorption capacity.
2. Geometric configuration and simulation details
2.1. Geometric configuration
The macroscopic and microscopic structure of the glass sponge
observed by microscopy is shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 1(a–c) shows the skel­
eton of a porous glass sponge with many small holes in the skeleton
walls, which are the main reason for the reduced weight.
The glass sponge lattice consists of many overlapping vertical, hor­
izontal and diagonal fibre pillars, forming a square lattice comprising a
network structure and an octagonal lattice. Inspired by the sponge
structure, a bionic glass sponge-type honeycomb structure (BSH) with a
quadrilateral octagonal mesh microstructure is constructed, as shown in
Fig. 1(d). The unit structure of the new bionic structure is composed of
support columns in four directions: 0◦ , ±45◦ (±θ) and 90◦ . The
3
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
Fig. 2. Convergence analysis of the BSH with m = 3.
boundaries are formed by the 0◦ and 90◦ support columns that divide the
unit structure into four small square cells. There are eight inclined
support columns in each unit, each of which is connected to the inclined
support column in adjacent units. The inclined support columns in the
unit are directly connected with the boundary to form an octagon. Each
boundary is connected to four inclined support columns so that the
boundary is divided into six segments, m is the boundary segmentation
parameter, and different m indicate different honeycomb structures. The
structures of the two diagonal small units are the same, and the overall
unit structure is centrosymmetric.
The relative density ρ*can be given as
√̅̅̅
(2 + 2 2)t
ρ* = ρ0 /ρs = (1)
l
where ρ0 and ρs denote the initial density of the BSH and the density
of the matrix material, respectively. Parameter l = 10 mm represents the
half-length of the unit wall, and t is the wall thickness. The relative
density of the BSH is only related to the length l and the thickness t,
independent of the boundary segmentation parameter m.
2.2. Finite element analysis details
BSHs are numerically investigated using ABAQUS/Explicit. The
loading schematic is illustrated in Fig. 1(d), where the top plate receives
an initial loading, while the bottom one remains fixed. The out-of-plane
displacement is restricted, and a general contact is applied between the
cell surface and rigid plate with a tangential friction coefficient of 0.1.
The matrix material is aluminum with elastic-perfectly plastic behavior,
ignoring the strain rate sensitivity. The Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3, density ρs
= 2700 kg/m3, yield strength σ ys = 130 MPa and Young’s modulus E =
68 GPa. This material facilitates an effective analysis of the compressive
performance of honeycomb structures under various loading conditions
[35–37]. Five integral points are adopted to ensure accuracy along the
thickness direction. The model measures 110 mm × 120 mm and con­
sists of 5 × 6 cells. The shell element (S4R) is used, and mesh conver­
gence test is analyzed as shown in Fig. 2. It demonstrates that the plateau
stress stabilizes as the mesh size is reduced to 1 mm, indicating the
convergence of the calculation. After a thorough evaluation of both of
calculation efficiency and accuracy, a mesh size of 0.5 mm is selected for
the simulation.
The accuracy of the FE model was confirmed through comparison
with the experimental data obtainded from [38], utilizing the regular
hexagonal honeycomb under quasi-static loading conditions. The com­
parison reveals a close correlation in the force–displacement curve (see
Fig. 3(a)). Additionally, Fig. 3(b) shows the similarity of deformation
Y. Wang et al. Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201

Fig. 3. Comparison of FE analysis and experimental results: (a) force–displacement curves and (b) deformation shapes.

3. Discussions
Table 1
Comparison of plateau stress of the hexagonal honeycomb between FEA results
3.1. Comparison with different kinds of honeycombs
and analytical results with different speeds.
Speed (m/ Analytical data (MPa) (Based on Eq. FEA data Deviation Firstly, the compression characteristics of the bionic honeycomb
s) 9 in Ref. 39) (MPa) (%)
structure (BSH) with m = 3 are investigated and compared with other
35 0.11 0.105 4.51 different kinds of honeycombs: the regular hexagonal honeycomb (13 ×
70 0.52 0.55 5.77
12 cells with a cell side length of 10 mm, as shown in Fig. 4-I(b)), the
100 1.01 1.04 2.97
140 1.94 1.91 1.55 square honeycomb (12 × 11 cells with a cell side length of 10 mm, as
200 3.92 3.81 2.81 shown in Fig. 4-I(c)), and the hierarchical honeycomb with triangle
substructures (SHT, the number of triangle substructures for each wall is
5, and the size sets as 10 mm, as shown in Fig. 4-I(d)). The deformation
shapes observed between the simulation and experiment. Initially, both mode and compression performance under quasi-static loading condi­
exhibit deformation zones with an inclination, which subsequently tions are illustrated in Fig. 4. The relative densities are all set as 12.5 %.
concentrate and compress towards the center. Furthermore, at increased Under quasi-static loading, based on Fig. 4-II(a), the BSH exhibits a
loading speeds ranging from 35 m/s to 200 m/s, the simulated plateau markedly greater plateau stress in comparison to both the regular hex­
stress displays a deviation of less than 6 % when compared to theoretical agonal honeycomb and the square honeycomb. In the deformation
calculations reported in [39], as shown in Table 1. process, the primary dissipation mechanism of energy is attributed to
the elastic and plastic deformation of cell walls. Fig. 4-II(b) illustrates
the energy absorption capacity, revealing a marked increase in energy
absorption for both BSH and SHT compared to the hexagonal and square
honeycomb structures. This can be explained by considering the defor­
mation feature:

4
Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 4. Comparison of the BSH and other honeycomb structures: (I) the deformation shapes (II) and compression characteristics.
For BSH, a large inclined deformation zone appears at the initial
stage Fig. 4-I(e). Not only the inclined unit walls with 45◦ angle engage
in the plastic deformation, but also parts of the unit walls in both the
horizontal and vertical directions participate. In contrast, the regular
hexagonal honeycomb structure has three symmetry axes, which can
produce symmetric deformation or antisymmetric deformation about
the horizontal-axis, vertical-axis and 60◦ angle. This leads to an inclined
X-shape deformation zone under quasi-static loading conditions, as
shown in Fig. 4-I(f). The structural units in the center of the deformation
zone show a symmetric deformation mode. The structure involved in the
deformation is mainly the inclined wall, whose stress is mainly gener­
ated by the bending and plastic failure of these inclined unit walls.
Conversely, the square honeycomb structure, due to its symmetry, de­
forms uniformly, showcasing a progressive deformation along the lon­
gitudinal symmetry axis. This deformation manifests as a corrugated
pattern, as seen in Fig. 4-I(g), predominantly involving the vertical walls
where plastic collapse dictates the stress within the corrugated defor­
mation zones.
Therefore, different unit walls with different properties involved in
5
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
deformation result in different deformation modes, which lead to sig­
nificant differences in energy absorption capacities. The inclined cell
walls in the new bionic honeycomb structure increase the total number
of plastic hinges. Moreover, the type and number of unit walls involved
in deformation are greater, thus increasing the energy absorption ca­
pacity of the new bionic honeycomb structure.
Comparative analysis with SHT reveals that the SHT exhibits better
energy absorption capacity than regular hexagonal honeycomb struc­
tures, which agrees well with the findings in the previous study [7].
Meanwhile, the SHT and BSH show negligible differences in plateau
stress. This may be due to the involvement of numerous plastic hinges in
the deformation of hierarchical honeycomb structures (SHT), shown in
Fig. 4-I(h). However, the BSH shows a greater densification strain,
which produces a longer impact stroke and more energy absorption
during the plateau stage. This presents a distinct advantage in the
development of energy-absorbing structures.
Therefore, under quasi-static loading conditions, the advantage of
the new bionic honeycomb structure, relative to the regular hexagonal
and square structures, lies in its increased number of plastic hinges.
Y. Wang et al. Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201

Fig. 5. Comparison analysis of stress–strain behavior (a) and energy absorption capacity (b) for different honeycombs subjected to a loading speed of 150 m/s.

be uniform under high-speed loading conditions. They deform and bear

Table 2
loads in a similar “I-shape” manner, with the cell wall collapsing layer-
Comparison of energy absorption per unit mass (kJ/kg) for different honey­
by-layer [7,40], which results in a reduction in the differences in energy
combs at loading speeds of 1 m/s and 150 m/s.
absorption performance. The energy absorption capacity of the square
Speed Hexagonal Square Hierarchical Bionic
honeycomb structure under high loading speed is comparable to that of
honeycomb honeycomb honeycomb honeycomb
(SHT) (BSH)
the SHT. However, the stress–strain curve of the square honeycomb
structure under high-speed loading fluctuates particularly sharply,
1 m/s 1.941 2.388 2.961 3.469
which is not conducive to the protection of the object.
150 24.539 24.853 25.013 27.937
m/s Table 2 presents the energy absorption per unit mass for four types of
honeycomb structures at densification strain, evaluated under loading
speeds of 1 m/s and 150 m/s. Under quasi-static loading (1 m/s), the
Meanwhile, compared to the hierarchical honeycomb with triangle energy absorption capacities of the square honeycomb, triangular hi­
substructures, its advantage is the enhanced densification strain, offer­ erarchical honeycomb, and the newly developed bionic honeycomb
ing significant potential for energy-absorbing structure development. (BSH) structures exhibit increases of 23.1 %, 52.6 %, and 78.7 %,
Under dynamic loading, as displayed in Fig. 5, the BSH still main­ respectively, compared to the regular hexagonal honeycomb structure.
tains a certain advantage in energy absorption capacity. However, this However, at a high-speed loading of 150 m/s, the observed advantages
advantage is weakened because of the strong inertial effect. In this sit­ narrow to 1.3 %, 1.9 %, and 13.8 %, respectively, attributed to the in­
uation, the energy absorption capacity of honeycomb structures is not ertial effects. This data underscores that the bionic honeycomb structure
only related to the topological structure but also related to the loading possesses superior energy absorption capabilities across the conditions
velocity and relative density. Since these different types of honeycomb tested, aligning with findings from prior analyses.
structures exhibit the same material properties, and the relative density
and loading velocity are consistent, the structural response may tend to

Fig. 6. Deformation modes of the BSH with m = 3 at 1 m/s.

6
Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 7. Deformation modes of the BSH with m = 3 at 20 m/s.
3.2. Deformation mode
In the crushing process, the stress at a certain position reaches the
local yield stress, resulting in local deformation. The deformation modes
for bionic honeycombs with m = 3 at loading speeds of 1 m/s, 20 m/s
and 100 m/s are considered, as shown in Figs. 6–8.
Fig. 6 shows the deformation mode at l m/s. Prior to the initial peak
stress, the deformation of the entire structure is initially uniform during
the crushing process. The overall honeycomb structure exhibits a linear
elastic response, with all honeycomb units deforming uniformly, fol­
lowed by the structure entering the plateau response region. With
further compression, the local stress exceeds the yield strength of the
matrix material. In particular, plastic hinges appear at specific locations
in the unit walls, resulting in an inhomogeneous deformation of the
honeycomb structural unit.
As shown in Fig. 6, an inclined deformation zone appears at the
Fig. 8. Deformation modes of the BSH with m = 3 at 100 m/s.
7
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
initial stage Fig. 6(a). The inclined unit walls with a 45◦ angle engage in
plastic deformation, along with portions of the unit walls in both the
horizontal and vertical directions. The deformation not only occurs in
the deformation zone but also expands obliquely to the adjacent struc­
ture units as the compression proceeds, thus gradually widening the
deformation zone. The inclined layer-by-layer compression deformation
characteristic keeps the stress at a constant level. This local densification
deformation resembles a shear zone until the partial structure in the
inclined zone reaches densification. The deformation outside the shear
zone tends to be homogeneous. The increase in compression distance
causes the unit walls to pile up together, which leads to an expanding
densification region until the entire structure is gradually compressed to
dense at the impact and fixed ends, Fig. 6(b). With increases in
compression displacement, a slight V-shaped deformation zone is also
generated on both sides of the inclined deformation band, Fig. 6(c, d).
The deformation zone then extends to the impact and fixed ends with the
Y. Wang et al. Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201

large inclined deformation zone until it reaches the dense, Fig. 6(e, f). It
is a large inclined deformation band throughout the deformation pro­
cess. The structural unit at the center of the deformation zone does not
show an axisymmetric deformation mode but a centrosymmetric
deformation mode, which may also be related to the centrosymmetry of
the structural unit.
The deformation at a moderate loading speed (v = 20 m/s) is
different from that under quasi-static compression. Fig. 7 shows the
deformation mode at 20 m/s. Specifically, the inertial effect is
strengthened and becomes evident, so that a deformation region first
occurs near the loading end, Fig. 7(a). Subsequently, the plastic wave
reflection initiates deformation in the unit adjacent to the fixed end.
Thus, the second local deformation zone appears near the fixed end,
Fig. 7(b, c). The propagation and reflection of the stress wave in the
specimen along the transverse and longitudinal directions cause locali­
zation of the stress distribution. The deformation of the overall structure
is characterized by rigidity enhancement along the longitudinal sym­
metry axis, and the deformation zones at both the left and right sides
have the same characteristics. The middle part is more compacted than Fig. 9. The fitting results of plateau stress to loading speed.
the left and right sides, so the deformation area appears to be a wide V-
shaped area. However, the opening of the V-shaped zone is large, so it is
not obvious, Fig. 7(d). With further compression, the units near the local Table 3
deformation zone deform in turn, and the deformation zones at both the Fitting equations according to Fig. 9.
impact and fixed ends gradually converge towards the middle until the ρ* Fitting equations ρ* Fitting equations
whole structure is compressed to dense, Fig. 7(e, f). During the
0.038 σP1 =0.17 + 1.61 × 10− 4 v2 0.178 σP4 = 3.94 + 5.67×10− 4 v2
compression process, there is no obvious inclined deformation zone
0.082 σP2 =0.93 + 2.52 × 10− 4 v2 0.232 σP5 =6.32 + 7.19 × 10− 4 v2
generated. 0.126 0.284
σP3 =2.12 + 3.89 × 10− 4 v2 σP6 =8.68 + 9.34 × 10− 4 v2
When the loading speed is further increased to 100 m/s, the inertial
effect is greatly enhanced and dominates, and the inhomogeneity of the
local evolution is weakened. As shown in Fig. 8, the deformation is an I- ∫ εd
shaped deformation zone perpendicular to the loading direction, Fig. 8 σ (ε)dε
σp = εcr
(2)
(a). The deformation area expands progressively to the fixed end, Fig. 8 εd − εcr
(b-f). No significant inclined deformation zones are observed, and the where σ(ε) is the crushing stress, εd is the densification strain and εcr
deformation zone is generated only at the impacted end. represents the strain at which the stress reaches the initial peak stress.
The deformation characteristics of the bionic structure can be sum­ To study the characteristics of plateau stress, the wall thickness is set
marised as follows. At quasi-static loading, the honeycomb structure to 0.08, 0.17, 0.26, 0.37, 0.48 and 0.59 mm. According to Eq. (1), the
produces an inclined local deformation zone due to the force equilib­ relative densities are determined to be 0.039, 0.082, 0.125, 0.179, 0.232
rium. With the increase in loading speed, the strengthening of the in­ and 0.285, respectively. The basic feature of the deformation mode
ertial effect leads to a localization of the stress distribution, and the under dynamic loading is the propagation of plastic waves perpendic­
deformation of the honeycomb structure gradually develops laterally. ular to the loading direction. To consider the inertial effects under dy­
The local deformation zone near the fixed end appears later. In this namic impact loading conditions, one-dimensional shock wave theory
instance, the deformation mode is a transitional mode, with deformation [41,42] is used to investigate the plateau stress of BSH (m = 3). The
zones appearing at both ends. At sufficiently high loading speeds, the relationship can be expressed as
corresponding deformation zone cannot occur at the fixed end due to the
strong inertia, and only a thin, narrow deformation zone can be σ P = B + Av2 (3)
observed at the impact end. In this situation, the deformation is where A and B are constants, depending on the characteristics of the
collapsed layer by layer, which is similar to the propagation mode of the honeycomb and the loading conditions. Fig. 9 shows the plateau stresses
shock wave. with fitting results at different relative densities and loading speeds. The
fitting results reflect the simulation results effectively. The plateau stress
exhibits an upward trend with increasing relative density and loading
3.3. Plateau stress speed. The relationships are shown in Table 3.
The relationship between A and ρ* can be expressed as [43]:
Plateau stress is one of the key parameters for evaluating the per­
formance of honeycomb structures, offering valuable insights into their A(ρ* ) = C1 ρ*2 + C2 ρ* + C3 (4)
compression behavior. The stress–strain curve for BSH demonstrates a
typical three-stage characteristic. Impact protection mainly depends on where C1, C2 and C3 are constants.
plastic deformation of the plateau stage. The bionic honeycomb struc­ The relationship between B and ρ* can be expressed as [44].
ture displays a long plateau stress stage in the stress–strain curve during B = B1 ⋅ρ*q (5)
compression. At this stage, the stress remains almost constant, and the
structure has a good energy absorption capacity, which is advantageous where B1 and m are constants.
for the optimal design of vibration-damped structures. In addition, Fig. 10 shows parameters A and B as a function of relative density.
although the energy absorbed in the densification stage is quite large, Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) are in good accordance with the predicted result.
the impact force is also very high due to the great strength, which ex­ According to fitting Eq. (4), the values of C1, C2 and C3 are 0.0011,
ceeds the maximum bearing capacity of the protected object, thus 0.0029 and 5.4 × 10-6, respectively. According to fitting Eq. (5), the
causing great damage to the object. The plateau stress σ p can be defined fitting parameters B1 and q are 97.67 and 1.9, respectively. The dynamic
as

8
Y. Wang et al. Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201

Fig. 10. Fitting results between parameters A (a) and B (b) versus relative density.

Fig. 11. Comparison of stress–strain behavior (a) and energy absorption capacity (b) at different loading speeds.

plateau stress is expressed as
σ = 97.67ρ*1.9 + (0.0011ρ*2 + 0.00292ρ* − 5.4 × 10− 6 )v2 (6)
3.4. Energy absorption capacity
For a weight-sensitive application, the specific energy absorption
(SEA) is used to reflect the energy absorption capacity of the BSH, which
can be expressed as [45]
∫ εd
Wt σ(ε)dε
SEA = = εcr * (7)
M ρ ρs
where Wt and M represent the total energy absorbed per unit volume
and the total mass.
3.4.1. Different loading speeds
The compression characteristics of the honeycomb structure at
different loading speeds are investigated. The deformation modes
change significantly as the loading speed increases. Stress–strain curves
are used to describe the compression characteristics of the bionic
structure (m = 3) at different loading speeds shown in Fig. 11(a). The
loading speed has a great influence on the dynamic crushing charac­
teristics. The stress–strain curves can be divided into three regimes, and
both initial peak stress and plateau stress increase with increasing
loading speed. As stated above, a thin narrow deformation area is
observed under the high loading speed conditions. A significant effect
caused by the inertial effect makes the dynamic stress–strain curve
different from the quasi-static loading condition. Inertial effects increase
with increasing speed, so the plateau stress rises rapidly with increasing
loading speed. The increase in loading speed increases the fluctuation
range, but the deformation is more uniform, and the curve is more sta­
ble. This is because the unit wall deformation is completely transformed
from elastic buckling to plastic deformation.
The energy absorption principle of the honeycomb structure is
summarised in two simple parts. First is the plateau stage of the
stress–strain curve: plastic work is generated by the mutual collision and
elastic–plastic buckling deformation between honeycomb cells, and
fracture energy is generated by fractures. Second, the honeycomb
structure dissipates some energy in a complex way through other forms
during the compression process. For the usual honeycomb structure, the
energy increment of the inertial effect caused by high loading speed is
partly converted into kinetic energy, while the other part is absorbed in
the collision between the unit walls. Fig. 11(b) shows the SEA at
different loading speeds. It suggests that the higher the loading speed,
the higher the SEA, which is consistent with the characteristics of the
plateau stress. When the loading speed is high enough that the nodes
cannot rotate, inertial effects dominate energy absorption.
3.4.2. Different cell wall thicknesses t
In this section, the compression properties of bionic honeycombs

9
Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 12. Comparison of stress–strain curves (left) and energy absorption capacities (right) with different cell wall thicknesses.
with different cell wall thicknesses (t = 0.08 mm, 0.26 mm and 0.48
mm) are investigated at quasi-static and high loading speeds.
Fig. 12 shows the stress–strain curves and SEAs under quasi-static
and dynamic loading conditions. The cell wall thickness has a signifi­
cant effect on the plateau stress and the initial peak stress. The plateau
stress and initial peak stress increase significantly with cell wall thick­
ness under different loading conditions. A honeycomb structure with
thicker cell walls has improved buckling resistance and impact resis­
tance under the same loading conditions. Regarding energy absorption,
it can be observed that SEA increases significantly with cell wall thick­
ness, which indicates that the energy absorption capacity increases
significantly with increasing cell wall thickness. However, it is worth
noting that the initial peak stress increases with increasing cell wall
thickness, which may lead to serious damage when the initial peak stress
is too high. Hence, maintaining the initial peak stress at a secure level is
crucial. Consequently, determining an appropriate cell wall thickness is
imperative for honeycomb structure design.
10
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
To better understand the effects of loading speed and cell wall
thickness on compression properties, the plateau stress and energy ab­
sorption capacity of honeycombs with different relative densities under
different loading speeds are systematically investigated. Numerical
studies have shown that the cell wall thickness (relative density) has an
important effect on plateau stress. Under quasi-static loading condition,
the plateau stresses of BSH (m = 3) with densities of 0.039, 0.082, 0.125,
0.179, 0.232, and 0.285 are recorded at 0.15 MPa, 0.74 MPa, 1.78 MPa,
3.69 MPa, 6.02 MPa, and 8.18 MPa, respectively. Correspondingly,
specific energy absorption are 0.94 kJ/kg, 2.21 kJ/kg, 3.47 kJ/kg, 4.92
kJ/kg, 6.22 kJ/kg, and 7.17 kJ/kg. It can be observed that the energy
absorption capacity is positively correlated with the relative density.
Under high loading speed conditions, Fig. 13 shows the relevance
between plateau stress and relative density. The plateau stress is posi­
tively related to the loading speed and the relative density. Plateau
stresses vary greatly under different loading speeds with a fixed relative
density, and the larger the relative density, the more obvious the
Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 13. Plateau stresses of honeycomb structures with various relative den­
sities under different loading speeds.
Fig. 14. The energy absorption capacity of honeycomb structures under
different loading speeds at different relative densities.
Fig. 15. Comparison of stress–strain behavior (a) and energy absorption capacity (b) with different parameters m at a loading speed of 1 m/s.
11
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
difference. Fig. 14 shows the relevance between specific energy ab­
sorption (SEA) and relative density under different loading speeds. The
higher relative density corresponds to better energy absorption.
Increased relative density corresponds to higher cell wall thickness and
greater strength, enhancing resistance to compression-induced defor­
mation and consequently leading to greater energy absorption. The
energy absorption capacity correlates positively with the relative den­
sity and loading speed, which reflects a similar trend as the plateau
stress.
3.4.3. Comparison of different parameters m
3.4.3.1. Quasi-static loading conditions. To illustrate the effect of
parameter m on energy absorption capacity, the stress–strain curves and
energy absorption curves of BSHs with different parameters m are
investigated under quasi-static loading. For better clarity, Fig. 15(a)
exclusively exhibits the stress–strain curves for structures with m = 1, 3
and 5. The stress–strain curves show that the honeycomb structure with
m = 3 exhibits notably higher plateau stress compared to the structures
with m = 1 and 5, which indicates that the structure with m = 3 has
better load-bearing performance and energy absorption capacity.
The energy absorption curves in Fig. 15(b) provide a good illustra­
tion of the energy absorption capacities with different parameters m. It
can be observed from Fig. 15(b) that parameter m has a clear influence
on energy absorption capacity. The honeycomb structure with m = 3
shows the best energy absorption capacity, while the structures with m
= 1 and 5 have a lower energy absorption capacity. Concerning the
structures with m = 2 and 4, there is little difference in energy absorp­
tion capacity during the initial stage, whereas there exists a certain
difference in the later stage.
Energy absorption is related to plateau stress and densification
strain. The densification strain is insensitive to m for the bionic honey­
comb structure. The introduction of the inclined cell wall in the bionic
honeycomb structure promotes early densification compared to the RH
and the square honeycomb structure. After reaching the densification
Table 4
The energy absorption capacity for honeycomb structures with different pa­
rameters m at a loading speed of 1 m/s.
m SEA (kJ/kg) Increase compared with m = 5
1 2.736 6.3 %
2 3.022 17.4 %
3 3.469 34.8 %
4 3.282 27.5 %
5 2.576 —
Y. Wang et al. Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201

stage, the stresses become very high, which can cause damage to the
protected object. The impact energy is mainly absorbed within the
plateau stage. The energy absorption of different structures with the
same relative density of 12.5 % at densification strain is shown in
Table 4. The structures with a greater energy absorption capacity (m =
1, 2, 3 and 4) are compared against the structure with the weakest en­
ergy absorption capacity (m = 5). The energy absorption capacities of
the structures with m = 1, 2, 3 and 4 increase by 6.3 %, 17.4 %, 34.8 %
and 27.5 %, respectively, compared to the structure with m = 5.
To further investigate the sensitivity of compression properties to
parameter m under quasi-static loading conditions, the effects of
parameter m on plateau stress and energy absorption capacity with
different relative densities are shown in Fig. 16. The results indicate that
plateau stress increases with the increase of relative density. With the
same relative density, plateau stress first increases and then decreases
during the increase of m from 1 to 5, and it reaches its maximum value at
m = 3. The overall shape is a convex arch, which is consistent with the
results mentioned previously.
Fig. 17 shows the energy absorption capacities of BSHs with different
Fig. 16. The effect of parameter m on plateau stress at different relative den­
sities (ρ*) under a loading speed of 1 m/s.
parameters m at different relative densities. Evidently, the energy ab­
sorption capacity rises with increasing relative density. With the same
relative density, the energy absorption capacity initially strengthens and
then weakens during the transition from m = 1 to 5, reaching its peak at
m = 3. This is consistent with the regularity of plateau stress displayed.

3.4.3.2. High-speed loading conditions. The compression performance

Fig. 17. The effect of parameter m on SEA at different relative densities under a
loading speed of 1 m/s.
and energy absorption capacity of BSHs with different parameters m
under high loading speed conditions are also investigated in Fig. 18.
Under quasi-static loading, the structure with m = 3 has the highest
plateau stress. As the loading speed rises, the oscillations in the plateau
stage become more pronounced, and the difference in the plateau
stresses is not apparent. Under a high loading speed (v = 150 m/s), the
inertial effect plays a dominant role, and the deformation is collapsed
layer by layer. According to Fig. 18(a), under high-speed loading, the
bionic structure with m = 3 has minimal stress fluctuations at the
plateau stage, while they fluctuate drastically in the structures with m =
1 and 5. The collapse of each layer corresponds to each peak within the
plateau stage. The compression process is amplified in the propagation
of the I-shaped deformation mode, and the units involved in the defor­
mation correspond to the corresponding fluctuations. All fully collapsed
unit structures propagate layer by layer in the form of ripples and move
towards the fixed end together with the wavefront.
Under a high loading speed, the deformation zone appears first in the
upper part. When the inclined cell wall and vertical cell wall are bent to
a certain level, the dynamic stress reaches the maximum value, and the
first peak appears in the plateau stage. When the upper half of the cells

Fig. 18. Comparison of stress–strain behavior (a) and energy absorption capacity (b) with different parameters m at 150 m/s.

12
Y. Wang et al. Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201

Table 5
The energy absorption capacity for honeycomb structures with different pa­
rameters m at a loading speed of 150 m/s.
m SEA (kJ/kg) Increase compared with m = 1

1 26.384 —
2 27.133 2.8 %
3 27.937 5.9 %
4 28.579 8.3 %
5 28.844 9.3 %

Fig. 20. The effect of parameter m on energy absorption capacity at different

relative densities under a loading speed of 150 m/s.

Fig. 19. The effect of parameter m on plateau stress at different relative den­
sities (ρ*) under a loading speed of 150 m/s.

are compacted because of the inertial effect, the stress decreases with the
continuous compression of the compacted area. The dynamic stress
reaches a valley value before the lower half of the unit starts to deform.
The deformation mode of the lower half of the unit is consistent with
that of the upper half and can be regarded as a replica of its deformation
mode. Therefore, each unit corresponds to two peak stresses in the
collapse process.
The deformation mechanisms of honeycomb structures with
different parameters m under dynamic loading conditions are the same,
so they exhibit the same fluctuation characteristics with the same peak
position. Different parameters m result in different positions of the
plastic hinge and different degrees of cell wall deformation, which may
account for the different amplitudes of fluctuations. Although the fluc­
tuation amplitudes of honeycomb structures with different parameters m
are not consistent, the mean value is almost the same, so the difference
in plateau stress is small. It should also be pointed out that there is little
difference in the initial stress peak of structures with different parame­
ters m.
Fig. 18(b) shows the effect of parameter m on energy absorption
capacity at v = 150 m/s. It can be observed that the influence of
parameter m on energy absorption capacity is weakened due to strong
inertia. The energy absorption curves of structures with different pa­
rameters m almost coincide in the early stage of compression, and there
is a slight difference in the later stage. The BSH with m = 5 shows the
best energy absorption capacity, while the BSH with m = 1 exhibits the
lowest energy absorption capacity.
Table 5 displays the energy absorption of various BSHs at a consis­
tent relative density of 12.5 % at densification strain. Comparisons are
made between the structure exhibiting greater energy absorption ca­
pacity (m = 2, 3, 4, and 5) and the structure demonstrating the least
energy absorption capacity (m = 1). The energy absorption capacity of
the structures with m = 2, 3, 4 and 5 increases by 2.8 %, 5.9 %, 8.3 % and
9.3 %, respectively, compared to the structure with m = 1. A small
Fig. 21. The plateau stresses of structures with different m at different
loading speeds.
difference in the increase can be observed.
To further verify this variation, the effect of parameter m on the
plateau stresses and energy absorption capacities of honeycomb struc­
tures with different relative densities is investigated. Fig. 19. shows that
plateau stress gradually increases as parameter m increases from 1 to 5,
and it reaches its maximum value at parameter m = 5. The difference is
small, which is consistent with the previous results. Fig. 20 shows the
energy absorption of honeycomb structures with different parameters m
at varying relative densities under dynamic loading. The findings indi­
cate that energy absorption increases with thicker cell walls. However,
compared to quasi-static loading, the impact of increased relative den­
sity on energy absorption capacity weakens as loading speed increases
due to the dominant role of inertial effects. At the same relative density,
the energy absorption capacity gradually strengthens as parameter m
increases from 1 to 5. Therefore, the energy absorption capacity is not
solely influenced by the topological structure but is also related to the
cell wall thickness and loading speed.
However, the inertial effect plays a dominant role as the loading
speed increases. Different parameters m correspond to different unit
structures, but these unit structures all have the same characteristics of
cell walls (i.e., the number and quality of unit walls at horizontal,

13
Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 22. The energy absorption capacities of structures with different m at
different loading speeds.
vertical and inclined angles of 45◦ were consistent). For the layer-by-
layer crushing failure mode, the strong inertial effect far exceeds the
yield stress effect caused by different m, and the compressed unit walls
are uniform per unit distance. This may be the reason why parameter m
has a slight effect on energy absorption capacity under dynamic loading
conditions.
To systematically illustrate the effects of parameter m and loading
speed on the compression performance and to further verify the
dependence between parameter m and loading speed, the plateau stress
and energy absorption capacity of honeycomb structures with different
parameters m under different loading speeds with a fixed relative den­
sity of 12.5 % are explored. As shown in Fig. 21, under low and medium
loading speed conditions (v < 50 m/s), the influence of parameter m on
plateau stress is consistent with the quasi-static loading. The structure
with m = 3 has the highest plateau stress and the trend exhibits a convex
arch shape. As the loading speed rises, this difference disappears because
of the strengthening of the inertial effect. The structural difference is
obscured by the strong inertial effect. There is a slight increase in the
plateau stress with an increasing parameter m.
Fig. 22 shows the energy absorption capacity of BSHs with different
parameters m at different loading speeds. This is consistent with the
regularity of plateau stresses exhibited. The structure with m = 3 has the
best energy absorption capacity when the loading speed is below 50 m/
s. There is a small increase in energy absorption capacity with an
increasing m when the loading speed is above 75 m/s.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, a bionic glass sponge–inspired honeycomb structure
(BSH) with a quadrilateral octagonal mesh microstructure was estab­
lished. The in-plane loading performance and energy absorption
behavior are discussed.
Compared to other types of honeycomb structures, BSH shows the
best energy absorption capacity. The quasi-static mode, transition mode,
and dynamic mode were observed. Different unit walls with different
properties involved in deformation resulted in varying deformation
modes, which led to significant differences in energy absorption ca­
pacities. The formula was developed to predict the plateau stress relying
on one-dimensional shock wave theory.
The impact of parameter m on compression performance was also
illustrated, specifically on the plateau stress and energy absorption ca­
pacity. Under quasi-static compression, the optimal value of m was
found to be 3. Relative to the structure with minimum energy absorption
14
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
capacity (m = 5), the energy absorption capacities increased by 6.3 %
(m = 1), 17.4 % (m = 2), 34.8 % (m = 3), and 27.5 % (m = 4), corre­
spondingly. However, under dynamic loading conditions, the influence
of parameter m was weakened, with the optimal value of m shifting to 5.
The energy absorption capacities increased by 2.8 % (m = 2), 5.9 % (m
= 3), 8.3 % (m = 4) and 9.3 % (m = 5) compared to the structure with
minimal energy absorption capacity (m = 1). The results demonstrate
that parameter m significantly influences the energy absorption capacity
of BSH, along with the wall thickness and loading speed. The outcomes
of this research offer valuable insights for enhancing the energy ab­
sorption capacity of BSH.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yuyang Wang: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Data curation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration,
Resources. Guoxing Lu: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project
administration, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Ngoc San Ha:
Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision,
Writing – review & editing. Li Wang: Writing – review & editing,
Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Australian Research Council for financial
support through Discovery Grants (DP210103323 and DE220101094).
References
[1] Chen Y, Li T, Jia Z, Scarpa F, Yao CW, Wang L. 3D printed hierarchical honeycombs
with shape integrity under large compressive deformations. Mater Des 2018;137:
226–34.
[2] Limmahakhun S, Oloyede A, Sitthiseripratip K, Xiao Y, Yan C. 3D-printed cellular
structures for bone biomimetic implants. Addit Manuf 2017;15:93–101.
[3] Haghpanah B, Oftadeh R, Papadopoulos J, Vaziri A. Self-similar hierarchical
honeycombs. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and
Engineering Sciences 2013;469(2156):20130022.
[4] Oftadeh R, Haghpanah B, Papadopoulos J, Hamouda AMS, Nayeb-Hashemi H,
Vaziri A. Mechanics of anisotropic hierarchical honeycombs. Int J Mech Sci 2014;
81:126–36.
[5] Liang H, Wang Q, Pu Y, Zhao Y, Ma F. In-plane compressive behavior of a novel
self-similar hierarchical honeycomb with design-oriented crashworthiness. Int J
Mech Sci 2021;209:106723.
[6] Ajdari A, Canavan P, Nayeb-Hashemi H, Warner G. Mechanical properties of
functionally graded 2-D cellular structures: A finite element simulation. Mater Sci
Eng A 2009;499(1–2):434–9.
[7] Wang Y, Lu G, Ha NS, Wang L. In-plane compression of graded hierarchical
honeycombs. Adv Struct Eng 2022;13694332221086701.
[8] Wang Y, Zhang J, Lu G, Ha NS, Xiang X, Wang L. In-plane crushing behaviour of
hierarchical honeycombs: finite element simulation and analytical modelling. Acta
Mech Sin 2023;39:423067.
[9] Liu H, Zhang ET, Wang G, Ng BF. In-plane crushing behavior and energy
absorption of a novel graded honeycomb from hierarchical architecture. Int J Mech
Sci 2022;221:107202.
[10] Ha NS, Pham MT, Tran TT, Hao H, Lu G. Mechanical properties and energy
absorption of bio-inspired hierarchical circular honeycomb. Compos B Eng 2022;
236:109818.
[11] Li S, Li X, Wang Z, Wu G, Lu G, Zhao L. Finite element analysis of sandwich panels
with stepwise graded aluminum honeycomb cores under blast loading. Compos A
Appl Sci Manuf 2016;80:1–12.
[12] Shen CJ, Yu TX, Lu G. Double shock mode in graded cellular rod under impact. Int
J Solids Struct 2013;50(1):217–33.
Y. Wang et al.
[13] Zhang J, Lu G, Ruan D, Huang X. Experimental observations of the double shock
deformation mode in density graded honeycombs. Int J Impact Eng 2019;134:
103386.
[14] Ha NS, Lu G. A review of recent research on bio-inspired structures and materials
for energy absorption applications. Compos B Eng 2020;181:107496.
[15] Zhou J, Ng BF, Han N, Xu S, Zou M. Crashworthiness and optimization of bionic
sandwich cores under out-of-plane compression. Int J Mech Sci 2023;246:108137.
[16] Ha NS, Lee TU, Ma J, Li J, Xie YM. Energy absorption of a bio-inspired cylindrical
sandwich structure. Thin-Walled Struct 2024;195:111378.
[17] Xiang X, Shao D, Pang T, Ngo TT, Ha NS, Zhang S. Energy absorption of multilayer
aluminum foam-filled structures under lateral compression loading. Mech Adv
Mater Struct 2022:1–17.
[18] Tung CC, Chen YS, Chen WF, Chen PY. Bio-inspired, helically oriented tubular
structures with tunable deformability and energy absorption performance under
compression. Mater Des 2022;222:111076.
[19] Yu S, Liu Z, Cao X, Liu J, Huang W, Wang Y. The compressive responses and failure
behaviors of composite graded auxetic re-entrant honeycomb structure. Thin-
Walled Struct 2023;187:110721.
[20] Ha NS, Lu G, Xiang X. Energy absorption of a bio-inspired honeycomb sandwich
panel. J Mater Sci 2019;54(8):6286–300.
[21] Ha NS, Lu G, Xiang X. High energy absorption efficiency of thin-walled conical
corrugation tubes mimicking coconut tree configuration. Int J Mech Sci 2018;148:
409–21.
[22] Zhang XC, An CC, Shen ZF, Wu HX, Yang WG, Bai JP. Dynamic crushing responses
of bio-inspired re-entrant auxetic honeycombs under in-plane impact loading.
Mater Today Commun 2020;23:100918.
[23] Song JF, Xu SC, Wang HX, Wu XQ, Zou M. Bionic design and multi-objective
optimization for variable wall thickness tube inspired bamboo structures. Thin-
Walled Struct 2018;125:76–88.
[24] Aizenberg J, Sundar VC, Yablon AD, Weaver JC, Chen G. Biological glass fibers:
correlation between optical and structural properties. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2004;101
(10):3358–63.
[25] Monn MA, Weaver JC, Zhang T, Aizenberg J, Kesari H. New functional insights into
the internal architecture of the laminated anchor spicules of Euplectella
aspergillum. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2015;112(16):4976–81.
[26] Drozdov AL, Karpenko AA. Structural Arrangement and Properties of Spicules in
Glass Sponges. ISRN Mater Sci 2011;2011:1–8.
[27] Weaver JC, Aizenberg J, Fantner GE, Kisailus D, Woesz A, Allen P, et al.
Hierarchical assembly of the siliceous skeletal lattice of the hexactinellid sponge
Euplectella aspergillum. J Struct Biol 2007;158(1):93–106.
[28] Bacheva D, Elsayed MSA, Trask RS. The skeleton of Euplectella aspergillum as
foundation for the development of novel composite aerospace structures. ICCM
International Conferences on Composite Materials 2011.
15
Composite Structures 341 (2024) 118201
[29] Chen PY, McKittrick J, Meyers MA. Biological materials: functional adaptations
and bioinspired designs. Prog Mater Sci 2012;57(8):1492–704.
[30] Sven B, Farid D, Lian D, Jason M. Bio-inspired design to support reduced energy
consumption via the ’light weighting’ of machine system elements. International
Journal of Modeling and Optimization 2015;5(1):82–9.
[31] Li L, Guo C, Chen Y, Chen Y. Optimization design of lightweight structure inspired
by glass sponges (Porifera, Hexacinellida) and its mechanical properties. Bioinspir
Biomim 2020;15(3):036006.
[32] Sharma D, Hiremath SS. Bio-inspired repeatable lattice structures for energy
absorption: Experimental and finite element study. Compos Struct 2022;283:
115102.
[33] Sun BH, Li QW. Numerical analysis of low-speed impact response of sandwich
panels with bio-inspired diagonal-enhanced square honeycomb core. Int J Impact
Eng 2023;173:104430.
[34] Li Y, Hu D, Yang Z. Crashworthiness design of a sponge-inspired multicell tube
under axial crushing. Int J Mech Sci 2023;244:108070.
[35] Hu LL, Yu TX. Mechanical behaviour of hexagonal honeycombs under low-velocity
impact–theory and simulations. Int J Solids Struct 2013;50(20–21):3152–65.
[36] Hu L, You F, Yu T. Effect of cell-wall angle on the in-plane crushing behaviour of
hexagonal honeycombs. Materials & Design (1980-2015), 2013, 46: 511-523.
[37] Zou Z, Reid SR, Tan PJ, Li S, Harrigan JJ. Dynamic crushing of honeycombs and
features of shock fronts. Int J Impact Eng 2009;36(1):165–76.
[38] Ivanez I, Fernandez-Cañadas LM, Sanchez-Saez S. Compressive deformation and
energy-absorption capability of aluminium honeycomb core. Compos Struct 2017;
174:123.
[39] Hu LL, Yu TX. Dynamic crushing strength of hexagonal honeycombs. Int J Impact
Eng 2010;37(5):467–74.
[40] Qiu XM, Zhang J, Yu TX. Collapse of periodic planar lattices under uniaxial
compression, part II: dynamic crushing based on finite element simulation. Int J
Impact Eng 2009;36(10–11):1231–41.
[41] Reid SR, Peng C. Dynamic uniaxial crushing of wood. Int J Impact Eng 1997;19
(5–6):531–70.
[42] Tan PJ, Harrigan JJ, Reid SR. Inertia effects in uniaxial dynamic compression of a
closed cell aluminium alloy foam. Mater Sci Technol 2002;18(5):480–8.
[43] Ruan D, Lu G, Wang B, Yu XT. In-plane dynamic crushing of honeycombs-a finite
element study. Int J Impact Eng 2003;28(2):161–82.
[44] Yang X, Xi X, Pan Q, Liu H. In-plane dynamic crushing of a novel circular-celled
honeycomb nested with petal-shaped mesostructure. Compos Struct 2019;226:
111219.
[45] Yang Y, Liu H, Zhang Q, Ma J, Yang X, Yang J. Energy absorption characteristics of
a super hexagonal honeycomb under out-of-plane crushing. Thin-Walled Struct
2023;189:110914.