Lecture-04

Mechanics of metal cutting (Turning)

* References:
Sections 21.2 and 21.3, chapter 21 in textbook, and 1
Chapter 3 in The selection of Manufacturing Engineering Processes. Prof. Saied Darwish, Industrial Engineering Department, King Saud University.
MECHANICS OF METAL
CUTTING (Turning)
(feed
force)

Radial
force

Tool feed Main

direction Cutting
force

2
Topics to be covered
❑ Tool terminologies and geometry
❑ Orthogonal Vs Oblique cutting
❑ Turning Forces
❑ Velocity diagram
❑ Merchants Circle
❑ Power & Energies

3
Need for calculating forces, velocities and angles during
machining??
• We need to determine the cutting forces in turning for
Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables
selection of the power source (e.g. motors) during design of the
machine tools.
• Structural design of the machine – fixture – tool system.
• Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters (tool
material and geometry) on cutting forces to make machining
process more efficient and economical.
• Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.

4
 Heat Generation Zones
30% (Dependent on m)

(Dependent on f) 60%

Chip
Tool

Workpiece

10%
(Dependent on sharpness
of tool)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms
5
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUrp8JMRwx4
• Chip formation:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uwh3ouvzSLk

• Rake angle effect:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GghdbT0CyvI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6QZ98Klssr4

• Material properties and Cutting shear:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTUWXce8-fk

6
Tool Terminology

Schematic illustration of a right-

hand cutting tool. The various
angles on these tools and their
effects on machining are described
in Section 23.2. Although these tools
traditionally have been produced
from solid-tool steel bars, they have
been replaced largely with inserts.

7
Source: Figure 21.10, Ch21, Textbook
 Cutting Geometry

Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process, also

called orthogonal cutting
8
Source: Figure 21.3, Ch21, Textbook
Metal Cutting is the process of removing unwanted material from the workpiece
in the form of chips

➢ Cutting Edge is normal to tool feed. ➢ Cutting Edge is inclined at an acute

➢ Here only two force components are
considered i.e. cutting force and thrust
force. Hence known as two dimensional
cutting.
➢ Shear force acts on smaller area.
angle to tool feed.
➢ Here three force components are
considered i.e. cutting force, radial force
and thrust force. Hence known as three
dimensional cutting.
➢ Shear force acts on larger area. 9
 Assumptions
(Orthogonal Cutting Model)

❑ The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular

to the direction of motion, and it generates a plane surface
as the work moves past it.
❑ The tool is perfectly sharp (no contact along the clearance
face).
❑ The shearing surface is a plane extending upward from
the cutting edge.
❑ The chip does not flow to either side
❑ The depth of cut/chip thickness is constant uniform
relative to velocity between work and tool
❑ Continuous chip, no built-up-edge (BUE)
10
TERMINOLOGY

Approximation of turning by the orthogonal model: (a) turning;

and (b) the corresponding orthogonal cutting.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIOflkXwe9s&feature=youtu.be 11
TERMINOLOGY

Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process,

also called orthogonal cutting

12
Source: Figure 21.3, Ch21, Textbook
 Forces For Orthogonal Model

Velocity of F C Tangential Force

P s
Tool relative to 'Cutting' Force
DIRECTION OF ROTATION workpiece V

WORKPIECE
PFr r Radial Force
‘Thrust’ Force
Feed force or
PFtLThrust force or
Longitudinal Force

Tool feed CUTTING TOOL

direction
DIRECTION OF FEED

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the Longitudinal
component 13
➢ α : Rake angle ➢F: Frictional Force
➢ b : Frictional angle ➢ N: Normal Frictional Force
➢ ϕ : Shear angle ➢ V: Cutting velocity
➢Ps: Cutting Force (Fc) ➢Vc: Chip velocity
➢Pt : Thrust Force (Ft) ➢Vs: Shear velocity
➢Fs: Shear Force
➢ Fn: Normal Shear Force

14
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
(Simple 2D mechanistic model)
Chip thickness tc
Velocity V
Rake
Angle
- +
Chip tool
Tool
a
depth of cut
t0

Shear Angle Clearance Angle

f

Workpiece

Mechanism: Chips produced by the shearing process along the shear plane

15
 Cutting Ratio
(or chip thickness ratio)
Chip

tool
(f−a) a
B
tc
to f
A
Workpiece

to tc
As Sinf = and Cos(f-a) =
AB AB
t0 sinf
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos(f−a) 16
 Experimental Determination of
Cutting Ratio

Lc Shear angle f may be obtained

wc tc either from photo-micrographs
or assume volume continuity
t0 (no chip density change):
L0
w0

Since t 0w 0L 0 = t cw cL c and w 0=w c (exp. evidence)

Cutting ratio , r = t0 = Lc
tc L0
17
 Shear Plane Length
and Angle f
Chip

tool
(f−a)
B
tc
to f
A
Workpiece

t0
Shear plane length AB =
sinf
-1 rcosa
Shear pl ane angle (f) = Tan
1-rsi na
or make an assumption, such as f adjusts to minimize
0
cutting force: f = 45 + a/2 - b/2 (Merchant) 18
Shear Velocity
Vc = Chip Velocity
(Chip relative to tool)
Velocities
(Chip relative (2D Orthogonal
to workpiece) V
s V = Cutting Velocity Model)
Chip
(Tool relative to
Tool
workpiece)

Workpiece
Velocity Diagram
Vc
Vs
a
From mass continuity: Vt o = V ct c
sinf f−a
V c = Vr and V c = V
cos(f−a)
90 − f f
From the Velocity diagram:
V
cosa
Vs = V
cos(f−a) 19
Cutting Forces (Section 21.3)
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
Chip Tool

R
F
f Fs
Fn N

R
Ps
Workpiece Pt R

Dynamometer

Free Body Diagram 20

 Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
❖ Fs , Resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip. It
acts along the shear plane.

❖ Fn , ‘Backing up’ force on the chip provided by the

workpiece. Acts normal to the shear plane.

❖ F, It is the frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip.

It acts downward against the motion of the chip as it glides
upwards along the tool face.
❖N, It is at the tool chip interface normal to the cutting face of
the tool and is provided by the tool.

21
 Fs
Fn α
Ps ϕ V
β-α
Pt ϕ
R α
β F

Knowing Ps , Pt , α and ϕ, all other component forces can be calculated.

22
 Force Circle Diagram on cutting interface
(Merchants Circle)

(a) Forces acting in the cutting zone during two- (b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the
dimensional cutting. cutting zone.
23
Source: Figure 21.11, Ch21, Textbook
Cutting Forces
• Forces considered in orthogonal cutting include
• Cutting, friction (tool face), and shear forces
• Cutting force,Ps (or Fc) acts in the direction of the
cutting speed V, and supplies the energy required for
cutting
• Ratio of Ps to cross-sectional area being cut (i.e. product of
width and depth of cut, t0) is called: specific cutting force
• Thrust force,Pt (or Ft) acts in a direction normal to the
cutting force
• These two forces produces the resultant force, R
• On tool face, resultant force can be resolved into:
• Friction force, F along the tool-chip interface
• Normal force, N to ⊥ to friction force
24
Cutting Forces
• It can also be shown that (b is friction angle)
F = R sin b  N = R cos b

• From Merchant's Circle

𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝐹 = 𝑃𝑠 sin 𝛼 + 𝑃𝑡 cos 𝛼
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑁 = 𝑃𝑠 cos 𝛼 − 𝑃𝑡 sin 𝛼

• The magnitude of coefficient of friction, m is

𝐹 𝑃𝑡 + 𝑃𝑠 tan 𝛼
µ= =
𝑁 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑡 tan 𝛼

• µ = 𝐹 Τ𝑁 and µ = tan 𝛽 (typically 0.5 – 2.0)

25
Cutting Forces (continued)

• Resultant force, R is balanced by an equal and opposite

force along the shear plane

• It is resolved into shear force, Fs and normal force, Fn

• Thus,
o Shear Force 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑃𝑠 cos 𝜙 − 𝑃𝑡 sin 𝜙

o Normal Force 𝐹𝑛 = 𝑃𝑠 sin 𝜙 + 𝑃𝑡 cos 𝜙

26
Forces from Merchant's Circle (Summary)

• Friction Force ………………………… 𝑭 = 𝑷𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 + 𝑷𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶

• Normal Force ………………………… 𝑵 = 𝑷𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 − 𝑷𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶

• Shear Force …………………………… 𝑭𝒔 = 𝑷𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓 − 𝑷𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓

• Force Normal to Shear Plane … 𝑭𝒏 = 𝑷𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓 + 𝑷𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓

• Resultant Force ..… 𝑹 = 𝑷𝟐𝒔 + 𝑷𝟐𝒕 = 𝑭𝟐𝒔 + 𝑭𝟐𝒏 = 𝑭 𝟐 + 𝑵𝟐

27
 Stresses
On the Shear plane:
Fn Fnsinf
Normal Stress = s = Normal Force / Area = =
AB w tow
Fs Fssinf
Shear Stress = s = Shear Force / Area = =
AB w tow

On the tool rake face:

N
 = Normal Force / Area = (often assume tc = contact length)
tc w
F
 = Shear Force / Area =
tc w
28
 Power
•Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of force and
velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = P FscV
•Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake face:

Power for Shearing Psh = FsVs

Friction Power Pf = FVc
•Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine efficiency
E (usually given in %):
Pc
Motor Power Required = x 100
E
29
 Material Removal Rate (MRR)
Volume Removed
Material Removal Rate (MRR) =
Time
Volume Removed = Lwto

Time to move a distance L = L/V

T

Lwto
Therefore, MRR = = Vwto = Cutting speed x depth of cut x feed rate
L/V
T

30
 Specific Cutting Energy
(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:

Energy Energy per unit time

Ut = =
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc) FscV

P FP
Ut = = = sc
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto

Ut = Us + Uf +Uc +Um

FsVs
Specific Energy for shearing Us =
Vwto

FVc Fr F
Specific Energy for friction Uf = = = =
Vwto wto wtc 31
Cutting Forces and Power measurement
Measuring Cutting Forces and Power
• Cutting forces can be measured using a force
transducer, a dynamometer or a load cell mounted
on the cutting-tool holder

• It is also possible to calculate the cutting force from the

power consumption during cutting (provided
mechanical efficiency of the tool can be determined)

• The specific energy (u) in cutting can be used to

calculate cutting forces

32
Cutting Forces and Power
Approximate Range of Energy Requirements in Cutting Operations at
the Drive Motor of the Machine Tool, Corrected for 80% Efficiency (for
Power dull tools, multiply by 1.25).

 Prediction of forces is
based largely on
experimental data (right)
 Wide ranges of values is
due to differences in
material strengths
 Sharpness of the tool tip
also influences forces and
power
 Duller tools require higher
forces and power
33
Source: Table 21.2, Ch21, Textbook