PSY 112 (INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY)

BY

R. A. ADU, PhD

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, Osun State UNIVERSITY

 COURSE OUTLINE
Introduction to the Study of Psychology
Understanding Psychology
Origin of Psychology (Structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, behaviourism)
Psychology as a science; a) Definition of science, b) Characteristics of scientific findings, c) Understanding hypothesis
Branches/Areas of specialization in psychology
Research methods in psychology
Ethics in psychological research
Motivation and emotion
Human memory
Learning
Defence mechanism/personality
Brain
Revision
 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychologists are people who have been trained to (practice

psychology) observe, analyze and evaluate behavior. Psychology is so
broad in scope. Psychologists study many aspects of behaviour and
mental processes, including those of humans and animals. Through
psychology we learn why some people procrastinate and others do not.
Psychology also concerns itself with issues such as, why people forget
or remember; why people behave differently in similar situation; why
employees engage in counter productive work behaviour; why some
people conform and others do not.
 INTRODUCTION CONT’D
The kind of psychologist known to most people is clinical
psychologists; those who try to help depressed, worried or other
troubled people. This is just an aspect of psychology. Many of you
might think a psychology course of this nature will enable him/her to
analyze people, discover the hidden aspects of the personality and even
control them. It will not. Of course, you will learn to understand
certain aspects of behaviour but you will not gain super powers. After
this course, you will become skeptical of those who claim to
understand people’s personality from small samples of their behaviour.
 INTRODUCTION CONT’D
Psychology is both a science and a profession. Some psychologists are scientists who do

research to create new knowledge. Others are teachers who pass knowledge on to

students. Still others apply psychology to solve problems in mental health, education,

business, sports, law, and medicine (Halpern, 2003).

 UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology has been variously defined by scholars of various schools of thoughts. Better put,
the varieties observe in the definitions of psychology is a reflection of different schools of
thoughts that exist in the discipline. Etymologically, the word psychology is derived from two
Greet words; “psyche” which means mind or soul, and “logos” meaning to study or read.
Based on this, psychology was first defined as the study of mind or soul. The definition of
psychology has changed as the focus of psychology has changed. At various times in history,
psychology has been defined as the study of the psyche or the mind, of the spirit, of
consciousness, and more recently as the study of, or the science of behavior. Perhaps, then, we
can arrive at an acceptable definition of modern psychology by observing the activities of
contemporary psychologists:
 UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
• Some seek the biological correlates of mental events such as sensation, perception, or ideation.
• Some concentrate on understanding the principles that govern learning and memory.
• Some seek to understand humans by studying nonhuman animals.
• Some study unconscious motivation.
• Some seek to improve industrial-organizational productivity, educational practices, or child-rearing
practices by utilizing psychological principles.
• Some attempt to explain human behavior in terms of evolutionary theory.
• Some attempt to account for individual differences among people in such areas as personality,
intelligence, and creativity.
• Some are primarily interested in perfecting therapeutic
tools that can be used to help individuals with mental disturbances.
• Some focus on the strategies that people use in adjusting to the environment or in problem solving.
• Some study how language develops and how, once developed, it relates to a variety of cultural
activities.
• Some explore computer programs as models for understanding human thought processes
• Still others study how humans change over the course of their lives as a function of maturation and
experience.
 UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
These are just but a few activities the contemporary psychologists engage themselves in.

However, because the mind can’t be studied directly, psychology is now defined as the
scientific study of behavior and mental processes. What does behaviour refer to in the
definition of psychology? Anything you do—eating, sleeping, talking, or sneezing—is a
behavior. So are dreaming, gambling, watching television, basket weaving, and many more.
Naturally, we are interested in overt behaviours (observable actions and responses). But
psychologists also study covert behaviours. These are hidden, internal events, such as thinking
and remembering (Leary, 2004).
 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

To describe behaviour: The first goal for any scientist or psychologist is to describe or gather
information about the behavior being studied and to present what is known. For example, we
described Steve’s behavior at college.

To explain behaviour: Psychologists are not content simply to state the facts. Rather, they
also seek to explain why people (or animals) behave as they do.
 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

To predict behaviour: The third goal of psychologists is to predict behaviour, as a result of

accumulated knowledge, what organisms will do and, in the case of humans, what they will
think or feel in various situations. By studying descriptive and theoretical accounts of past
behaviors, psychologists can predict future behaviour.

To influence behaviour: Finally, some psychologists seek to influence behavior in helpful

ways. These psychologists are conducting studies with a long-term goal of finding out more
about human or animal behavior.
 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology has come a long way since the days of studying bumps on skulls. In the fifth and
sixth centuries B.C., the Greeks began to study human behavior and decided that people’s
lives were dominated not so much by the gods as by their own minds: people were rational.
These early philosophers attempted to interpret the world they observed around them in terms
of human perceptions—objects were hot or cold, wet or dry, hard or soft—and these qualities
influenced people’s experience of them. Although the Greek philosophers did not rely on
systematic study, they did set the stage for the development of the sciences, including
psychology, through their reliance on observation as a means of knowing their world.
 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Seventeenth-century philosophers popularized the idea of dualism, the concept that the mind
and body are separate and distinct. The French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650)
disagreed, however, proposing that a link existed between mind and body. He reasoned that
the mind controlled the body’s movements, sensations, and perceptions. His approach to
understanding human behavior was based on the assumption that the mind and body influence
each other to create a person’s experiences. Exactly how this interaction takes place is still
being studied today.
 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
The science of psychology began in 1879 at Leipzig, Germany where Wundt established the
first psychology laboratory. There, the “father of psychology,” Wilhelm Wundt set up the
laboratory to study conscious experience. How, he wondered, do we form sensations, images,
and feelings? To find out, Wundt observed and measured stimuli of various kinds (lights,
sounds, weights). A stimulus is any physical energy that evokes a sensory response (stimulus:
singular; stimuli: plural). Wundt then used introspection, or “looking inward,” to probe his
reactions to various stimuli. (If you stop reading right now and carefully examine your
thoughts, feelings, and sensations, you will have done some introspecting).
 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Wundt called his approach experimental self-observation because he used both trained
introspection and objective measurement (Lieberman, 1979). There were many limitations to
Wundt’s methods. Nevertheless, he got psychology off to a good start by insisting on careful
observation and measurement.
 PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY
Many of the psychological issues that are of great concern to psychologists today could be
traced back to ancient Greece philosophers simply because psychology as a discipline
emanated from philosophy. Though, psychology has moved away from philosophy in its
methods of enquiry, it continues to be motivated by some of the same issues that were of
interest to the philosophers. The most profound three of such issues are; free will versus
determinism, mind-body/mind-brain question, and the nature-nurture issue.
 PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Free will versus determinism
Some psychologists believe that the most important causes of behaviour are self-generated.
For this group, behaviour is freely chosen and thus independent of physical or psychical
causes. This belief is called free will. The belief that everything that happens in the observable
world has a cause or determinant is referred to as determinism. Scientists act on the basis of
determinism. Some psychologists maintain that free will is an illusion (Wegner, 2002): what
you call a conscious intention is more a prediction than a cause of your behaviour. Other
psychologists and philosophers opine that we do make decisions in the sense that something
within them initiated the action. Nevertheless, human behaviour still follows laws of cause and
effect.
 PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
The mind-body/mind-brain question asks how complex mental activities, such as feeling,
thinking, and learning, can be explained by the physical, chemical, and electrical activities of
the brain.

Through the years, philosophers and scientists have given different answers to the mind-body
question, some believing the mind and brain are separate things and others saying the mind
and brain are one and the same (Hergenhahn, 2009). The belief that the mind is separate from
the brain but somehow controls the brain and therefore the rest of the body is known as
dualism. The view that mind and brain are same and therefore inseparable from one another is
called monism.
 PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
The nature-nurture issue
The nature-nurture question asks how nature; hereditary or genetic factors interacts with
nurture; environmental factors in the development of a person’s intellectual, emotional,
physical, and social abilities. Some psychologists believe that most of our behaviours are the
result of genetics or inheritance. Others believe that most of our behaviours are the result of
experience and learning. Separating biological and environmental causes of behaviour is very
complicated. Usually behaviour develops as a result of the interaction of both heredity and
environment.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGH IN PSYCHOLOGY
The quest to resolve all these philosophical issues brought to the discipline psychology by its
founding fathers led to the development of scientific psychology which later developed into
different schools of thought we have in psychology today.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGH IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Structuralism
In 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) started his Laboratory of
Psychology. Because of his efforts to pursue the study of human behaviour in a systematic and
scientific manner, Wundt is generally acknowledged as establishing modern psychology as a
separate, formal field of study. Wundt’s interest was in the study of the human mind. Wundt
emphasized the study of the basic elements primarily sensations and perceptions that make up
conscious mental experiences. Wundt’s ideas were carried to the United States by Edward B.
Titchener (1867-1927). Titchener called Wundt’s ideas structuralism because they dealt with
the structure of mental life. Essentially, the structuralists hoped to analyze experience into
basic “elements” or “building blocks.”
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGH IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Structuralists argued that we can understand how perceptions are formed by breaking them
down into smaller and smaller elements. Then we can analyze how these basic elements are
recombined to form a perception. They believed that a perception is simply the sum of its
parts. The structuralists utilized introspection as method of analyzing mental life. Introspection
is a method of exploring conscious mental processes by asking subjects to look inward and
report their sensations and perceptions. The structuralists’ reliance on introspection got them
into trouble. Despite their training, introspectors often produced conflicting reports. Therefore,
structuralism was criticized for being narrow and subjective. These criticisms resulted in
another new approach, called functionalism.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGH IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Functionalism
William James (1842–1910) taught the first class in psychology at Harvard University in
1875. James is often called the “father of psychology” in the United States. He labored tireless
for 12 years to write the first textbook of psychology, The Principles of Psychology (1890).
James speculated that thinking, feeling, learning, and remembering—all activities of the
mind— serve one major function: to help us survive as a species. Rather than focusing on the
structure of the mind as Wundt and Titchener did, James focused on the functions or actions of
the conscious mind and the goals or purposes of behaviours. Functionalists study how animals
and people adapt to their environments. Although James was not particularly interested in
experimentation, his writings and theories are still influential till today.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGH IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). While the early psychologists
were interested in understanding the conscious mind, Sigmund Freud was more interested in
the unconscious mind. He believed that our conscious experiences are only the tip of the
iceberg, that beneath the surface are primitive biological urges that are in conflict with the
requirements of society and morality.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGH IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
According to Freud, these unconscious motivations and conflicts are responsible for most
human behaviour. He thought that they were responsible for many medically unexplainable
physical symptoms that troubled his patients. Freud used a new method known as free
association to study unconscious processes of the mind. Freud’s view of unconscious
motivation remains a powerful and controversial influence till date. Modern psychologists
may support, alter, or attempt to disprove it, but most have a strong opinion about it.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGH IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Behaviourism
Behaviourism is the attempt to understand behaviour in terms of relationships between
observable stimuli and observable responses. Behaviourists are psychologists who study only
those behaviours that they can observe and measure. Behaviourists are not concerned with
unobservable mental processes. They emphasize actions instead of thoughts.
 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
All scientists, whether they are physicists, chemists, biologists, or psychologists, use empirical
research to study the topics that interest them. The method use to carry out empirical studies is
known as the scientific method. The scientific method is a set of assumptions, rules, and
procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research. Empirical research methods
include collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, reaching conclusions, and sharing
information.
 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE CONT’D
Despite the differences in their interests, areas of study, and approaches, all psychologists have
one thing in common: They rely on the scientific method. Research psychologists use
scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behavior. Practitioners, such
as clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists, primarily use
existing research to help solve problems.
 WHAT IS SCIENCE
Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and
social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence. In other words, science
is defined as an organised and systematic observation of things within our individual
perceptual range, thereby arriving at reliable, proven facts and findings.
 STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION CONT’D
Scientific investigations are systematic and they involve five steps.

• Formulate a testable hypothesis

• Select the research method and design the study
• Collect the data
• Analyze data and draw conclusions
• Report findings
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SCIENCE
To define any field as a science, it generally will cover these key elements;

Objectivity
When conducting any study, researchers must remain unbiased and objective. They cannot let
their own emotions and feelings enter the process. Additionally, while it’s not always possible
to fully remove bias, it is necessary to minimize it as much as possible. That’s a main tenet of
science.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SCIENCE CONT’D
Empirical evidence
Evidence is collected through experiments and observations. Again, this negates the entry of
belief. While data is being collected, the information is diligently recorded so that other
researchers can review the validity and the process.

Control
In order to deduce cause and effect (independent variables and dependent variables), variables
must be controlled.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SCIENCE CONT’D
Hypothesis testing
To start off the process, an observation is made. Then, scientists, academics, and researchers
create their hypothesis, which is a prediction that’s rooted in theory. These hypotheses should
be clearly stated and then tested through unbiased experiments.

Predictability
Based on the findings of research, scientists should technically be able to forecast and predict
the future.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SCIENCE CONT’D
Replication
When scientists develop experiments, they should be able to be replicated to test if the
outcomes are the same given different variables. When the same results occur based on the
same conditions, then that provides credibility and accuracy to the findings, which can give
way to the creation of a scientific theory or discovery.
 UNDERSTANDING HYPOTHESIS
What is hypothesis

Examples of hypthesis
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
❖Null hypothesis (H0)
❖Alternate hypothesis (H1)
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS CONT’D
❖Examples of Null hypothesis (H0)

❖Examples of Alternate hypothesis (H1)

 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS CONT’D
Alternate hypothesis (H1) can be subdivided into:

❖Directional Hypothesis

❖Non-directional Hypthesis
BRANCHES/AREAS OF SPECIALISATION IN PSYCHOLOGY
The subject matter of psychology can be grouped into different branches for the sake of
convenience. First, we divide it into two broad categories, namely;

▪ Pure psychology, and

▪ Applied psychology.
 BRANCHES/AREAS OF SPECIALISATION IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Pure psychology provides the framework and theory. Its deals with the formulation of
psychological principles and theories. It suggests various methods and techniques for the
analysis, assessment, modification and improvement of behavior.
 BRANCHES/AREAS OF SPECIALISATION IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

In applied psychology, the theory generated or discussed through pure psychology finds its
practical shape. Here we discuss ways and means of the applications of psychological rules,
principles, theories and techniques with reference to the real practical life situations.
 BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY

❖General psychology: It is relatively a large area of psychology which deals with the
fundamental rules, principles and theories of psychology in relation to the study of
behavior of normal adult human beings.

❖Abnormal psychology: It is that branch of psychology which describes and explains the
behavior of abnormal people in relation to their own environment. The causes, symptoms
and syndromes, description and treatment of the abnormalities of behavior form the subject
matter of this branch.
 BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

❖Social psychology: This branch of psychology deals with the group behavior and inter-
relationships of people with other people. Group dynamics, likes and dislikes, interests and
attitudes, social distance and prejudices of the people in their personal and social
relationships form the subject matter of this branch.

❖Experimental psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the ways and
means of carrying out psychological experiments following scientific methods in controlled
or laboratory situations for the study of mental processes and behavior. It considers
animals, birds and human beings as participants/subjects for these experiments.
 BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

❖Physiological psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological
and physiological basis of behavior. The study of the internal environment and the
physiological structure of the body, especially the brain, nervous system and functioning of
the glands in relation to the conative, cognitive and affective behavior of human beings
form part of the subject matter of this field.
❖Para-psychology: Deals with extra sensory perceptions, cases of re-birth, telepathy and
allied problems.
 BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

❖Geo-psychology: This branch describes and explains the relation of physical examination
particularly weather, climate, soil and landscape as they influence or affect behavior.

❖Developmental psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the

processes and products of the process of conception, pregnancy, birth, growth and
development in relation to the behavior of an individual from birth to old age. For
convenience, it is further sub-divided into branches or fields like child psychology,
adolescent psychology, adult psychology, and gerontology.
 BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

❖Educational psychology: It is that branch of applied psychology which tries to apply the
psychological principles, theories and techniques to human behavior in educational
situations. The subject matter of this branch covers psychological ways and means of
improving all aspects of the teaching/learning process, learning material, learning
environment and the teacher.
❖Clinical psychology: This branch of applied psychology describes and explains the causes
of mental illness or abnormal behavior of a patient attending the clinic or hospital, and
suggests an individual or group therapy for the treatment and effective adjustment of the
affected person in society.
 BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

❖Industrial psychology: This branch of applied psychology tries to seek the application of
the psychological principles, theories and techniques for the study of human behavior in
relation to industrial environment.
❖Legal psychology: It is that branch of applied psychology which tries to study the behavior
of the persons like clients, criminals, witnesses etc; in their respective surroundings with
the help of the application of psychological principles and techniques. It contains the
subject matter for improving the ways and means of detection of crimes, false witnesses
and other complex phenomena.
 BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

❖Military psychology: This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of

psychological principles and techniques in the world of military science. How to keep the
morale of the soldiers and citizens high during war time, how to fight war of propaganda
and intelligent services, how to secure better recruitment of the personnel for the armed
forces.
❖Political psychology: This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological
principles and techniques in studying the politics and deriving political gains.
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

❖Experimental method, and

❖Non-experimental method
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Observational Studies
It allows researchers to document behavior in a natural setting and witness events that could
not be produced in a lab. It differs from most other forms of data collection in that the
researcher does not manipulate variables or directly question participants.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Types of Observational Studies

Participant Observation: Also known as ethnographic research, is when a researcher actually
becomes a part of the group, they are studying in order to collect data and understand a social
phenomenon or problem.
Non-Participant Observation
Observes individuals and groups without getting involved in the life of the group. Observing
research subjects without participating, without them knowing that they are being observed at
all.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Advantages of Observational Studies

i.Observing natural behaviour
ii. Refining hypotheses
iii.Allowing for observation of behaviour that cannot be produced in an artificial
environment for ethical or practical reasons.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Disadvantages of Observational Studies

i.These studies do not produce quantitative data
ii.Do not allow for cause and effect statements
iii.May be very time consuming.
iv.It can be prone to researcher bias.
v.May be difficult to generalize to real world scenarios.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Clinical/Case Studies
It involves in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular case or cases, within a real-
world context. For instance, it may focus on an individual patient, condition, or a particular
firm’s strategy. It is usually based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group or
event. Case studies could be used for exploring and describing certain events and
developments. Sources of information may include personal interviews, archival records,
psychometric tests.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Advantages of Clinical/Case Studies

▪ Case studies provide a rich source of qualitative information,
▪ Often present an opportunity to research rare disorders/phenomena, or situations otherwise
unethical to study, and
▪ They may also offer some insight on how to conduct further research.
Disadvantages
❖ It is time consuming, and
❖ May be very expensive to carry out
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Survey
It involves asking large number of people questions about the behaviour, attitude, belief and
opinion.
• It can be conducted in person, by telephone, mail, internet, it can also be used to ask
questions about demographic information about characteristics such as sex, religion,
ethnicity, and income.
• It can also be used to collect information on experiences, opinions, and even hypothetical
scenarios.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D
Advantages of Survey:
i. It’s fast, cheap, and easy. Researchers can collect large amount of data in a relatively short
amount of time.
ii. ii. More flexible than some other methods.
Disadvantages of Survey:
i. Can be affected by an unrepresentative sample or poor survey questions.
ii. Participants can affect the outcome. Some participants try to please the researcher, lie to
make themselves look better, or have mistaken memories.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Types of interview
i. Structured Interview: It is a quantitative research method where the interviewer uses a set
of prepared closed-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule, which he/she
reads out exactly as worded.
Strengths: Ease of replicating studies, because fixed set of closed questions are easy to
quantify, thus making it reliable. It can also be conducted fairly quickly. Its findings are
representative and generalizable.
Weaknesses: it is insufficiently flexible. Second, its answers lack details.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Types of interview
ii. Unstructured / Informal / Discovery Interview: Do not use any set questions. Interviewer
asks open-ended questions based on research topic, and tries to let the interview flow like a
natural conversation. Interviewer modifies questions to suit the candidate's specific
experiences.
Its advantages include that it allows the respondent to speak, choosing their own words. It also
helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation. In terms of
its disadvantages, it can be time-consuming to conduct and analyze the qualitative data
(thematic analysis). Similarly, employing and training interviewers is expensive.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

ii. Unstructured / Informal /Discovery Interview: Do not use any set questions. Interviewer
Advantages
▪ It allows the respondent to speak, choosing their own words.
▪ It also helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’sunderstanding of a situation.
Disadvantages
❖It can be time-consuming to conduct and analyze the qualitative data (thematic analysis).
❖Similarly, employing and training interviewers is expensive.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY CONT’D

Experimental research is characterized by randomization, control of extraneous variables and

introduction of treatment / intervention. It involves greater scientific rigour, and higher level of
precision.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Types of Experimental Research

i. Laboratory Experiment

Conducted under highly controlled conditions (not necessarily a laboratory), where accurate
measurements are possible. Researcher decides where, when, who, and tests hypotheses using a
standardized procedure. E.g. Milgram’s experiment

ii. Field Experiment

It is not conducted inside a lab but it is done outside in the real world setting. Participants are
exposed to different levels of action.
Thank you