Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser

Men on a mission, women on a journey - Gender differences in consumer

information search behavior via SNS: The perceived value perspective
Ofrit Kol a, *, Shalom Levy b
a
School of Communication, Ariel University, Ariel, 40700, Israel
b
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Ariel University, Ariel, 40700, Israel

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Prof. H. Timmermans Gender has a considerable effect on how consumers search for information, shaping their behavior through a
variety of motives. Previous research shows that the benefit consumers wish to gain from the information in­
Keywords: fluences their search behavior on social networking sites (SNS). This study examines the extent to which gender
Information search behavior influences the connection between perceived information values and the choice of SNS information source:
Gender difference
commercial (marketer-generated content) and non-commercial (user-generated content). A representative
Information value
Facebook users’ sample (N = 525) and SEM statistics show gender differences in search behavior on SNS.
Perceived value
Selectivity hypothesis Findings also demonstrate the impact of gender on the relationships between information values and preferred
User-generated content source of information, and demonstrate different motivations for male and female search behavior. The impli­
SNS cations for both theory and practice are presented and analyzed.

1. Introduction platforms (Shahbaznezhad et al., 2021).

Social networking sites (SNS) have become a major platform for
consumers seeking product information prior to buying decisions (Kol
et al., 2021; Park et al., 2021). A global digital overview report con­
ducted in 2022 reveals that more than 40% of working-age internet
users specifically use SNS to search for information about products they
consider buying (Kemp, 2022). This highlights the crucial role of social
media in the digital marketing strategies of retailers, who utilize these
platforms to effectively market their products and cultivate strong
customer relationships (Dolega et al., 2021).
It has been contended that the nature of SNS as an information
platform is distinctive, encompassing both commercial (marketer-
generated content, such as advertisements and brand pages) and non-
commercial (user-generated content, including personal profiles and
interest groups) information sources (Daiya and Roy, 2016; Mikalef
et al., 2021). A survey conducted by PwC revealed that a substantial
78% of online shoppers are influenced by social media, either through
user-generated content such as readers’ comments, reviews, and feed­
back (45% impact) or through commercial content, with 44% of par­
ticipants receiving promotional offers and 30% being exposed to
advertisements (PwC, 2016). Additionally, social networks are consid­
ered to have a higher level of ‘information richness’ than other digital
Research clarifies that gender has a significant influence on con­
sumers’ information search behavior (Haridasan et al., 2021; Ramkis­
soon and Nunkoo, 2012). The selectivity hypothesis, which posits
differences in information processing strategies between males and fe­
males (Meyers-Levy, 1988; Meyers-Levy and Maheswaran, 1991), offers
an explanation for this phenomenon. According to the global digital
overview report (Kemp, 2022), females demonstrate a higher inclination
towards engaging in searches on SNS compared to males. These gender
disparities encompass both the quantity and types of sources utilized for
information search (Haridasan et al., 2021). Although gender differ­
ences have been explored in relation to information sources such as
review sites (Assaker, 2020), search engines, and retailer websites
(Nigam et al., 2017), limited research has examined these distinctions
specifically within the context of SNS. Consequently, few studies have
investigated the differences in information search behavior between
males and females in the unique environment of SNS with its dual
sources and its information richness.
Based on the Expectancy Value Theory (EVT) (Ajzen and Fishbein,
2000; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and the consumption value theory
(Sheth et al., 1991), consumers’ information search behavior is influ­
enced by values or benefits they expect to gain from this behavior. SNS
as a dual information richness platform offers consumers a diverse range

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ofritk@ariel.ac.il (O. Kol), shalom@ariel.ac.il (S. Levy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103476
Received 10 April 2023; Received in revised form 2 June 2023; Accepted 20 June 2023
Available online 24 June 2023
0969-6989/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O. Kol and S. Levy
of values (Chiu et al., 2019; Gvili et al., 2020; Kol and Levy, 2022).
However, it has been demonstrated that different motives and factors
affect how males and females perceive value in the realm of social
commerce (Molinillo et al., 2021) and subsequently influence their
purchasing behavior (Nissen and Krampe, 2021). Consequently, a clear
necessity exists to investigate potential disparities in the information
values pursued by males and females on SNS, as well as to comprehend
the subsequent impact on their information search behavior within this
particular context.
Accordingly, this study aims to close these gaps by investigating the
differences in search behavior between males and females on SNS and
their motivation for such behavior. Since social media have become such
a powerful and dominant platform impacting online shopping behavior
and retailer’s business results, recognizing these gender-specific ten­
dencies and motivation of information search behavior on SNS is crucial
for advancing both theory and practice. This study contributes to theory
by introducing a conceptual model that explores the influence of gender
on perceived information values in SNS search behavior. It enhances our
understanding of how perceived information values impact search
behavior, supports the selectivity hypothesis, extends consumption-
value theory, and adds insights to the literature on online shopping.
2. Theoretical background
2.1. Information search behavior on SNS
Prior to an informed buying decision, consumers extensively use
multiple SNS sources to gather and search for information (Kol and
Lissitsa, 2023)(Haridasan et al., 2021; Mikalef et al., 2021). SNS as an
information platform has been categorized by source as non-commercial
and commercial (Daiya and Roy, 2016; Mikalef et al., 2021).
Non-commercial sources are rooted in user-generated content, which
blends factual information and personal impressions and opinions,
verified and unverified bits of information and experiences (Blackshaw
and Nazzaro, 2006). This content, generated by other consumers, is
disseminated to inform and enhance product and service knowledge.
(Park et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). In their active information search,
consumers can post a request for recommendations and information
from friends and family, either on their personal profile, group of in­
terest or messenger (Kol et al., 2021).
Commercial sources refer to content produced by marketers. This is
brand-generated content on SNS that can manifest in various forms,
including content shared through brand pages as well as advertising
tools like Facebook’s ‘Sponsored Stories’ (Lipsman et al., 2012). Con­
sumers access brand pages and ads to search for information (Kol et al.,
2021; Zimand Sheiner et al., 2021). Considering that consumers actively
search for information in both SNS sources raises an important question:
What motivates consumers to seek information from commercial sour­
ces, non-commercial sources, or both?
2.2. Gender differences in consumer information search
Research suggests that gender affects product/service information
search behavior (Haridasan et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2020) and that on­
line search activity is more extensive among females than males (Toh
et al., 2011). Additionally, information source perception differs by
gender according to their level of internal knowledge and purchase
confidence (Barber et al., 2009) and it impacts how females and males
use the information sources (Haridasan et al., 2021). Moreover, females
more than males tend to use a variety of sources online in their search
(Kim et al., 2007).
A widely used model in gender studies is the selectivity hypothesis
(Meyers-Levy, 1988; Meyers-Levy and Maheswaran, 1991; Meyers-Levy
and Sternthal, 1991). This hypothesis explicates how biological dis­
tinctions between females and males can affect their information search
behavior. It also provides a gender-based explanation and
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476
understanding of disparities in information processing strategies. Ac­
cording to this theory, different strategies and thresholds are employed
by males and females to process information (Meyers-Levy and Mahes­
waran, 1991). Overall, this model asserts that based on different vol­
umes and types of information, females and males differently evaluate
products. It suggests (Kim et al., 2020; Meyers-Levy, 1988; Meyers-Levy
and Loken, 2015) that females process information more comprehen­
sively, engage in detailed cognitive processing and use multiple sources
of information before making buying decisions. In contrast, males tend
to use heuristics, focus on selected information sources and process data
in more selective ways. Therefore, this study proposes that females will
engage in a more comprehensive search on SNS than males. Thus, the
first hypothesis.
H1a. There will be gender differences in consumers’ information
search behavior on SNS: females will search more than males on SNS,
both in non-commercial and commercial sources.
2.3. Perceived values as motivators of consumers’ choice of SNS
information sources
Research shows that consumers expect to obtain some benefits or
values when searching for information (Kol and Lissitsa, 2023)(Kol et al.,
2017; Kol and Levy, 2022). In the vast literature on perceived value,
consumers evaluate the relative value of received communications based
on their subjective opinions (Ducoffe, 1995). As a result, information
value is defined as its utility or worth. The consumption-value theory
(Sheth et al., 1991) and subsequent studies (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001)
provide the theoretical basis for the choice of values relevant to the in­
formation search on SNS. Sheth et al. (1991) proposed an inclusive
theoretical framework based on the implicit assumption that the choices
which consumers make relate to the product’s perceived utility or
perceived value. Based on the consumption-value theory (Sheth et al.,
1991), some consumption values can influence a decision: functional
value (utilitarian attributes), social value (social connections with a
group of people), emotional value (the affective states or aroused feel­
ings), epistemic value (the aroused curiosity and wish for knowledge),
and conditional value (the specific circumstances faced by the decision
maker). Sweeney and Soutar (2001) distinguish between two types of
functional values, one economic and the other pertaining to perceived
quality and expected performance. In their view, consumer choice is
influenced by multiple dimensions of ‘consumption value’. This theo­
retical approach led to the development of five types of perceived values
consumers may gain from the information search: economic, functional,
social, psychological and hedonic values. It has been shown that these
perceived values influence consumers’ information searching behavior
and mediate their choice of information sources in social networking sites
(Kol and Lissitsa, 2023)(Kol et al., 2017; Kol and Levy, 2022).
Gender-based differences have been identified in relation to con­
sumer perceived value (Molinillo et al., 2021). Integrating the
consumption-value theory with insights from the selectivity hypothesis
model we assume that different gender associated attributes can lead to
different consumer information search motivations (i.e. values).
Accordingly, our hypothesis.
H1b. There are gender differences in perceived values consumers
obtain from the information search on SNS: females will elicit more
perceived values than males from SNS.
The Expectancy Value Theory (EVT) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2000;
Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) is a well-established theoretical framework
for explaining consumer decision-making behavior and provides a
theoretical framework for understanding consumers’ search behavior.
According to this theory, consumers’ behavior is influenced by the ex­
pected utility (value) derived from an action, which is determined by the
belief and evaluation of specific attributes associated with the behavior.
Following this perspective, studies substantiated the favorable influence
O. Kol and S. Levy
of perceived value on consumer behavior (Gan and Wang, 2017) and
specifically on the influence of perceived values on consumers’ choice of
information sources (Kol et al., 2017; Singh and Jang, 2022).
Based on this perspective, this study further suggests that the rela­
tionship between perceived values and the choice of information source
(search behavior) differs by gender. This difference is discussed for five
types of values: functional, psychological, economic, social and hedonic.
Functional value (FV) includes diverse utilitarian benefits and refers
to information that is reliable, of quality and customized to meet specific
consumers’ needs (Gvili et al., 2020; Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). Its
value derives from effective task fulfillment and convenience (Pura,
2005). Commercial sources provide consumers with high-quality and
relevant information about products and making purchases (Chiu et al.,
2019).
On the brand page, consumers can obtain information about product
features, terms of service, and communicate with a company represen­
tative. Via non-commercial sources, they can obtain recommendations
and opinions from friends and associates. This information is viewed as
reliable and customized precisely to meet the specific consumers’ needs
(Kim et al., 2016; Park et al., 2021).
Research has shown that male consumers tend to be more practical
and outcome-focused compared to females when searching for infor­
mation, and are motivated mainly by utilitarian benefits as they search
for specific product information (Kanwal et al., 2022; Zayer and Cole­
man, 2012). Typically, they make purchasing decisions based on prod­
uct features and capabilities, and as such, their buying behavior is
largely influenced by functional factors. They also rely heavily on the
evaluation of word-of-mouth recommendations when making their
purchases. (Kim et al., 2011). According to Assaker (2020), perceived
usefulness is the strongest determinant for males who access
user-generated content and online reviews. Moreover, a recent study
among gen Z found that utilitarian values of online shopping are more
associated with males as compared with females (Sramova and Pavelka,
2019). Considering these gender differences, we assume that the effect
of functional value on SNS information search behavior is more likely to
be higher for males (in both non-commercial and commercial sources).
Thus, our hypothesis.
H2. The relationship between functional value and information sour­
ces (non-commercial and commercial) differs by gender. This relation­
ship will be stronger for males than for females.
Psychological value (PV) relates to one’s emotional value which is the
affective benefits obtained from reducing the uncertainty associated
with buying decision making (Kol and Levy, 2022). Non-commercial
sources on SNS are based on the experiences of other users and pro­
vides more trustworthy and reliable information, that can reduce un­
certainty (Sun et al., 2019). Yet, a previous study has indicated that
consumers concerned with enhancing their psychological value will
search for information on SNS in both commercial and non-commercial
sources (Kol et al., 2017).
Affective factors influence female consumers more than males as
they actively seek out product information to reduce uncertainty (Can­
tallops and Salvi, 2014). Social recommendations (i.e., by friends and
acquaintances) positively affect females’ risk perceptions and patterns of
online buying (Kanwal et al., 2022). Moreover, in their information
search, females are more likely to seek emotional support than males
(Sun et al., 2019). Hence, we assume that the effect of psychological
value on SNS information search behavior (in both non-commercial and
commercial sources) is more likely to be higher for females. Thus, our
hypothesis.
H3. The relationship between psychological value (PV) and informa­
tion sources (both non-commercial and commercial), differs by gender.
This relationship will be stronger for females than males.
Economic value (EV) relates to benefits pertaining to economizing
resources (i.e. effort, time and money) (Atkins and Hyun, 2016; Chiu
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476
et al., 2019). The availability, immediacy and interactivity of SNS
improve access to information while reducing search costs (Kol and
Levy, 2022). Moreover, unlike traditional media, SNS allows its users to
more conveniently find information in one place via two types of sources
(commercial and non-commercial) thus saving even more time and
effort (Chen et al., 2017).
Information search is viewed by male consumers as a competition, a
place to locate value and bargains, and they prefer to do so simply,
quickly and easily (Zayer and Coleman, 2012). In their minds, buying is
a mission that should be completed with minimal effort and time
(Dholakia and Chiang, 2003). This is reinforced among younger male
consumers, where cost saving and convenience are motivating factors
for online shopping (Sramova and Pavelka, 2019). Other research in­
dicates that compared to males, females are more likely to prioritize
efficiency (i.e., saving effort and time) in making the correct choice in
their purchasing decisions (Atkins and Hyun, 2016) and maximizing
their benefits (Chiu et al., 2019). Hence, we assume that the effect of
economic value on SNS information search behavior will not differ be­
tween male and female consumers (both in non-commercial and com­
mercial sources). Thus, our hypothesis.
H4. The relationship between economic value (EV) and information
sources will not differ by gender in either non-commercial or commer­
cial sources.
Social value (SV) is related to the benefits received through connec­
tions and communications with others via SNS, such as feelings of
belonging and being recognized by others with similar interests, values,
norms, etc. (Deng et al., 2010; Gvili et al., 2020). Moreover, consumers
often seek social approval for their consumption behavior by conform­
ing to the norms of friends and associates (Gan and Wang, 2017). Pre­
vious research has shown that consumers mainly benefit from social
value while interacting with their social group, usually on
non-commercial sources (Kol et al., 2017).
Females attribute greater importance to communication and social
relationships compared to males (Meyers-Levy and Maheswaran, 1991)
and are more prone to be swayed by information and opinions received
from their online social connections (Sun et al., 2019). However, males
have less need for socializing in their information search (Cantallops and
Salvi, 2014). In addition, compared to males, female consumers make
more effort in searching for appropriate information on non-commercial
sources as they believe it can help them increase their social connections
(Sun et al., 2019). On the basis of this discussion, we assume that the
effect of social value on SNS information search behavior will be higher
for females in non-commercial sources. Thus, our hypothesis.
H5. The relationship between social value (SV) and information
sources differs by gender only in non-commercial sources. This rela­
tionship will be stronger for females than males.
Hedonic value (HV) refers to consumer’s feelings of enjoyment and
fun generated from the use of technology (Venkatesh et al., 2012). SNS
information search can lead consumers to experience positive emotions,
self-exploration, and pleasure (Gvili et al., 2020; Holbrook, 2000). In
their purchase decisions, females place a higher value on hedonism than
males (Mehta, 2020) but when it comes to adolescents, no gender dif­
ferences were found (Sramova and Pavelka, 2019). Moreover, in their
information search behavior, female consumers tend to be more moti­
vated by fun and enjoyment than males (Sun et al., 2019; Yang and Lee,
2010). They regard shopping as a leisure activity, with its concomitant
subjective emotional factors such as enjoyment (Chen et al., 2018). In
light of the discussion, this study assumes that the effect of hedonic
value on SNS information search behavior will be higher for females (in
both non-commercial and commercial sources). Thus, our hypothesis.
H6. The relationship between hedonic value (HV) and information
sources (both non-commercial and commercial) differs by gender. That
is, this relationship will be stronger for females than males.
O. Kol and S. Levy Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476

Fig. 1 presents the conceptual model. Table 1

CFA - variable reliability and validity measures.
3. Methodology Variables and Items Std. AVE CR Cronbach’s
Coef. alpha
3.1. Sample Economic Value (Gvili et al., 2020) .69 .90 .91
The information on products I receive .77*
A representative sample of Facebook users was obtained using a from Facebook helps me saves money
The information on products I receive .84*
remunerated online internet access panel. The respondents were told
from Facebook helps me get greater
that the study examines the process of searching for information about value for the money I pay
products and services on Facebook, such as asking for recommendations The information on products I receive .82*
and opinions, accessing personal profiles or interest groups or by from Facebook reduces my search time
referring to brand pages or advertisements. Confidentiality and ano­ on Facebook
The information on products I receive .89*
nymity were assured. Missing cases were excluded from the sample. A from Facebook helps me find better
total of 525 useable responses were analyzed. Participants had an offers and solutions
average of 453 Facebook friends. They were 55% females and 45% Social Value (Gvili et al., 2020) .67 .89 .89
males, with a mean age of 35.36 (ages ranged from 18 to 70). The ma­ The information on products I search for .84*
on Facebook lets me make a good
jority of participants had an educational level above high school (74%)
impression on other people
and an income that is average or above-average (74%). The information on products I search for .93*
on Facebook gives me a sense of
belonging to a group or to other people
3.2. Variable measurement The information on products I search for .78*
on Facebook helps me to feel accepted
Several items and scales from previous studies were used in the by other people
The information on products I search for .70*
survey instrument. Information value scale items were obtained from
on Facebook improves the way I am
Gvili et al. (2020). Items for non-commercial sources and commercial perceived by others and tells people
sources are mostly original and based on Kol et al. (2017). These items who I am
were adopted to facilitate an understanding of information search Functional Value (Gvili et al., 2020) .63 .89 .92
behavior about products and services on SNS. Participants were I trust the information I get from .74*
Facebook about products
requested to specify their level of agreement with various statements. The information on products that I .75*
We employed a seven-point Likert scale, from 1 representing strong receive on Facebook is usually reliable
disagreement to 7 representing strong agreement. Data on de­ Information about products I receive on .72*
mographics were also gathered. Facebook is generally credible
The information I receive on Facebook .88*
allows me to get products in
4. Results accordance with my needs
I get quality information about products .87*
4.1. Validity and reliability on Facebook
Psychological Value (Gvili et al., 2020) .57 .87 .89
The information I receive from Facebook .79*
In order to verify the postulated structure, a CFA analysis was con­ makes it easy for me to try new
ducted. The results indicate an acceptable fit for all measurements (χ2 products
value (390) = 1034.45, p < .05 (χ2/df < 3); CFI = 0.945; NFI = 0.915; The information I receive from Facebook .77*
reduces the concerns I have when
and RMSEA = 0.056). Standardized regression estimates (above 0.50)
making a purchase decision.
were all satisfactory (Hair et al., 2010) , convergent validity and internal The information I receive from Facebook .76*
consistency were achieved and are presented in Table 1. Additionally, by allows me to make purchase decisions
comparing the AVE values with the square of the correlation estimates, in accordance with societal
construct discriminant validity was confirmed. AVEs achieved greater expectations or what is acceptable
The information I receive from Facebook .77*
reduces the concerns I have when using
the products
The information I receive from Facebook .78*
helps me decide what is best for me.
Hedonic Value (Gvili et al., 2020) .79 .92 .91
Searching for information about products .93*
on Facebook is fun for me
I enjoy searching for information about .98*
products on Facebook
Finding information about products on .72*
Facebook is entertaining and amusing
Noncommercial information sources ( .51 .84 .81
Kol et al., 2017)
I post a question on my profile in order to .76*
get a recommendation or opinion from
family/friends
I request the opinion of a certain .69*
acquaintance in a private message on
Facebook (on Messenger)
I read feedbacks and reviews written .64*
previously by friends/family on my
personal profile
(continued on next page)

Fig. 1. Conceptual model.

4
O. Kol and S. Levy Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476

Table 1 (continued ) more than males on SNS, both in non-commercial and commercial
Variables and Items Std. AVE CR Cronbach’s sources (t = 4.58, p < .01, t = 2.58, p < .05, respectively). Moreover,
Coef. alpha results show higher average scores for females than for males in four
I post a question in a relevant Facebook .78*
information values: FV (t = 2.27, p < .05), PV (t = 2.01, p < .05), EV (t
interest group in order to get a = 2.73, p < .01), and HV (t = 2.67, p < .01). No difference was found for
recommendation or opinion from other SV (t = 0.18, p > .05). These findings indicate that females more than
members of that group males are motivated to find gratification values during information
I read information and opinions in a .69*
search on SNS, thus supporting H1a and H1b.
relevant Facebook interest group
written by the members of that group Next, the hypothesized relationships (H2-H6) were tested by using a
Commercial information sources (Kol .50 .83 .81 path analysis technique. To control for possible confounding variables,
et al., 2017) age and education level were added. Path analyses were conducted
I search for information on a brand page .71* individually for each group (Table 5) and differences between groups
or send an information request via
messaging
were assessed by performing multi-group analyses (see Fig. 2).
I look for coupons and/or promotional .73* The differences between gender groups were tested first via a chi-
offers in a brand page square difference test of the complete construction model. An uncon­
I am interested in coupons and .62* strained model in which the entire paths were allowed to vary freely (χ2
promotions appearing on my feed from
value (886) = 1556.11, χ2/df < 2; CFI = 0.944; NFI = 0.880; RMSEA =
brands whose pages I “liked"
I read relevant advertisements that .82* 0.038) was compared with a model in which all paths were constrained
appear on my feed (χ2 value (905) = 1601.18, χ2/df < 2; CFI = 0.942; NFI = 0.876;
I can mark “like” to relevant ads .65* RMSEA = 0.038). Findings show a significant difference between gender
appearing on my feed groups (males vs. females: ΔX2 = 45.07; Δd.f. = 19; p < .01) in the
Note: *Standardized Coefficients, P < .01; AVE = Average Variance Extracted; construction model. Then, pairwise tests of path coefficients (slopes
CR=Composite Reliability. difference test) were compared for each path (see Table 5).
For FV, the relationship with non-commercial sources was significant
values (see Table 2). for the male group (β = .35, p < .01) and not for the female group (β =
Next, to ensure that there is no Common Method Bias (CMB) in − 0.00, p > .05); the difference between gender groups was found to be
variance, we used Harman’s one-factor test (Podsakoff et al., 2003). significant (t = 2.19, p < .05). The relationship between FV and com­
Results indicate that one factor accrued for just 37.95 of the (total) mercial sources was not significant for the male group (β = .09, p > .05)
variance (<50%) thereby signifying that CMB may not be a serious issue. or the female group (β = 0.01, p > .05); additionally, the difference
between the gender groups was not significant (t = 0.51, p > .05). These
4.2. Measurement invariance indicate that FV is related to noncommercial sources and associated with
males. Hence, H2 is partially supported.
This study evaluates two diverse groups (males and females), For PV, the relationship with non-commercial sources was significant
therefore an assessment of the factorial measurement between the for the female group (β = .22, p < .05) and not for the male group (β =
groups is essential to guarantee that construct measurements are equally − 0.08, p > .05); the difference between gender groups was found to be
measured in both groups (Chen, 2008). A measurement equivalence was significant (t = 2.01, p < .05). Additionally, the relationship between PV
conducted using a two-group confirmatory analysis. Conventional tests and commercial sources was insignificant for both the female group (β =
(Muk and Chung, 2015) were completed on the full model. The con­ .21, p > .05) and the male group (β = 0.19, p > .05); and the difference
figural invariance was supported (χ2 value (778) = 1401.30, χ2/df < 2; between gender groups was insignificant (t = 0.15, p > .05). These
CFI = 0.947; NFI = 0.890; RMSEA = 0.039), and additionally the model reveal that PV is associated with females and related to non-commercial
fit indices for both groups were found acceptable when checked inde­ sources. Hence, H3 is supported.
pendently for each group. Metric invariance was also supported (Δx2 For EV, the relationship with non-commercial sources was signifi­
(24) = 32.02, p > .05; ΔCFI<0.01, ΔNFI<0.03; ΔRMSEA = 0.00), which cant for both the male group (β = .26, p < .01) and the female group (β
indicates that the model could be significantly evaluated throughout the = 0.45, p < .01); the difference between gender groups was found to be
two groups (Table 3 presents the comparative model fit results). not significant (t = 1.63, p > .05). Also, the relationship between EV and
commercial sources was significant for both the male group (β = .39, p
< .01) and the female group (β = 0.34, p < .01); the difference between
4.3. Empirical findings
gender groups was insignificant (t = 0.35, p > .05). These indicate that
EV is related to both noncommercial and commercial sources and is
First, gender differences in information search behavior (H1a) and in
associated with both males and females. Hence, H4 is supported.
information values (H1b) were checked by conducting independent
For SV, the relationship with non-commercial sources was significant
sample t-tests. Results (shown in Table 4) indicate that females search
for the male group (β = .26, p < .01) but not for the female group (β =
0.04, p > .05); the difference between gender groups was found to be
Table 2
marginally significant (t = 1.96, p < .05). The relationship between SV
Discriminant validity.a.
and commercial sources was marginally significant for the male group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (β = .14, p < .10) and not for the female group (β = − 0.06, p > .05); the
1. EV 0.69 0.41** 0.56** 0.63** 0.44** 0.53** 0.54** difference between gender groups was insignificant (t = 1.57, p > .05).
2. SV 0.17 0.67 0.34** 0.49** 0.36** 0.31** 0.31** These suggest that SV is associated with males and mainly related to
3. FV 0.32 0.11 0.63 0.63** 0.40** 0.40** 0.38**
non-commercial sources. Hence, H5 is not supported.
4. PV 0.40 0.24 0.40 0.57 0.43** 0.45** 0.46**
5. HV 0.19 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.79 0.33** 0.36**
For HV, the relationship with non-commercial sources was not sig­
6. NCIS 0.29 0.10 0.16 0.20 0.11 0.51 0.51** nificant for either the male group (β = − .02, p > .05) or the female group
7. CIS 0.30 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.13 0.26 0.50 (β = 0.02, p > .05); the difference between gender groups was not sig­
Notes: a Correlations are in the upper right side while the MSV (Maximum Shared nificant (t = 0.46, p > .05). The relationship between HV and com­
squared Variance) is in the lower left side; AVE (Average Variance Extracted) is mercial sources was significant for the female group (β = .20, p < .05)
in the bold italic diagonal; **p < .01. NCIS = Non-Commercial Information and not for the male group (β = − 0.06, p > .05); additionally, the dif­
Sources, CIS = Commercial Information Sources. ference between gender groups was significant (t = 2.51, p < .05). These

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O. Kol and S. Levy Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476

Table 3
Comparative fit results.
Overall sample Male sample Female sample Unconstrained model, configural Measurement weights, metric Δ
2
X 1034.45 627.06 774.24 1401.30 1433.32 32.02
df 390 389 389 778 802 24
CFI .945 .953 .943 .947 .946 .001
NFI .915 .887 .892 .890 .887 .003
RMSEA .056 .051 .058 .039 .039 .000

differences in such behavior are strongly supported by the results. This

Table 4
study shows that female consumers search more than males for product
Gender differences of variables.
information on SNS both in non-commercial and commercial sources. It
Variable Gender Mean/Std. Deviation t-test is possible to explain this by the fact that the information search of fe­
HV Males 3.98/1.58 2.67** males tends to be more inclusive or comprehensive as they detect and
Females 4.37/1.67 use information they find, while males make greater use of heuristics
EV Males 3.50/1.54 2.73**
(Meyers-Levy and Loken, 2015). Therefore, on social networking sites,
Females 3.87/1.53
SV Males 2.46/1.43 0.18
females are likely to use both commercial and non-commercial sources
Females 2.48/1.42 of information. Additionally, females more than males want to maximize
FV Males 3.82/1.15 2.27* the beneficial exchange gained from the information search and there­
Females 4.07/1.26 fore gratifying values are a stronger motivator in their information
PV Males 3.44/1.30 2.01*
search behavior on SNS. This study found that females scored higher in
Females 3.68/1.36
Non-commercial sources Males 3.69/1.45 4.58** most information values (all except for social value), indicating that
Females 4.28/1.47 their search behavior is more value oriented than that of males. This
Commercial sources Males 3.48/1.40 2.58* gender difference may be rooted in the different way males and females
Females 3.81/1.56 relate to the buying process. Females enjoy the shopping process more
Notes: Males N = 234, Females N = 291; *P < .05; **P < .01. than males (Dholakia, 1999; Mehta, 2020), and need to receive more
gratification than males, who are more goal oriented (Dholakia and
Chiang, 2003). Females need more assurance that they are making the
Table 5 right decision than males, who just want to get it done (Dholakia and
Path comparison: measurements between groups. Chiang, 2003). Hence, values are stronger drivers for females than for
Male sample Female sample Males vs. males in their search behavior on SNS.
Females This study also found disparities between males and females in the
Relationships Standardized Effect/ Standardized Effect/ t-test effect of search values on the type of information sources (commercial or
S.E. S.E. non-commercial) used on SNS for information. In the non-commercial
FV → NCIS .350/.142(2.859)** − .002/.088(-.022) 2.194* SNS sources, what motivate males more than females to search for
FV → CIS .089/.143(.833) .005/.095(.061) .506
PV → NCIS − .075/.118(-.549) .219/.091(2.153)* 2.009*
consumer information are the functional value and/or the social value.
PV → CIS .211/.130(1.616) .187/.097(1.907)+ .151 It appears that males are more target-oriented in their buying behavior
EV → NCIS .258/.085(2.401)* .448/.079(4.537)** 1.634 and they tend to follow a more utilitarian approach (Mehta, 2020).
EV → CIS .387/.095(3.755)** .344/.079(3.841)** .352 Thus, they turn to user-generated content, which they perceive as more
SV → NCIS .264/.082(3.069)** .036/.081(.506) 1.961*
reliable, useful and customized to their need (Assaker, 2020), namely
SV → CIS .141/.087(1.800)+ − .056/.088(-.807) 1.574
HV → NCIS − .024/.065(-.360) .019/.066(.257) .457 revealing functional value. Furthermore, the effect of social value is
HV → CIS − .059/.072(-.951) .201/.073(2.770)** 2.507* greater for males than females when seeking information on
Education → .013/.064(.222) .028/.061(.521) .169 non-commercial SNS sources. Contrary to our hypothesis, it seems that
NCIS for females, the consumer information search on SNS is not connected to
Education → − .027/.071(-.482) − .048/.067(-.900) .214
CIS
making or strengthening social connections or maintaining relation­
Age → NCIS .065/.005(1.123) − .057/.005(-1.054) 17.083** ships. However, since males often focus on reinforcing their social status
Age → CIS − .033/.006(-.589) − .179/.006(-3.315) 10.036** in their peer group (Maceli et al., 2015), the search for information on
** user generated content may help them project their fields of interest and
their efficacy, thus possibly leading to social recognition and enhanced
self-image.
Goodness of fit statistics:
X2 1556.11 For females more than males, psychological values influence the
df 886 search for information in non-commercial SNS sources. From user
CFI .944 generated content, females receive emotional support (Sun et al., 2019)
NFI .880
and help to reduce risk perceptions in making the buying decision
RMSEA .038
(Kanwal et al., 2022).
Notes: t-values are in parentheses; +P < .10; *P < .05; **P < .01. In the case of commercial sources females are motivated more than
males by hedonic value in their search behavior on SNS. Possibly, this is
show that HV is associated with females and mainly related to com­ because females enjoy shopping more than males and they take pleasure
mercial sources. Hence, H6 is partially supported. from the search process (Sun et al., 2019). The commercial sources
expose females to new products and services, providing them with new
5. Discussion ideas, in an attractive, interesting and fun way.
Additionally, this study found that while economic value affects
Grounded in the selectivity hypothesis (Meyers-Levy and Mahes­ search behavior in both sources, no gender differences were found. This
waran, 1991), this research investigates gender differences in the impact demonstrates that both males and females strive to maximize the eco­
of perceived value on consumers’ search behavior on SNS. Gender nomic benefit of their search behavior, that is to save time, effort and

6
O. Kol and S. Levy
Fig. 2. The structural model: multi-group analysis
a
Path parameters are standardized parameter estimates. M = Male group, F=Female group; R2 are in the upper-right corner; +p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01.
money, and therefore they search in all sources (commercial and non-
commercial). This behavior also reflects the centrality and essentiality
of economic value in information search behavior, making it an
important motivational factor (Atkins and Hyun, 2016; Chiu et al.,
2019).
Finally, from a general perspective, while searching for information,
both male and female consumers found more gratification in the non-
commercial sources. They prefer user-generated content over
marketer-generated content, which reinforces previous studies demon­
strating the importance that consumers attribute to user-generated
content (Assaker, 2020; Cheong and Mohammed-Baksh, 2021).
The study makes several contributions to theory. Firstly, it offers a
conceptual model that demonstrates the effect of gender on perceived
information values in SNS information search behavior, highlighting
gender-based variations in behavior. Additionally, it reveals distinct
motivations for males and females that underlie the variations in their
search behavior. Secondly, it enhances our knowledge of the effects of
perceived information values on search behavior. In line with the EVT
(Ajzen and Fishbein, 2000; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975), which suggests
that values affect behavior, this study complements the theory and goes
beyond viewing information value as a singular construct. Instead, it
highlights the importance of considering different dimensions of infor­
mation consumption. These dimensions have varying effects on con­
sumer behavior during the information search process, where the
intensity of these effects is contingent in part upon gender. Thirdly, it
supports the selectivity hypothesis (Meyers-Levy and Maheswaran,
1991) and adds to it by incorporating psychographic motivating values
beyond biological factors to explain search behavior, highlighting the
dynamic nature of gender-based motivators shaped by socialization.
Fourthly, the study contributes to the literature of consumption-value
theory (Sheth et al., 1991). Consumption-value theory suggests a vari­
ety of benefits (i.e., perceived values) obtained from information
searches which influence the choice of information source. The current
study indicates that the intensity of these benefits and their impact
varies on a gender basis. Lastly, the study adds to on-online shopping
literature. It explains the motivation for online information searching on
SNS, and how this behavior differs between genders.
Additionally, this research has practical implications for pro­
fessionals in the field. The findings of this study suggest that retailers
should customize their marketing communication strategies based on
the specific information needs of their target audience. While the eco­
nomic benefit applies universally, it is crucial to provide consumers with
7
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476
prompt and efficient responses to their inquiries and information re­
quests on retailers’ brand pages and instant messaging platforms.
Employing artificial intelligence and expert systems can greatly aid in
achieving this objective. Additionally, offering appealing promotional
deals on brand pages and through advertisements can enhance con­
sumers’ search efficiency and help them save money.
Many practitioners in retail continue to display the same content
without considering the diverse information needs of their target audi­
ences. This study highlights the importance of recognizing the distinct
and different motivations and values of males and females when
engaging with commercial sources. Consequently, it is crucial for re­
tailers to gender-customize their marketing efforts. When targeting fe­
male consumers, brand pages and advertisements should be visually
appealing, captivating, and enjoyable, delivering inspirational content
that caters to hedonic motivation and value. Leveraging rich media
features such as videos and augmented reality camera effects can greatly
contribute to this objective. On the other hand, when targeting male
consumers, the social aspect should be emphasized. This can be achieved
by fostering a sense of community, maintaining an interest-based brand
group, and encouraging interactions among community members.
Through these interactions, males gain access to useful, reliable, and
customized information, thereby granting them further functional
values.
Furthermore, marketers and retailers have the ability to promote the
sharing of valuable brand-related content by consumers. Specifically, for
females, this content should display product or service usage and rein­
force positive experiences, thereby reducing perceived risk. Achieving
this can be facilitated through the provision of superior customer ex­
periences that result in satisfaction, positive electronic word of mouth,
and incentivized rewards programs that encourage the sharing of such
information. On the other hand, for males, establishing and maintaining
a brand community interest group can serve also as a valuable source of
reliable, high-quality, and personalized information, to be shared by
experienced members within the community.
Finally, a few limitations should be mentioned. First, the focus of this
study was on Facebook which is considered a prominent social media
platform. For greater generalization, future research should take other
social network sites into consideration. Second, in matters of engage­
ment with information on SNS (Gvili and Levy, 2021; Levy et al., 2021)
and especially in relation to gender differences, cultural aspects should
be considered. This study was conducted in Israel which according to
Hofstede dimensions (individualism and masculinity) represents one
O. Kol and S. Levy Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 75 (2023) 103476

cultural setting of a quiet moderate society (Hofstede, 2001; Hofstede Gvili, Y., Kol, O., Levy, S., 2020. The value(s) of information on social network sites: the
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