TEX- 1201

Fiber – Yarn – Fabric

Department & Batch | KMT 171

Semester | Fall 2017

CHAPTER | 01
INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILE FIBERS
Fiber | classification, structure, its formation and relation to performance

Objectives:
1. Understanding textile fiber
2. Understanding the sources and origin of textile fibers
3. Understanding the nature and formation of textile fibers

What are fibers?

Somewhat bizarrely to modern ears, the opening fourteenth century definition of fiber in the
Oxford English Dictionary is a lobe or portion of the liver. The last is dietary material that is
resistant to the action of the digestive enzymes. In between, there are definitions related to
biological structures and to metaphorical usage. The first in the context of this handout is
Faraday’s 1827 reference to a silk fiber and the most relevant is a fibrous substance fit for use in
textile fabrics.

The Textile Institute (Denton and Daniels, 2002) is more specific: textile raw material, generally
characterized by flexibility, fineness and high ratio of length to thickness. Until the second half
of the twentieth century, textile fibers fell within the range of about 10 to 50 μm in diameter1 and

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Although diameters are easily appreciated, a more useful measure of fineness is linear density. The standard unit is
tex = g/km, but, due to its closeness to the older unit denier = g/9000 m, dtex = g/10,000 m is widely used. The
above range corresponds roughly to 1 to 25 dtex.

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were longer than 1 cm. Coarser bristles and monofils, although woven and braided, were not
regarded as fibers. Short wood fibers in paper-making pulp are too short and do not have the
distinct identity to be included.

More recently, finer fibers of less than 1 dtex are included. Microfibers are made either by
modifying the melt-spinning process or by the islands-in-a-sea method. Nanofibers are made by
electro-spinning or by a large increase in the number of ‘islands in the sea’. Carbon nanotubes
are the most recent form of nanofibers.2

In order to be useful, textile fibers need adequate strength and stability. The major types can be
classified in four groups: natural and regenerated fibers with moderate strength and breaking
extension; synthetic polymer fibers with high toughness; organic and inorganic high-modulus,
high-tenacity (HM-HT) fibers; and elastomeric fibers. Weak inorganic fibers, such as rock wool,
are of limited use. More importantly, there are a large number of fibers with chemical, thermal,
biological or other properties, which are used in protective, medical or other specialized
applications. The more advanced of these are smart fibers, which have active rather than passive
responses.

Classification of textile fibers

The fibers from which the textile goods are manufactured can be broadly classified into two
categories according to their generation process. They can be of either natural or man-made
origin.

The term natural fiber means any fiber that exists as such in the natural state. They are obtained
from plants, animals or minerals and can be further classified three following groups:

(a) Vegetable fibers – As the name implies, the fibers coming from plants or vegetation are
called vegetable fibers. They can also be of three types depending on the part of tree from which
they are taken. For example, fibers growing on the seeds like cotton, kapok; fibers grown as the
skin of the plant stem like flax, hemp, ramie, jute, etc.; and fibers collected from the leaves such
2
The terminology is questionable. Carbon nanotubes can be described as stiff molecules. However, they are long
fine units of matter that can be assembled into yarns. In that sense, they are nanofibers.

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as sisal, abaca or manila, henequen, pineapple, etc.

(b) Animal fibers – On the contrary to the vegetable origin, the animal fibers are derived from
animals such as silk worm, sheep, camel, etc. The silk fibers are produced after the coagulation
of the mucus thrown up by the body of silk worm. The later types comprise the hair fibers like
sheep wool, camel, mohair, cashmere, vicuna, etc.

(c) Mineral fibers – The only natural fiber occurring from minerals is asbestos. There are several
kinds of asbestos fibers, all of which are fire resistant and not easily destroyed or degraded by
natural processes. They are usually used as the non-combustible insulation materials.

The term man-made or manufactured fibers mean any fibers derived by a process of
manufacture from any substance which, at any point in the manufacturing process, is not a fiber.
The man-made fibers can be classified into four groups:

(a) Regenerated fibers – The fibers regenerated from natural cellulose sources like wood pulp or
cotton linters are referred to as regenerated fibers. They are the earliest synthetic fibers based on
biopolymers. The raw materials are deconstructed into fluffy white cellulose and then turned into
a viscous resin, which is squeezed through spinnerets and hardened as a manufactured fiber from
natural plants. By the regeneration process, the chemical constitution of the original polymers is
not altered. However, a certain variation in degree of polymerization occurs resulting in some
modified physical properties of the regenerated fibers that essentially differ from the original one.
Viscose rayon, polynosic, cupro, lyocell, bamboo, etc. belong to this category.

(b) Semi-synthetic fibers – Semi synthetic fibers are cellulosics, i.e., they are formed from natural
polymeric materials such as wood pulp, cotton linters, etc. Cellulose acetates and triacetates
belong to this group. The production of such fibers involves the acetic oxidation of cellulose,
which turns into acetic acid cellulose. This is dissolved in a solvent and spun into man-made
fibers.

(c) Synthetic fibers – True synthetic fibers are non-cellulosic. Examples are polyamide (nylon),
polyester, acrylic, modacrylic, polyurethane (spandex), polyolefin, polyethylene, polypropylene,
aramid, etc. True synthetic polymers are products of the polymerization of of smaller chemical
units into long-chain molecular polymers. Fibers are formed by forcing a viscous fluid or

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solution of the polymer through the small orifices of a spinneret and immediately solidifying or
precipitating the resulting filaments.

(d) Inorganic fibers – Inorganic fibers, both metal and non-metal ones, are more rigid, have a
higher melting point and are more heat resistant than traditional ones. They are also totally
inflammable, but except for the metal ones, they are fragile. Their textile importance is limited,
whereas they are widely used as reinforcement in composite materials. They are usually
excellent in high temperatures and in a corrosive surrounding. Glass, carbon, ceramic, metal
fibers, etc.

Depending on the form of fibers, they are also subdivided into following groups:

(a) Flock fibers/Short fibers – Flock fibers are very short in length (< 15 mm) and, therefore, are
not spinnable.

(b) Staple fibers – They are also called staple. Short lengths of fiber, or have been chopped from
continuous filament in lengths of approximately 15 – 500 mm. Staple fiber must be further
processed (spun) into yarn before it can be woven into fabrics.

(c) Continuous filaments – A manufactured fiber of indefinite length (continuous), extruded from
the spinneret during the fiber production process. The length of a filament is conveniently
measured in yards or meters. There may be mono or multi filaments.

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Chemical structure of most commonly used textile fibers

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6
The nature of fibers
As described above, fibers are long, slender units of matter. Their component atoms are joined
into molecules, which assemble in particular fine structures. The fibers for the traditional textile
uses in clothing, household goods and some technical applications are all partially crystalline,
partially oriented, linear polymers. Remarkably, they are of only six chemical types: cellulosic,
protein, polyamide, polyester, polyvinyl (acrylic), and polyolefin (polypropylene). The HM-HT
polymer fibers are more highly crystalline and oriented and more variable in chemistry. The
inorganic fibers, glass and ceramic, may be amorphous or micro-crystalline. Carbon fibers are
oriented forms of imperfect graphitic crystals.

In addition to the differences in chemistry, fiber structures depend on how they are formed. The
slow growth of natural fibers under genetic control gives different structures from the fast routes
of industrial production. Differences within each group, for example between cotton, wool and
silk or between melt and solution spinning, lead to a variety of structures. Within each basic form,

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there are quantitative differences that depend on the production parameters.

Formation of fibers

Natural fibers
Most fibers are composed of long chain of polymer molecules which lay alongside each other
and are cemented together by different bonds. A polymer is a large molecule (also known as
macromolecule) composed of hundred to thousand small chemical repeating structural units. The
average number of repeating unit of a polymer chain is called the degree of polymerization (DP).
A fibril may be composed of 50 – 20000 repeating units depending on fiber types.

Cotton, flax, jute, silk, wool fibers are formed in nature through natural way of polymerization.
In general, natural polymers have long chains, meaning that they are constructed with many
repeating units. The structures of natural polymers are influenced by the cultivation practices and
the environment in which they are grown.

Manmade fibers
Synthetic fibers are formed by polymerization process of one or more than one monomer.
Thousands of monomers are coupled together either by poly-addition (e.g. polypropylene) or
poly-condensation (e.g. polyester) process. The structures of synthetic polymers depend on
manufacturing processes and the character and origin of the monomers.

Regenerated fibers are formed from natural polymers through a suitable man-made process. The
structures of regenerated fibers depend on manufacturing processes and the character and origin
of the natural polymers. Cellulosic man-made fibers (viscose, modal, cuprammonium, acetate,
triacetate, lyocell) are made from natural cellulosic polymers obtained from plants. The
macromolecules which have been synthesized from nature maybe used as such, or maybe
chemically modified for regenerated fiber production. To enable cellulose to be spun, the natural
macromolecules have to be dissolved by appropriate solvent.

The principle of man-made fiber production may be explained through following steps:
• Conversion of the fiber-forming substance into a fluid by solution or melting

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 • Extrusion of the fluid through spinnerets
• Solidification of the extruded filaments

Fiber forming polymers should have the following characteristics:

• Optimum molecular weight and its distribution
• Possible linear polymer chain and avoiding branching of them
• Interactions of inner molecular chain
• Shear, tensile/axial, compression forces, elongation/extension/deformation
• Functional groups (responsible for affinity and absorption)
• Visco-elastic nature.

Figure 1. Standard model representing formation of fibers

Figure 2. Amorphous and crystalline areas of polymers within fibrilar bundle.

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Figure 1 represents a standard model of formation of textile fibers. Fibers are usually composed
of many fibrilar bundles and each of such fibril is constructed of many polymer chains. The
polymer chains in a fibril may exist in different orders. Some are oriented and arranged parallel
and some may exist in disoriented form within the fibrilar bundles, as in Figure 2.

The regions wherein the polymer chains are arranged in regular order are called crystalline
regions. On the other hand, within the amorphous regions polymer chains exist or lay in a
disordered fashion.

Table 1. Instruments used for measuring fiber characteristics

Instrument Measured Properties

Optical/X-Ray/Electron Diffraction Amorphous and crystal part of a fiber

UV (Ultraviolet) – Spectroscope
IR (Infrared) - Spectroscope
FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) – Chemical composition and structures with
Spectroscope functional groups
NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) -
Spectroscope

GPC (Gel-Permeation-Chromatography) Mass-molecular distribution

DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimeter)

Thermal Properties of fiber
TGA (Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis)

SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)

Surface topology of a fiber
AFM (Atomic Force Microscopy)

Zeta Potential Meter Charge on fiber surface

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No single technique gives unambiguous information about the fine structure and formation of
fibers, so that it is necessary to develop ideas from the indications of many techniques developed
over the last 100 years, including advances that are still continuing. Digital processing and
increasing computer power greatly increase the useful information that can be extracted from the
physical instrumentation. Table 1 is a list of those that are most useful.

Surface topography/Outer surface of textile fibers

The outer surface of natural textile fibers is variable. Under SEM, cotton appears to be
convoluted, collapsed and twisted ribbon. Jute and flax on the other hand seem to be bonded,
wool has scaled and silk has smooth outer surfaces.

Longitudinal Cross-section

SEM of Cotton fiber

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SEM of Jute fiber

SEM of Flax fiber

SEM of Wool fiber

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 SEM of Silk fiber

Application of textile fibers

Difference between natural and man-made fibers

Definition Natural fibers are those that exist in the nature in a readily fibrous form.
Such natural fibers include – cotton, jute, flax, hemp, silk, wool, etc.
Man-made fibers are those that do not exist in a readily fibrous form rather
they are made or given shape like fibers artificially by human.

Sources Plants, animals and minerals are the sources of all natural fibers.

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 While on the other hand, man-made fibers are produced from plants,
petroleum and minerals.

Types Natural fibers may be classified according to their sources of origin as –

vegetable, animal and mineral fibers.
Based on the manufacturing techniques and raw materials used for
production, man-made fibers may be classified as – regenerated, semi-
synthetic, synthetic and inorganic fibers.

Sizes Most natural fibers are staple except silk. While on the other hand, man-
made fibers are produced in filaments form. Though they can be chopped
into staple form while necessary.
Uniformity Variation in size and in other parameters in common in natural fibers and
is regarded as the biggest challenge while processing them. But man-made
fibers can be produced with uniform properties.

Absorption Most natural fibers are hydrophilic in nature which means that they are
capable of absorbing a high amount of moisture. But most man-made
fibers are hydrophobic in nature – though some fibers may absorb
moisture but to a very little extent.

Impact on nature Natural fibers are bio-degradable and environment friendly. Man-made
fibers except few are not biologically degradable.
Economy Production cost is minimal as they do not require high capital investment.
But setting up a man-made fiber production industry costs a lot.

Property Natural fibers have moderate tensile property but have good bending and
flexibility. Some man-made fibers have excellent tensile properties
(carbon, aramid, glass) and are regarded as high performance fibers.

Other Natural fibers are comfortable and mostly used in apparel making. They

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are less durable too.
Properties of most man-made fibers make them suitable for industrial
applications.

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 TEX- 1201
Fiber – Yarn – Fabric

Department & Batch | KMT 171

Semester | Fall 2017

CHAPTER | 02
PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE FIBERS
Fiber Properties | primary, secondary and auxiliary properties

Objectives:
1. Understanding properties of textile fibers
2. Understanding the tensile behaviour of textile fibers
3. Understanding fineness, moisture absorption, maturity of textile fibers

Primary key properties

A fiber has to have the following physical and chemical properties to meet some specific
requirements. There are several primary and key properties necessary for a polymeric material to
make an adequate fiber include:
• Fiber length
• Length to diameter/width ratio (slenderness ratio)
• Tensile properties (strength and strain/elongation, elastic modulus)
• Elasticity
• Flexibility
• Cohesiveness
• Chemical composition, structure, and molecular arrangement
• Wettability or moisture absorption
• Dyeability
• Density
• Comfort to human skin

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Secondary and auxiliary properties
Certain other fiber properties increase process efficiency, value and desirability of fibers during
their end-use include:
• Fineness (MIC)
• Resiliency
• Work of rupture
• Uniformity
• Crimp
• Colour/luster
• Maturity ratio
• Resistance to heat/temperature
• Resistance to sunlight
• Glass transition temperature
• Melting/burning/decomposition temperature
• Abrasion resistance
• Chemical resistance
• Resistance to biological agents
• Electrostatic properties

Length
Length is the most important characteristic for assessing the value of a fiber. Most natural fiber is
of limited length, commonly a few millimeters to several centimeters. Silk is the exception,
being formed as filament, which may be 500 – 2000 m in length.

Strength
Strength is the ability to resist stress and is expressed as tensile strength, which is commonly
expressed as force per unit cross-sectional area (MPa = N/mm2). When a single fiber is being
considered, the strength of the fiber is commonly described as tenacity (g/tex), which is a
measure of specific stress or tenacity at break, i.e. breaking load/tex.

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 Stress (σ) = Force (F)/Cross-sectional area (A) (Eq. 1)
Strain (ε) = Change in length (∆L)/Original length (L) (Eq. 2)

Where, F is the applied force, L is the fiber length, A is the cross-sectional area, and ∆L is the
change in length due to applied force.

Figure 2: Stress–strain curve showing typical yield behavior. Stress (σ) is shown as a function of
strain (ϵ).

Strain/Elongation
The strain or elongation is expressed as the ratio of total deformation to the initial dimension of
the material body in which the forces are being applied. The strain is positive if the material
fibers are stretched and negative if they are compressed.

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Elastic modulus
The Modulus of Elasticity (also known as the elastic modulus, the tensile modulus, or Young's
modulus) is a number that measures an object or substance's resistance to being deformed
elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object
is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in the elastic deformation region: A stiffer
material will have a higher elastic modulus.

Young’s Modulus (E) = Stress (σ)/Strain (ε) (Eq. 3)

Figure 3: Specific stress vs elongation curves of some common natural fibers.

Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a deforming force and to return to its original size and
shape when that influence or force is removed. If the material is elastic, the object will return to
its initial shape and size when these forces are removed. If no so, then we consider the material
being plastic.

Flexibility
The inverse of stiffness is flexibility. Stiffness is the rigidity of an object – the extent to which it
resists deformation in response to an applied force. The complementary concept of flexibility or
pliability: the more flexible an object is, the less stiff it is. Flexibility is the ability of a fiber to

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bend repeatedly without breaking.

Cohesiveness
It is the ability of fibers that allows them to cling together during spinning. Cohesiveness
depends on surface characteristics and crimp of textile fibers. Fiber like substance that lack
cohesiveness cannot be spun – hair.

Moisture absorption or wettability

In chemistry, absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms,
molecules or ions enter some bulk phase – gas, liquid or solid material. Depending on moisture
absorption capability or wettability fibers are of two types. Hydrophilic fibers due to having
polar groups in their chemical structures attract water molecules. Examples of such fibers include
cotton, jute, silk, wool, etc. Hydrophobic fibers are those which are non-polar and do not attract
the water molecules – such as polyester, nylon, etc. Absorption is also influenced by the polymer
system (crystallinity and amorphous regions present within them) of fibers.

Moisture absorption capability of any fiber is described by two terms – moisture content and
moisture regain. Moisture content is defined as the weight of water in a material express as a
percentage of the total weight of the material. Moisture regain is defined as the weight of water
in a material expressed a percentage of the oven dry weight of the material. Considering W is the
weight of water in a material and D is oven dry weight of the material:

Moisture content (C) = {W/(W+D)} * 100 (Eq. 4)

Moisture regain (R) = (W/D) * 100 (Eq. 5)

Moisture absorption capability of most natural fibers is comparatively higher than man-made
fibers.

Fiber Moisture content (%) Moisture regain (%)

Cotton 7.83 8.5

Jute 12.1 13.75
Silk 9.91 11.0
Wool 13.8 16.0

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 Flax 10.4 12.4
Hemp 10.4 12.4
Viscose 9.91 11.0
Acrylic 0 1.5
Nylon 3.1 4.0
Polyester 0 0.4
Spandex (Lycra) 0 0

Dyeability
Dyeability of any fiber is the ability to be dyed. It is the fiber’s receptivity to coloration by dyes
or its dye affinity.

Density
Density is the weight in grams per cubic centimeter of an object (g/cc). It represents how light or
heavy the material is. Natural fibers have a very low density – cotton (1.6 g/cc), jute (1.47 g/cc),
kenaf (1.45 g/cc), hemp (1.5 g/cc), flax (1.48 g/cc) and sisal (1.5 g/cc). Among all inorganic
fibers, carbon fibers have the lowest density of 1.40 g/cc, whereas glass fibers are heavy having
density of around 2.5 g/cc (E-glass).

Comfort to human skin

Comfortably of textile fiber is such a complex phenomenon and is influenced by a number of
factors. The comfort of textile materials depends upon the surface characteristics, convolution,
and moisture management capability (wicking) of such material.

Fiber Fineness (MIC)

Fiber fineness is one the most important fiber characteristics which is measured in micronaire
value (MIC). It is the weight in micro-grams per inch of a fiber (µg/inch). It basically expresses
how fine or coarse a fiber is.

The fiber fineness determines how many fibers are present in the cross-section of a yarn of given
thickness. Minimum thirty fibers are needed in the yarn cross-section but there are usually
hundred. For almost all new spinning process one hundred is approximately the lower limit.

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 Fiber fineness (MIC) Interpretation

Less than 3.0 Very fine

3.0 to 3.6 Fine
3.7 to 4.9 Average
Above 5.0 Coarse

Resiliency
Resiliency describes the ability of a fiber or pile to return or spring back to its original shape and
thickness after being bent, twisted, compressed, or a combination of these deformations. It is
closely related to wrinkle recovery. Polyester has outstanding resiliency whereas cotton has poor
resiliency.

Resiliency (R) = Compressive stress (σ)/Compressive strain (ε) (Eq. 6)

Work of rupture
Work of rupture is defined as the energy required to break a material or total work done to break
that material. Its unit is Joule (J). Work of rupture is calculated from the area under the load-
displacement curve of any fiber.

Uniformity
Natural fibers show much greater non-uniformity than man-made fibers. Thus testing of natural
fibers requires the testing of a very large number of samples before quoting an average value. To
make yarn it is important that fibers be similar in length, fineness, spinning quality, and
flexibility.

Crimp
Crimp refers to the waves or bends that take place along the length of a fiber. It increases
cohesiveness and resilience, resistance to abrasion and gives increased bulk or warmth to fabrics.
It also helps fabrics to maintain their softness or thickness. Crimp helps fibers increase
absorbency and contact to human skin, thereby, comfortable but reduces luster. A fiber may have
one of the three types of crimp namely- mechanical crimp, natural Crimp or inherent crimp

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and chemical crimp.

Colour/luster
Luster refers to the light reflected from the surface of an object. Luster of a fiber depends on a
number of factors and increases from smooth, less crimp, flatter cross-sectional shape and longer
fiber length.

Maturity ratio
Fiber maturity is an important character and is an index of developments of the fibers. The
maturity of the fiber is concerned with development of cell wall. The cell wall thickening is
highly sensitive to growing conditions. Adverse weather, poor soil plant, plant diseases and pests,
etc., will increase the proportion of immature fiber and lead to trouble in processing.

One of the main troubles caused by the presence of these thin walled immature fibers is nepping.
Apart from maturity, causes like small bits or fragments of seed particles attached to the fiber
also forms neps. Neps are created during processing starting at ginning stage. Further when
rubbing of substances takes place, as in carding, minute knots of tangled fibers are caused and
the immature fibers are more prone to this nepping effect.

Immaturity also affects the shade after dyeing. As the response of the primary wall to certain
classes of dyestuffs is less intense, the thinner the secondary wall lighter will be shade. Hence
fine cotton tends to be lighter in shade than coarse cotton.

The loss in yarn strength, the dyeing troubles are all due to the presence of immature fibers.

Maturity ratio = {(N – D)/200} + 0.7 (Eq. 7)

Where, N is the percentage of normal fibers and D is the percentage of dead fibers.

Maturity coefficient = (M + 0.6H + 0.4I)/100 (Eq. 8)

Where, M is the percentage of mature fibers, H is the percentage of half mature fibers and I is the
percentage of immature fibers.

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Resistance to heat/temperature
Textile fibers must be resistant to heat and temperature applied during processing. For example,
textile fibers are subjected to heat in dyeing, drying, steaming, calendaring, pressuring and other
operations. Some fibers become tough under heat such as rayon, whereas some burn under heat
such as flax, cotton, jute, etc.

Resistance to Sunlight
Sunlight reacts differently with different fibers and fabrics. For example, white fabrics become
faded in various degrees. Again black absorbs more suns heat than the white one.

Glass transition temperature

Glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature at which the mechanical properties of a fiber
radically change due to the internal movement of the polymer chains that form the material. It is
the temperature at which the material physically changes from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid
to a solid. Glass transition temperature is the most important property of a fiber polymer. The
value of the glass transition temperature is directly related to the mechanical properties (strength,
hardness, brittleness, elongation, etc.) that the polymer presents at the temperature that is
exposed. Therefore, knowledge of the Tg value of a fiber is vital.

Melting/burning/decomposition temperature
The melting point (or, burning, decomposition temperature) of a solid fiber is the temperature at
which it changes state from solid to liquid or completely burns or decomposes at atmospheric
pressure. Therefore, knowledge of the Tm value of a fiber is vital.

Abrasion resistance
Abrasion resistance a fiber is the ability to resist wear from rubbing that contributes to fabric
durability.

Chemical resistance
Textile fibers must be resistant to certain chemicals used in processing them. Textile fibers and
materials are subjected to alkalis in various processing like scouring, bleaching and in acids in

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processing like dyeing, printing and finishing. Different fibers react differently with alkalis and
acids. The alkali and acid must be chosen properly to use different processes so that they do not
make any harm to the fiber but bring the required change perfectly.

Cotton fibers have excellent resistance to alkalis and weak acids but it may be hydrolyzed in
strong acids like H2SO4, HNO3. Wool on the other hand is degraded when processed in caustic
soda solution but it is resistant to acids.

Resistance to biological agents

If the fibers are attacked by bacteria, black spots are seen on the fibers as a result of which the
strength of fiber is reduced. Therefore, knowledge of the fiber’s resistance to biological agents is
vital.

Electrostatic properties
It is known that unintended consequences of electrostatic discharge can cause serious problems
in a number of situations, can damage products in electronic assembly, impair the quality of
products, create problems of workers’ health and safety, and many others. Textile materials
(textile fibers, fabrics) are widely used and are known for their abilities to accumulate electric
charge. So to avoid the mentioned undesirable effects textile material must be used in
manufacturing of such products so that they would have acceptable electrostatic properties.
Therefore, knowledge of the fiber’s electrostatic properties is vital.

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 TEX- 1201
Fiber – Yarn – Fabric

Department & Batch | KMT 171

Semester | Fall 2017

CHAPTER | 03
COTTON
Introduction, history, cultivation, ginning, grading, composition, properties

Objectives:
• Understanding cotton cultivation and ginning
• Understanding cotton grading
• Understanding chemical composition and construction of cotton fiber
• Understanding cotton morphology and properties
• Understanding additional cotton terminologies

INTRODUCTION

The word cotton comes from an Arabic word ‘katan’. In terms of volume of production and
usage, cotton fiber tops the list and is regarded as the king of all fibers. Cotton and cotton related
textile industries are central to economic growth of both developed and developing countries and
contribute to sustainable and socially responsible development.

Cotton is one of the most important and widely produced agricultural and industrial crops in the
world. Naturally it must be planted, irrigated, nurtured with fertilizer, protected from unwanted
weeds, grasses and insects. After completing all these steps, it should be harvested as clean as
possible.

Cotton production has tripled in recent decades, however, the amount of land utilized has not
been increased. This is a result of constant improvements in cotton varieties and farming
techniques. But the world cotton production is not sufficient compared to the demand of human;

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therefore, the demand of man-made fiber is increasing.
HISTORY OF COTTON FIBER
The existence of oldest cotton fibers and boll fragments in around 5000 BC were discovered in
Mexico, as reported by the Greek historian Herodotus. People in Mohenjo-Daro, in modern
Pakistan and in the Tehaucan valley in Mexico used to domesticate the cotton plants and make
textiles out of cotton fiber in around 3000 BC. At the time of Alexander, people from India used
to trade cotton fabrics of outstanding fineness and quality in the Mediterranean area.

In the 8th century, cotton growing and fabric manufacturing was introduced in Spain by the
Moors, where it thrived until the expulsion of Islam in the 15th century. Thereafter, the opening
of the sea route from India promoted to Portugal to the prime trade of cotton fabrics.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SOME MAJOR COTTON CULTIVATED

COUNTRIES
Cotton like any other agricultural product is grown in about 80 different countries world-wide.
As of 2007, the ten largest producers of cotton in the world are:

1. PRC 27%
2. The United States 19%
3. India 13%
4. Pakistan 9%
5. Brazil 5%
6. Uzbekistan 5%
7. Turkey 5%
8. Greece 5%
9. Turkmenistan 4%
10. Syria 4%
11. Others 4%

The five leading exporters of cotton in 2009 are:

1. The United States, 2. India, 3. Uzbekistan/CIS, 4. Brazil, and 5. Australia.

The largest non-producing importers are Korea, Russia, Taiwan, Japan, Hong Kong and

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Bangladesh.
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF COTTON
Cotton is the seed hair of shrub plant which bears the botanical name GOSSYPIUM, a member of
the Mallow family, cultivated as an annual plant. There are about 50 species of cotton plants
however, only four of them have attained commercial importance.

1. Gossypium Barbadense (Pima Cotton)

• Plants are generally 6 – 15 ft. in height, yellow flowers
• Fiber length ranges from 38 to102 mm
• Sea Island, Egyptian cotton and South American (Peru) cotton belong to this class

2. Gossypium Harbaceum
• The plants are like bush and generally 3 – 6 ft. in height, yellow flowers
• Fiber length ranges 20 – 26 mm
• Indian and Chinese cotton belong to this class

3. Gossypium Hirsutum (Upland Cotton)

• Plants are usually 6 ft. in height, red flowers
• Fiber length: long fiber ranges 28 – 32 mm and extra long fiber more than 32 mm
• South and North American, also known as Upland or Mexican cotton belong to this
class

4. Gossypium Paruvianum
• Plants are generally 10 – 15 ft. in height, yellow flowers
• Average staple length ranges 25 – 40 mm and fibers are brownish yellow
• Originally South American cotton but Indian, Pakistani and Chinese cotton also
belong to this class

CULTIVATION OF COTTON
Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long frost-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a
moderate rainfall, usually from 600 to 1200 mm (24 to 48 inches). Soils usually need to be fairly
heavy, although the level of nutrients does not need to be exceptional.

3
Soil – Cotton needs a soil with an excellent water holding capacity and aeration and good
drainage.

Seed rate and spacing – Depending upon the variety, soil type, the cultivation on practices and
method of sowing - Seed rate of 15 - 25 kg/ha and spacing of 75 - 90 cm between the rows.

Optimum sowing time – Sowing of crops depends upon water resources and varies from region
to region. Sowing in rows can be done either by drilling or placing the seeds in furrows behind
the ploughs.

Fertilizers – Fertilizer application differs from country to country depending upon available
nutrients in the soil. For dry-land cotton crop, 20 kg of nitrogen, 18 kg of phosphorus and 78 kg
potash is economical. Nitrogen is applied in split doses, half dose at the time of sowing and other
half as top dressing during thinning or just before flowering. For irrigated cotton this dose can be
doubled.

Water requirement – Watering depends upon the nature of the soil and the weather conditions.
Generally, cotton crop needs 6 - 8 irrigations and 600 - 800 mm of water during its lifetime.

Cultivation practices – Before sowing, the soil is ploughed, loosened and harrowed to make soil
suitable for cultivation.

Interculture – Weed control begins 30 - 40 days after sowing. Thinning of cotton is a special
feature of the irrigated crop.

Diseases and pests – Cotton aphids, cotton jassids are controlled by spraying malathion 0.08%.
Cotton leaf roller, spotted boll worm, pink boll worms are controlled by dusting crop with 10%
carbonyl.

Optimum harvesting time – Cotton is harvested in three or more pickings taken suitable intervals.
The season of harvesting varies with of sowing, duration of variety. Generally, the crop is sown
in June-September and in September-October is harvested from November to march to June
respectively. Well dried bolls are picked either manually or through mechanical harvesters.

4
An average boll will contain nearly 500,000 fibers of cotton and each plant may bear up to 100
bolls.

In about 140 days after planting or 45 days after bolls appear, the cotton boll will begin to
naturally split open along the bolls segments or carpels and dry out, exposing the underlying
cotton segments called locks. These dried carpels are known as the bur, and it is the bur that will
hold the locks of cotton in place when fully dried and fluffed, ready for picking.

COTTON PICKING
Cotton is being picked up in two different and dissimilar ways; one is manual picking and the
other is machine/mechanical picking.

Manual picking – Manual picking simply means hand picking. The main advantage of manual
picking is that ripen and unripe cotton can be collected and separated easily. But the limitation is
that lower productivity e.g. 100 lbs./day/worker only.

Machine/mechanical picking – Speedy process thus higher productivity e.g. 600

lbs./day/machine. Machine picking has got some limitations like, it picks leaves, stalk and
sometimes dust, and it mixes ripen and unripe cottons those are difficult to separate later.

5
COTTON GINNING
Ginning is a mechanical process that aims to separate the cottonseeds from the cotton fibers.
At one time, the gin's only function was to remove cottonseed from the fiber. Today, gins must
not only separate the seed from the fiber, they must also dry and clean the fiber and package it
into bales before it reaches the textile mill.

There are three different and dissimilar types for this purpose e.g. Saw gin, Roller gin and
McCarthy gin.

Figure 1: Operation of the Cotton Gin (Saw Gin).

BY PRODUCTS OF COTTON
After picking, cotton is sent to gin where the seeds are separated and the fibers are pressed into
the 500 poundal forces, ready for sale. The long fibers separated by ginning shall be used for
textile manufacturing. These long fibers are called lint. The very short fibers (0.25 inch) remain

6
with the seed are called linters and used in the manufacturing of human-made
cellulosic/regenerated cellulosic fibers e.g. viscose rayon, cuprammonium, acetate, triacetate, etc.

However, there are some by-products of cotton as below:

o Seeds: Used in making oils and the residues are used in making soaps, glycerin, etc.
o Hulls: Used in making fertilizers and paper.
o Linters: Used in rayon and acetate production, film and plastic production as well as in
bank notes manufacturing. It is also used in making blanket, gauge and in pillow.

Universal Bale size

Gin Universal Density Bale*

Units
Approximate values
English SI
Net Weight 500 pounds 226.8 kg
Length 54 - 55 inches 1.37 - 1.40 m
Width 20-21 inches 0.51 - 0.53 m
Average Bulge Thickness 33 inches (or less) 0.84 m (or less)
Volume 17 ft3 0.48 m3

7
COTTON GRADING/CLASSIFICATION
In order to grade the quality of raw cotton, the rating (in the order of excellent to poor) is done
according to the level of the length, strength, colour, luster and impurities of the fibers. These are
divided in different ways according to the production land. The classification of cotton fibers,
based on their quality, is called grading.

Developments in cotton classification standards

Prior to the development of official standards, cotton was marketed primarily on the basis of its
variety and where it was grown, although some physical standards for cotton classification (sets
of physical samples) were used privately. The United States Cotton Futures Act of 1914
authorized the Department of Agriculture to establish physical standards as a means of
determining colour grade, staple length and strength, and other qualities and properties. These
standards were thereafter agreed upon and accepted by the leading European cotton associations
and exchanges.

They were accordingly termed and referred to as the "Universal Standards for American Cotton".
Indeed, when in 1923 the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) signed the Universal
Cotton Standards Agreement with nine leading cotton associations in seven major European
countries, the US classing system entered into increasingly global use.

Under the auspices of the Agreement, the currently twenty-four signatory cotton associations
representing twenty-one countries agreed to use only Universal Standards to arbitrate US grown
American upland cotton.

The Need for Grading

Grading is a necessary part of modern markets where the buyer cannot examine the item or
commodity for sale and must rely on a standard description of it. A grading system must be
operated by a disinterested third party. The grader must not be influenced by either the buyer or
the seller. Technically, a private sector firm can operate a grading system but official grading of
most commodities in most countries is performed by a public agency.

8
 Micronair Length and

Color
Trash

Figure 2: USTER® HVI, the instrument used for cotton grading.

This public agency must be beyond the influence of any buyer or seller to remain objective. Its
commodity graders must also be well qualified and experienced. The grade assigned must be
reliable. The grade must be specific enough to tell the buyer what he is buying when he knows
the grade.

The quality of the cotton fiber is determined by three factors, namely, the colour of ginned
cotton, purity (the absence of foreign matter) and quality of the ginning process, and the
length of fibers.
Practically all cotton grown in the United States is classed by USDA at the request of producers.
While classification is not mandatory, growers generally find it essential to marketing their crop
and for participation in the USDA price support program.

9
 Since 1991: 100% USTER® HVI USDA Cotton Classification

Colour Grade
The colour of cotton fibers is primarily determined by conditions of temperature and/or humidity,
cotton lint exposure to sunlight, and cotton varieties. Action by parasites or micro-organism, as
well as technical defects in harvesting and subsequent storage and transport, may all affect the
colour of cotton. The colour of cotton ranges from white to yellowish and is classed into the
groups White, Light Spotted, Spotted, Tinged and Yellow Stained, in descending order of quality.

There are 25 official colour grades of American upland cotton, ranging from Good Middling
White colour through Middling Yellow Stained colour. In addition, there is a descriptive Below
Colour Grade standard for 5 categories of American upland cotton.

High Volume Instrument (HVI) classing, Figure 2, has been available on an optional basis to all
growers since 1981. The colour of cotton is measured by the degree of reflectance (Rd) and

10
yellowness (+b). Reflectance indicates how bright or dull a sample is, and yellowness indicates
the degree of colour pigment.

Figure 3: Nickerson-Hunter cotton colorimeter diagram.

A three-digit colour code is used to indicate the colour grade. The color code is determined by
locating the point at which the Rd and +b values intersect on the Nickerson-Hunter cotton
colorimeter diagram (Figure 3) for Upland cotton. For example, a sample with an Rd value of 72
and a +b value of 9.0 would have a colour code of 41-3, Strict Low Middling White. The last
digit 3 presents the leaf grade.

11
 Colour grade of Upland cotton

White Light Spotted Tinged Yellow

Spotted Stained

Good Middling 11 12 13 … …
Strict Middling 21 22 23 24 25
Middling 31 32 33 34 35
Strict Low Middling 41 42 43 44 …
Low Middling 51 52 53 54 …
Strict Good Ordinary 61 62 63 … …
Good Ordinary 71 --- … … …
Below Grade 81 82 83 84 85

Leaf Grade
Leaf grade describes the leaf or trash content in the cotton. Purity as regards the presence of
foreign matter (waste such as leaves or earth) is of the utmost importance. In other words, the
grade is based on the amount of leaf, foreign matter (polythene, ropes, etc. accumulated during
harvesting).

There are seven official leaf grades for American upland cotton designated as Leaf Grade 1
through Leaf Grade 7. They are all represented by official physical standards in the custody of
the USDA.

In addition, there is a descriptive Below Leaf Grade Cotton designation for American upland
cotton that is lower in leaf grade than Leaf Grade.

12
 Official US standards for the leaf grade of American Upland cotton

Trash Measurement
Leaf Grade Symbol Code No.
(% area)

Leaf Grade 1 LG1 0.13 1

Leaf Grade 2 LG2 0.20 2
Leaf Grade 3 LG3 0.34 3
Leaf Grade 4 LG4 0.51 4
Leaf Grade 5 LG5 0.72 5
Leaf Grade 6 LG6 1.00 6
Leaf Grade 7 LG7 1.25 7
Below Leaf Grade BLG 1.57 8

TYPES OF COMMERCIAL COTTON

Sea Island Cotton

This is the highest quality and the most valuable of all commercial cotton fibers. It grows on the
coast of the Gulf and Florida, in Barbados and other adjacent islands where the climates are
favorable.

The average length of this fiber is about 2 inch (51 mm) and the diameter is 1/1500 inch (0.0175
mm). It is famous for uniformity, maturity, and highly developed luster, twist and softness. The
colour of this fiber is white to cream.

Egyptian Cotton
The term Egyptian Cotton is usually applied to the extra long staple cotton produced in Egypt
and favoured for the luxury and up market brands worldwide. There are two kinds of Egyptian
cotton; one is Brown and another is White.

13
Like Sea Island cotton, this type of cotton is very regular i.e. uniformity is good and contains few
immature or dead fibers. The average length of this fiber is 1.5 inch to 1.75 inch (38 – 44 mm),
diameter is about 1/1500 inch (0.0175 mm).

Pima Cotton/South American Cotton

Pima cotton is grown in the US, Israel, Peru and Australia. The name, Pima, comes from the
Pima Indian tribe that grew cotton in Arizona. Only 3% of the cotton grown in the US is Pima
because there is a select area where it can be grown. The cotton has a staple length of 1 inch to
1.5 inch (25 – 38 mm). It has a mean diameter of 1/1300 inch (0.0195 mm) and is suitable for
mixing with regenerated manmade fibers.

Upland Cotton/North American Cotton

This type of cotton is cultivated in United States and sometimes in Mexico. Originally this term
(Upland) referred to cotton grown on raised lands not prone to flooding. Now it refers to short
and medium staple cottons which is the most common type of cotton. Its staple length is 0.9 inch
1.25 inch (23 – 32 mm) and the diameter is about 1/1200 inch (0.0211 mm).

Indian Cotton
This is short fiber cotton and the length ranges from 0.6 to 0.8 inch (13 – 20 mm).

Chinese Cotton
This is the lowest commercially accepted grade, length ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 inch (13 – 18 mm).
Its twist is not highly developed and rather harsh. It is not suitable for spinning a good quality
yarn and is usually used in a mixture with better qualities.

Bangladeshi Cotton
In Bangladesh, generally cotton is grown as rainfed crop. Two types of cotton, namely the
American cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and Hill Cotton (Gossypium arboreum) are grown. The
American cotton is mainly cultivated in the South Western region namely Jessore, Jhenaidah,
Kushtia, Magura and Chuadanga districts; in the Northern Region at Rangpur, Dinajpur,
Thakurgaon, Rajshahi, Bogra and Pabna districts, and in central Regions of greater Dhaka and

14
Mymansingh districts. Altogether, cotton is grown in more than 32 districts out of 64 districts in
Bangladesh. The highest concentration is in the districts of South Western region. The qualities
of Bangladeshi cotton are now improving and lengths, color, maturity are fair to good. Hill
cotton is grown in three hill districts of Bangladesh (Khagrachari, Bandarban and Rangamati).

Cotton Price
Average spot price in US cents per Pound for Upland cotton (Source: USDA Market News)

Month Value
Jun 2010 91.68
Jul 2010 84.15
Aug 2010 90.35
Sep 2010 104.73
Oct 2010 126.55
Nov 2010 155.47

Cotton is one of the important cash crops in Bangladesh. It is the main raw material of textile
industry. Annual requirement of raw cotton for textile industry of Bangladesh is estimated at 550
thousand tones. Local production is only about 0.1 million bales.

Around 3% of the national requirement is fulfilled through the local production, remaining 95-97%
requirement is fulfilled by importing raw cotton from USA (40%), CIS (35%), Australia,
Pakistan, South Africa and other cotton producing countries (25%).

(Source: BTMA, March, 2007).

15
 Names of the mostly used commercial cotton in BD

Commercial name Producing country

CIS Cotton Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan

Sankar- 6 (S-6) India

MECH, MCU- 5, SUNNY India

Australian Cotton Australia

Brazilian Cotton Brazil

Pima, Giga Mexico, Egyptian

Pakistani Cotton Pakistan

CHEMISTRY OF COTTON FIBER

The chemical composition of cotton fibers and the quantity of different constituents vary greatly
with the type of plant, soil and climate. Raw cotton fiber, after ginning, is essentially composed
94% cellulose.

Chemical composition of cotton fiber

Constituents Percent
Cellulose 94.0%
Protein* 1.3%
Pectic substances 1.2%
Ash 1.2%
Fat and wax 0.6%
Organic acid, sugar and others 1.7%

* Calculated by multiplying the nitrogen content by 6.25.

16
Cellulose
The existence of cellulose as the common material of plant cell-walls was first recognized by
Anselm Payen, a French Chemist, in 1838. The chemical and physical properties of the cellulose
fibers, their behaviour in dyeing and finishing as well as in practical demonstration is determined
to a large extent by the cellulose portion. This is why it is possible to carry out the dyeing of the
different cellulose fibers almost in the same manner.

The constitution of cellulose

The elemental analysis shows that cellulose contains 44.4 percent of carbon, 6.2 percent of
hydrogen and 49.4 percent of oxygen. This corresponds to an empirical ratio of six carbons to ten
hydrogens to five oxygen and the simplest formula for cellulose is written (C6H10O5)n, where n
is the polymerization factor or degree of polymerization i.e. DP.

Cellulose is a natural high molecular compound. Evidence shows that if cellulose is subjected to
acid hydrolysis, 96 – 98 percent of glucose is obtained as an end product. Glucose is to be
regarded, therefore, as the smallest component of the cellulose. The natural form of glucose is
d-glucose and is also referred to as dextrose.

The d-glucose exists in two different modifications, i.e. in α- and β- form. The distinction
between these two forms arises from the position of hydroxyl (– OH) group on the C1 carbon.
Alpha-glucose has an –OH group that points downwards, away from the ring (on the opposite
face to the methylol (–CH2OH) group), whereas the –OH on C1 carbon of beta-glucose is in line
with the ring.

17
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n, a polysaccharide consisting of
a linear chain of several hundred to over nine thousand β (1→4) linked d-glucose units. It will
be appreciated that natural cellulose is built up of glucose residues in this way:

Where, n is the degree of polymerization (DP). The DP of cotton polymer is about 3000 - 7000.

Degree of polymerization (DP)

The degree of polymerization, or DP, is the number of repeat units in an average polymer chain
at time t in a polymerization reaction. The length is in monomer units. The degree of
polymerization is a measure of molecular weight (MW). For a homo-polymer, the degree of
polymerization may be calculated as shown below:

DP = Total MW of the polymer/MW of the repeating unit (Eq. 1)

18
The molecular weight of cellulose polymer is about 500,000.

Functional groups in cellulose

The most important chemical groups on the cellulose polymer are hydroxyl groups (-OH), which
are also present as methylol groups (-CH2OH). Their polarity gives rise to hydrogen bond
between –OH groups of adjacent cotton polymers. Less significant Van der Waal’s forces also
occurs.

Dotted lines showing the inter-molecular and intra-molecular hydrogen bonds

Each glucose unit contains one primary hydroxyl group (as –CH2OH) at C6 position and two
secondary hydroxyl groups (as -OH) at C2 and C3 positions. Again one end of the glucose unit
has an additional secondary hydroxyl group at C4 position and the other end has an aldehyde or
hemi-acetal group at C1 position.

Although cellulose is the chief component of plant cell-walls, as a naturally occurring material, it
contains also a wide variety of other materials in small amounts notably protein, pectic
substances, ash and waxy materials. These are frequently called fiber impurities, but they exert a
considerable influence on the processing and usefulness of the fiber.

19
Proteins (also known as polypeptides)
They are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a
globular form. The amino acids in a polymer chain are joined together by the peptide bonds
between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues.

Pectic substances
The pectic substances play an important role in plant life. The primary function of the pectic
substances is the cementing together of the individual cells that compose the plant e.g.
protopectin, pectin and pectic acid.

Ash
Cations, K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+, etc.

Fat and Waxes

Cotton wax is found on the outer surface of the fiber. Cotton wax is primarily long chains of
fatty acids and alcohols. The cotton wax serves as a protective barrier for the cotton fiber. Esters
(based on C15 – C33 fatty acids), Waxy alcohols (C24 – C34), hydrocarbons, etc.

Organic acid and sugar

Organic acids are found in the cotton fiber as metabolic residues. They are made up of malic acid
and citric acid. Sugar makes up point three percent of the cotton fiber, the sugar comes from two
sources plant sugar and sugar from insects.

The plant sugars occur from the growth process of the cotton plant. The plant sugars consist of
monosaccharide, glucose and fructose. The insect sugars are mainly for whiteflies, the insect
sugars can cause stickiness, which can lead to problems in the textile mills.

POLYMER SYSTEM OF COTTON

20
Cotton is a crystalline fiber. It consists of about 65 – 70% crystalline zone and corresponding 30
– 35% amorphous region. The repeating unit in the cotton polymer is cellobiose which consists
of two glucose units. Its DP is about 3,000 – 7,000. It is about 5000 nm in length and about 0.8
nm thick.

COTTON FIBER MORPHOLOGY

Fiber Morphology is the study of the internal structure of fibers i.e. identification, analysis
and description of the internal structure of fibers.

The macro-structure of Cotton

Under a microscope, a cotton fiber appears as a very fine, regular fiber, looking like a twisted
ribbon or a collapsed and twisted tube. These twists are called convolutions. There are about
sixty convolutions per centimeter. The convolutions give cotton an uneven fiber surface, which
increases inter-fiber friction and enables fine cotton yarns of adequate strength to be spun. The
appearance of the cotton fiber’s cross-section is referred as being kidney-shaped.

(Longitudinal view) 21 (Cross-sectional view)

Magnified 300 times by an Magnified 300 times by an
electron microscope electron microscope
These convolutions and kidney-shaped cross-section of cotton fiber contribute:
o Random contact with the skin which is more compatible with human skin physiology and
therefore, more comfortable.
o Increase the moisture absorbency due to the countless minute air spaces because of these
convolutions and kidney-shape, and thus makes the cotton fiber fabric more comfortable
to wear.

Cotton fibers are amongst the finest in common use. They have a length from about 10 mm to 65
mm, depending upon the quality, and diameter is range from about 11 µm to 22 µm.

The micro-structure of Cotton

The cotton fiber is a single plant cell. Its cross-section is oval, compared with the normal
hexagonal plant cell. Cotton has a distinct cuticle, well developed primary and secondary walls
and a lumen.

22
 Figure 4: Morphological structure (micro-structure) of cotton fiber.

The cuticle is a waxy protective layer that provides water resistance to the fibers as they are
growing. This layer is removed by scouring during processing before dyeing and printing.

The primary wall is made up of chains of cellulose called fibrils. These fibrils spiral around the
fiber at 20 - 30 degree angles. Mature cotton fibers have thick primary walls, immature fibers do
not and often collapse and tangle/twist, causing neps when the fibers are being carded and spun.

The winding layer is really the first part of the Secondary wall. It is made up of fibrils that run at
40 - 70 degrees and spiral around the fiber. This layer helps support the rest of the secondary
wall.

The secondary wall is the last layer and it is actually made up of many layers of fibrils, each
layer grows over a day and forms rings, kind of like a tree. The fibrils in the secondary wall are
different in the way they grow, they do not really spiral, they change direction somewhat at
random, making for a zigzag kind of formation. Weak spots can occur in the spots where the
fibrils change direction and the winding layer helps compensate for this.

The lumen is not really a layer per say but rather the hallow tube that runs through the center of
the fiber. When the fibers are growing this tube is filled with fluid (cell sap, proteins, sugars, etc.)
but during processing it empties and collapses, which results in the flat appearance of the fibers
and the kidney/bean appearance of cross sections of the fibers. The lumen is also part of what
makes cotton so very absorbent.

All these layers of fibrils make for a densely packed fiber. Also, as the fibrils layer around each
other they make tons of microscopic capillaries, which also ups cottons absorbency.

PROPERTIES OF COTTON FIBER

Cotton, a unique cellulosic fiber, possesses an outstanding range of properties making it one of
the most popular apparel fibers in use today.

23
Length - It is the shortest natural fiber used commercially in textile industry ranging from 0.5
inch to 1.5 inch in length.

Strength - Strength is one of the most important attributes of cotton and in respect to this
property it stands between wool and silk. The breaking strength of cotton is about 3.0 – 4.9
g/denier and the breaking elongation is about 8 – 10%.

Uniformity - Cotton cannot be considered a uniform material even though a large number of
fibers may be of similar characteristics.

Absorbency - Cotton absorbs moisture readily and can take up to one fifth of its original weight
in water before it actually feels damp.

Heat Conductivity - Cotton is a good conductor of heat. In other words, it draws heat away from
the skin to keep the body cool, making it comfortable to wear. Cotton can also be given a coating
or finish, so can be used in products like heat-resistant fire fighting uniforms.

Blend ability - Cotton can be easily blended with other fibers such as synthetics like polyester or
Lycra. Cotton is naturally very soft and comfortable, that is why it is particularly favored for
garments and under wears that get closed to the skin.

Color - The color of cotton fiber is white to natural cream.

Effect of Temperature - Cotton fibers show an excellent resistance to thermal decomposition.

Prolonged heating even at a temp. of 1000C usually shows the cotton fiber no visible change but
its swelling property and consequently its dyeability is impaired. Cotton decomposes markedly at
1500C forming pyrocellulose.

Effect of Light - The visible area of the spectrum of the sunlight lies roughly between 400 and
800 nm (violet to red). The light having a wave length less than 400 nm is the ultraviolet portion
of the sunlight. In order to carry out a breakage or degradation of the cellulose structure of
cotton, it is required to have a wave length of the light less than about 340 nm. This is why,
under the action of daylight cotton is not subjected to occur any change at all. Exposure to
sunlight for a longer period of time can cause different fibers lose in strength (50% of the initial
value). E.g. Silk – 200 hrs, Viscose – 900 hrs, Cotton – 940 hrs, Flax – 999 hrs, Wool – 1120 hrs.

24
Action of water - Cotton is a very hydrophilic (water loving) fiber and the cool thing about
cotton fiber is when it is gets wet it swells and unlike a lot of other fibers (like silk or rayon)
instead of getting weaker, it gets stronger. The amount of transverse swelling/increase in cross
section (34 – 50%) is more than it is in the parallel direction/increase in length (1 – 2%) to the
fiber axis.

Hygroscopic nature - Under the average humidity conditions, depending on the area of
production, grade and maturity, cotton takes up moisture about 7 – 8 percent of its weight.

Effect of Acids - Since the glucosidal linkage of cellulose concerns an oxygen linkage (acetal
linkage), cellulose is particularly sensitive to H ions, while it is relatively stable to –OH ions, as
long as atmospheric oxygen is absent. Cotton fibers are not affected by weak acids. But
whenever it is brought into contact with concentrated strong acids, the properties of the fiber are
markedly altered and hydrolyzed products of wide range of DP are obtained. As the degradation
proceeds, cellulose loses its strength gradually and ultimately a complete rupture of the total
infrastructure takes place giving a friable powder.

The intermediate product of hydrolysis is referred to as hydrocellulose. Hydrocellulose is not a

chemically individual compound, but a new derivative of cellulose and water from the solution
and its composition depends on the hydrolysis conditions.

Effect of Alkalis - The glucosidal linkage of cotton cellulose is highly resistant to alkali
particularly at lower temperature. At normal temp, cellulose is affected by weak solution of
NaOH not at all. But the boiling in 1% solution of NaOH causes weight loss of cotton due to the
removal of non-cellulosic substances from the fibers.

The fiber is affected by hot alkali solutions to a considerable degree particularly in the presence
of air. In this case, NaOH promotes cellulose oxidation by atmospheric oxygen resulting in the
formation of oxycellulose. For this reason, it is suggested to carry out the scouring of cotton fiber
(treatment with alkali) in a hooded machine.

Alkali also causes a substantially stronger swelling than water. The swelling is believed to occur
due to hydrated alkali molecules entering the amorphous regions of the fibers. The treatment
with a strong solution of NaOH known as mercerization, is usually performed 28 – 300 Be. As a

25
result of treatment, length wise shrinkage of fiber (around 20 to 25%) occurs and it allows to
expand the fiber in diameter at the expense of length.

Mercerization is usually done in textile processing of cellulosic fibers with a view to improve
their affinity to dyestuffs, dimensional stability, chemical reactivity, luster, tensile strength and
smoothness.

Action of Oxidizing Agents - Cotton macromolecule contains three functional groups that are
susceptible to oxidizing agents. For bleaching purposes, raw cotton fibers are treated with several
types of oxidizing agents like sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), sodium perborate (NaBO3),
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), sodium chlorite (NaClO2), etc.

These reagents lead to chemical attack initially on the functional groups and then progressively
cause the chain scission, lowering the DP and almost invariably, reducing the tensile strength of
the fibers.

Products of oxidation of cellulose are usually called ‘oxycellulose’ which differs from each other
to a great extent in their physical as well as chemical properties.

Action of Microorganisms - Cotton fiber can resist moths and most insects, but its natural
constituents that serve as food for the fungi, do make it candidate for mildew. Mildew causes
weakening and rotting the fiber material often characterized by a musty smell. Cotton fibers also
contain mineral substances, which promote their growth.

The micro organisms never attach cellulose where they live but they produce a very complex
substance called enzyme. The biodegradation of cellulose caused by these enzymes (cellulase).
Many kinds of micro organisms, such as fungi, bacteria produce cellulase. This cellulase is
responsible for the degradation of cellulose chain in cotton fiber.

Mildew and bacteria tend to grow on cotton when the moisture content in fibers is around 9%,
the RH is over 93% and the temp reaches 26 to 320C. The attack of bacteria can be so harmful
that the loss in weight of fabrics may be up to 17.5%. Therefore, textile goods should be stored
keeping these things into consideration.

26
Additional cotton terminology

Fox Fiber ®
Naturally colored cotton organically grown. During the 1990s color grown cotton was back in
production, due to the efforts of Sally Fox, an inventor from California, who cultivated long fiber
colored cotton, and created her own patented cotton called "Fox Fiber". Naturally colored cotton
is a naturally pigmented fiber that grows in shades of green and brown.

Sally Fox inspecting cotton

plants in the field 27
 Naturally colorful cotton

The natural color is due to the plant’s inherent genetic properties. Shades of colored cotton can
vary over seasons and geographic location due to climate and soil variations.

Most Fox Fiber is grown organically (called Fox Fiber Colorganic), and requires minimal
processing because it does not need to be dyed. It is used in a wide variety of products today,
including clothing, bedding and furniture.

Organic cotton
Organic cotton is a cotton that is grown without pesticides from plants which are not genetically
modified. Though organic cotton has less environmental impact than conventional cotton, it costs
more to produce.

What is the difference between natural cotton and organic cotton? Organic cotton is grown from
non genetically modified seeds. And the farmer didn't use synthetic fertilizers or pesticides on
the cotton crop.

Organic cotton is grown around the world and must pass the same certification process. Farmers
must verify that they used only acceptable methods and materials when growing organic cotton.
A third party certification organization verifies that the cotton is organic.

How is organic cotton grown? Farmers use natural compost or manure in the place of chemicals.
Harmful pesticides are replaced with organic friendly ladybugs. Instead of spraying chemicals on
the cotton during harvest the fields are flooded to defoliate the plants.

Any machinery used for harvesting organic cotton must be continually cleaned and sterilized.
Any knitting machines that producers use must also be separate from other machinery. This
prevents any other fibers or non organic crops from being combined with the organic cotton.

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Transition cotton
Organic cotton must be grown in fields that have been free of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers
for three years. As farmers switch over to and use organic farming methods the cotton grown
during this three-year period is called transition cotton.

Wal-Mart has been purchasing millions of pounds of transition cotton. This has greatly help
farmers to make the transition to organic farming methods.
Green cotton
Green, or natural, cotton is not organic.

When you see cotton products labeled "natural", you are getting conventional cotton grown with
large inputs of chemicals, pesticides, and herbicides to control weed growth. The only difference
between green and conventional cottons, is in the processing: final product is not supposed to be
treated with formaldehyde or chlorine bleach.

Currently there are no federal inspection guidelines to ensure processing of green, or natural
cotton, is chemical-free. It is important to understand this distinction when shopping for cotton
products. Remember "natural" and "organic" are not at all the same.

Transgenic cotton

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Transgenic cotton, a genetically engineered cotton, carries its own insecticide within the plant
tissues. Also known as Genetically Modified (GM) cotton.

BT Cotton
The BT cotton variety contains a foreign gene obtained from bacillus thuringiensis. This
bacterial gene, introduced genetically into the cotton seeds, protects the plants from bollworm (A.
lepidoptora), a major pest of cotton.

The worm feeding on the leaves of a BT cotton plant becomes lethargic and sleepy, thereby
causing less damage to the plant.

Raingrown Cotton
Cotton grown using mainly water provided by the natural cycle of rainfall rather than artificial
irrigation. Also known as dryland cotton.

Ratoon Cotton
This refers to a cotton crop which is cut back or cropped and then left to grow again for another
season.

Reginned Cotton
This term refers to cotton which has passed through the ginning process more than once, and has
already been baled. It may go through the ginning again for additional cleaning, blending or for
the removal of foreign material.

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