Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Safety informatics as a new, promising and sustainable area of safety

science in the information age
Bing Wang a, b, *, Chao Wu a, b
a
School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, Hunan, PR China
b
Safety & Security Theory Innovation and Promotion Center, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, Hunan, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Safety is a central dimension in contemporary debates on human health, loss prevention, environmental
Received 4 October 2019 protection, sustainability, and cleaner production. In the information age, especially in the era of big data,
Received in revised form safety information is an essential strategy for safety, and safety informatics has become a major research
19 December 2019
interest and a popular issue in the field of safety science. In recent years, safety informaticsda new area
Accepted 21 December 2019
Available online 23 December 2019
of safety sciencedhas received increasing attention, developing greatly with successful research on the
subject. The three key purposes of this paper are: (i) to analyze the historical development of safety
Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Kleme
s informatics, (ii) to review the research progress of safety informatics, and (iii) to review limitations and
propose future directions in the field of safety informatics. First, the development process of safety
Keywords: informatics is divided into four typical stages: (i) the embryonic stage (1940e1980), (ii) the initial stage
Safety science (1980e1990), (iii) the formation stage (1990e2010), and (iv) the deepening stage (2010epresent). Then,
Information science a review of safety informatics research is provided from seven aspects, including: (i) the discipline
Safety information construction of safety informatics, (ii) theoretical safety information model, (iii) accident causation
Safety informatics
model from a safety information perspective, (iv) safety management based on safety information, (v)
Safety 4.0
safety big data, (vi) safety intelligence, and (vii) safety information technology. Finally, limitations and
future research directions in the safety informatics area are briefly discussed.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction environment among other aspects. Magnusson et al. (2015) high-

Because safety-related accidents can cause great casualties,
economic losses, and environmental pollution (Yang et al., 2019;
Wang et al., 2018), they have adverse effects on the sustainable
development of environment, society, and economy (Chen et al.,
2019). This indicates that safety is a vital dimension for debates
on human health, loss prevention, environmental protection, sus-
tainability, and cleaner production. In fact, numerous studies have
shown safety is closely connected to environmental protection,
sustainability, and cleaner production. Huang et al. (2019), and
Dong et al. (2018) proved that safety is closely connected to
pollution prevention and cleaner production. Zhang et al. (2017)
and Wang et al. (2018a) found that accidents of hazardous mate-
rials can pose serious environmental damage to the natural
* Corresponding author. School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central
South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410083, PR China.
E-mail addresses: safeboy@csu.edu.cn, safeboy@csu.edu.cn (B. Wang), wuchao@
csu.edu.cn (C. Wu).
lighted that safety is the precondition and foundation for sustain-
ability, and Tripathi (2017) proposes that urban sustainability can
be achieved through the creation of a safe city. Moreover, sustain-
able development relies on several principles to frame its actions,
many of which are clearly related to safety (Taubitz, 2010). In
addition, from a resource perspective, a common goal of safety,
environmental protection, sustainability, and cleaner production is
loss prevention (Ceccato and Lukyte, 2011). Therefore, developing
efficient safety strategies to reduce safety-related accidents and
their adverse impacts is a top priority in areas of human health, loss
prevention, environmental protection, sustainability, and cleaner
production. In this study, we focus on the information strategy for
safety from the perspective of safety informatics.
Ever since humanity entered the information age, information
science (including information technologies and devices) has
influenced and changed various respects in an amazing way. For
example, there are numerous examples of the integration of in-
formation technology with specific applications (e.g., online shop-
ping, e-commerce, 3D film, 3D printing, digital manufacture, virtual

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119852
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852
manufacture, smart city, face recognition, etc.) (Yu, 2018). More-
over, information science has triggered a revolution in many sci-
entific disciplines; various interdisciplinary fields of information
science and other disciplines (such as earth informatics, medical
informatics, material informatics, molecular informatics, and bio-
informatics) emerged in the information age (Yosipof et al., 2016).
Similarly, information science has a great influence on safety sci-
ence. At present, in the field of safety science, the concept of safety
information from a perspective of system has been proposed, Wang
and Wu (2018a) defined it as the aspect that shows the system
safety state and its changes, as safety information is an essential
strategy for safety, and safety informatics has become a major
research interest and relevant issue (Luo and Wu, 2018).
Safety informatics is a scientific discipline that studies the safety
information phenomenon and its movement laws. Its purpose is to
address the problem of the lack of safety information in safety
management (Wang and Wu, 2018a). This new interdisciplinary
field combines safety science and information science, and is
recognized as a landmark branch of safety science in the informa-
tion era. In previous decades, safety informatics has rapidly
developed and its research has been useful. Since 2017, we have
also conducted many studies on safety informatics.
Theoretically, keeping a record of the historical development
and research progress of a certain discipline should be the foun-
dation to ensure the scientific development of this discipline. Un-
fortunately, there is no review on the development process and
research progress of safety informatics, which impedes its future
development, research, and practice. Therefore, this paper in-
troduces the research progress and development process of safety
informatics, and proposes limitations and future directions for the
same. This study will not only help researchers and practitioners
better understand the historical development and research prog-
ress of safety informatics, but will also lay a foundation for its future
development.
2. Development process
Safety informatics as an emerging interdisciplinary field of in-
formation science and safety science is in its nascent stage. Infor-
mation science and safety science were officially founded in the
1950s and the mid-1970s, respectively (Swuste and Sillem, 2018).
This shows that safety informatics evolved after the mid-1970s.
According to the literature (see Section 2.1), safety informatics
began in the mid-20th century but mainly focused on the stan-
dardized management of safety data (especially, accident data).
With the development of information science and safety science,
safety informatics constantly developed and changed. In fact, the
development of safety informatics is phased, and we can divide the
process into four typical stages (see Fig. 1): (i) the embryonic stage
(1940e1980), (ii) the initial stage (1980e1990), (iii) the formation
stage (1990e2010), and (iv) the deepening stage (2010epresent).
2.1. The embryonic stage (1940e1980)
The origins of safety informatics can be traced back to early
Information Safety science
science formed. formed.
1940 1980
1950 1975
The embryonic stage The initial stage
Fig. 1. Development process of safety informatics.
statistics research on accident data. Two statistical accident the-
ories were achieved in the early statistics research on accident data.
The first is the accident proneness theory (Greenwood, 1950) pro-
posed by Prof. Greenwood and Woods through accident data sta-
tistics in 1991 (Qin and Peng, 2005). The second is Heinrich’s
pyramid (Heinrich et al., 1980) based on the statistical analysis of
occupational accidents. Since the 1940s, statistical and mathe-
matical methods have been widely used to analyze safety data,
especially accident data. For example, in the conference of the In-
ternational Labor Organization (ILO) held in 1948, the frequency of
accidents and injury rates are regarded as the statistical indicators
of accidents (Wu and Wang, 2014).
Starting from the mid-1960s, safety information (especially, on
hazardous materials or high-risk industries) had gradually gained
the attention of the safety community. For example:
(1) According to Robert (1973), the International Occupational
Safety and Health Information Centre (CIS) was established
around 1958;
(2) In 1964, Marchetti (1964) from the American Industrial Hy-
giene and Safety Division published a report entitled “A
Compendium of Radiation Safety Information about Pluto-
nium”, and
(3) In 1965, Cowser (1965) from the Nuclear Safety Information
Centre of the US Atomic Energy Commission published
“Indexed Bibliography of Current Nuclear Safety Literature”,
which is a comprehensive source of literature on nuclear
safety research practice.
Starting in the early 1970s, the research and practice of safety
information received widespread attention from safety scholars,
practitioners, and institutions. For example, in 1970, Mcmahon
pointed that radiation safety information is important to technol-
ogists. Since 1974, the CIS conducted a series of studies to improve
safety information services (Robert, 1973). In 1979, Conder
described how the Dow Chemical Company (which is a world-
famous chemical company) was managing the issue of increasing
demands by regulatory agencies for health and environmental in-
formation. In addition, the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health
and Safety (CCOHS)da national resource for information on occu-
pational health and safetydwas established in 1978 (Abeytunga,
1987).
2.2. The initial stage (1980e1990)
Since the 1980s, information technology developed rapidly and
was widely used in various fields (including safety). As a result,
information science and its branches (such as earth informatics,
medical informatics, material informatics, and bioinformatics)
emerged as new disciplines, while simultaneously, research and
practice of safety informatics also received extensive attention. At
this stage, researchers and practitioners were very concerned about
the supply of safety information, as evinced by the following:
1990 2010 Present
Time
The formation stage The deepening stage
 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852
(1) In 1983, Beck and Feldman investigated and analyzed
information-seeking among safety and health managers;
(2) In 1983, Wu conducted a study on the feedback processing of
safety information, and
(3) In 1985, Nicholson performed a detailed analysis of the ac-
cident information from four industries, which shows that
the use of accident information and its limitations are related
to the identification of risk factors.
In the late 1980s, computers were used to analyze and manage
various types of safety information. Meanwhile, based on the
literature (Balfanz et al., 1992), safety management information
(data) systems were studied and used. In addition, safety infor-
mation services and safety information management were con-
cerned. For example, in 1987, Abeytunga introduced the electronic
safety information service of CCOHS. In 1989, Pantry discussed the
occupational health and safety information services. In 1988, Yu
discussed the management of power plant safety information.
2.3. The formation stage (1990e2010)
Since the 1990s, Chinese scholars and the Chinese government
started to pay attention to the discipline construction of safety
informatics. China is the world leader in terms of the discipline
construction of safety informatics, perhaps because the Chinese
government has always attached great importance to the work of
discipline construction, and has made outstanding contributions to
the same. On November 1, 1992, the State Administration of Science
and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) approved
the “Classification and Code of Disciplines” (GB/T GB/T13745-92)
(implemented on July 1, 1993) (General Administration of Quality
Supervision of the PRC, Inspection and Quarantine of China and
Standardization Administration of the PRC, 1992). The standard
lists Safety Information Engineering as a branch of Safety Man-
agement Engineering (which is a branch of Safety Science and
Technology). This was the first time that China officially declared a
discipline related to safety informatics, and could eventually help
the subject become an independent discipline in the country.
However, it should be noted that safety information engineering is
only a specific branch or field of safety informatics.
On May 6, 2009, the “Classification and Code of Disciplines” (GB/
T GB/T13745-2009) (General Administration of Quality Supervision
of the PRC, Inspection and Quarantine of China and Standardization
Administration of the PRC, 2009) was officially published (imple-
mented on November 1, 2009), by revising the “Classification and
Code of Disciplines” (GB/T GB/T13745-92). In this standard, two
disciplines related to safety informatics (namely, Safety Informa-
tion Theory and Public Safety Information Engineering) are listed.
Specifically, Safety Information Theory is listed as a branch of Safety
Systematics (which is a branch of Safety Science and Technology),
and Public Safety Information Engineering is listed as a branch of
Public Safety (and is also a branch of Safety Science and
Technology).
Moreover, to promote safety informatics as an independent
discipline, some Chinese safety researchers (such as the authors)
embarked on numerous studies on the discipline construction of
safety informatics, which will be discussed in detail in Section 3.1.
Although the formal term ‘safety informatics’ was yet to be coined
in the period from 1990 to 2010, research was conducted on all
aspects of safety informatics, and it has now become a specialized
discipline.
2.4. The deepening stage (2010-present)
Safety informatics was developed along with the development
3
of safety science. Safety science originally emerged in the industrial
field (Ge et al., 2019); in other words, the focus of the earliest safety
science was on industrial safety. Four big revolutions have occurred
in the development process of industry, and as shown in Fig. 2
(Wang et al., 2019a), previously, Industry 1.0 (mechanization
through steam power) changed to mass production and assembly
lines using electricity in Industry 2.0; currently, Industry 4.0 is
taking what was started in Industry 3.0 with the adoption of
computers and automation and enhancing it with smart and
autonomous systems fueled by cyber-physical systems, the Internet
of Things, and other networks. As seen in Fig. 2, the development of
safety science and industrial evolution are aligned. The develop-
ment process of safety science can be divided into four stages: (i)
Safety 1.0 (experience-based safety science), (ii) Safety 2.0 (tech-
nology-based safety science), (iii) Safety 3.0 (systems safety sci-
ence), and (iv) Safety 4.0 (Computational safety scienceda new
paradigm for safety science in the era of big data and Industry 4.0).
From the perspective of safety informatics, with the evolution of
safety science, the complexity in safety science and the amount of
safety information in research and practice of safety science in-
crease gradually. Particularly, as the stage of Safety 3.0 was entered,
which included safety engineering, safety education, safety
enforcement, safety economics, and safety culture, safety infor-
mation became a key safety strategy, and the safety information
theory became one of the core safety theories (General
Administration of Quality Supervision of the PRC, Inspection and
Quarantine of China and Standardization Administration of the
PRC, 2009), see Section 2.3.
Safety 4.0 optimizes the computerization of Safety 3.0 and im-
plements safety informatics as the core foundation and support for
computational safety science, wherein “information is safety, safety
is information” becomes one of the most basic and essential
modern safety management ideas and concepts (Wang and Wu,
2018a). For this reason, since 2010, safety informatics has become
a major research interest and popular issue in the field of safety
science, with a large number of research results on safety infor-
matics achieved in this period, greatly promoting the deepening
development of safety informatics. Moreover, in the stage of Safety
4.0, various emerging information technologies (e.g., artificial in-
telligence, big data, machine learning, cloud computing, the
Internet of Things, blockchain, simulation, autonomous robots,
system integration, the Internet of Systems, etc.) are gradually be-
ing incorporated in safety management and can also bring new
changes to safety informatics.
At present, human society has moved from the information age
to the intelligence age. In the intelligence era (namely, Safety 4.0),
we forecast that a combination of emerging safety information
technologies can make smart safety management a reality. There-
fore, smart safety management will become the focus and ultimate
goal of safety informatics. Meanwhile, as safety intelligence is a
direct foundation and resource to realize smart safety management
(Wang and Wu, 2019), it is an important branch of safety infor-
matics and will be highly relevant to the stage of Safety 4.0. For
example, an intelligence-led approach to realize smart safety
management will be studied and used. Section 3.6 presents a detail
review on safety intelligence research. Of course, safety intelligence
is processed safety information (including safety data), so the
analysis and mining of safety information (especially safety big
data), and big data-driven safety management will be further
strengthened in this stage. In addition, safety informatics can make
safety management more predictive, preventive, personalized, and
precise at this stage as well as the future. In a word, safety infor-
matics must be developed rapidly to fulfill its potential and provide
great value toward safety promotion in the future.
4 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852

The complexity in safety science and the amount of safety information increase gradually.

Mechanization through
steam power
First mechanical loom,
Spinning Jenny, 1784
Electrification through
electrical energy
First assembly line,
Cincinnati slaughterhouse,
1870
?
Computerization and
automation through Intellectualization
computers and through cyber-physical
electronics systems, the Internet of ?
First programmable Things, and networks
logic controller (PLC), Cyber-physical system,
Modicon 084, 1969 2000

End of 18th Beginning of the Early 1970s Beginning of the Today Future Time
century 20th century 21st century

Foundation
and support

Fig. 2. Development process of safety science.

3. Research progress review of safety informatics research of the aforementioned seven

After analysis and induction, existing safety informatics
research mainly focuses on seven aspects (see Fig. 3), namely: (i)
the discipline construction of safety informatics, (ii) theoretical
safety information model, (iii) accident causation model from a
safety information perspective, (iv) safety management based on
safety information, (v) safety big data, (vi) safety intelligence, and
(vii) safety information technology. This section provides a brief
Safety informatics
research
aspects.
3.1. The discipline construction of safety informatics
China is the world leader in terms of the discipline construction
of safety science and has paid much attention to the discipline since
the 1990s (Wang et al., 2020). Safety informatics is an essential
branch of safety science. Over several years, notably since 21st
century, the discipline construction of safety informatics has
received increasing attention from Chinese scholars. Representa-
tive researches are shown in Table 1.
As seen in Table 1, at present, the academic community has
reached a consensus on the importance and need to develop and
study safety informatics. Although basic issues and core principles
of safety informatics have been thoroughly explored and studied,
there is no consensus on how to build the disciplinary system of
safety informatics. The first path is to establish a relatively small
and practical disciplinary system for safety informatics, based on
the safety informatics itself, and aimed at safety management
(Wang and Wu, 2018a). The second is to construct a relatively
extensive and large disciplinary system for safety informatics, ac-
cording to the asymmetric information theory (the phenomenon of
information asymmetry exists in various branches of safety sci-
ence) (Luo and Wu, 2017). We think that a disciplinary system of
safety informatics constructed according to the second path is
unfocused and, thus, lacks practicality; hence, we recommend us-
ing the first path.

3.2. Theoretical safety information model

Safety big data
Theoretical safety information model refers to the theoretical
model proposed or constructed through an in-depth study of a
certain safety information phenomenon to reveal its mechanisms
Fig. 3. The main research fields of safety informatics. and rulesdfrom a theoretical perspective. The theoretical safety
 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852 5

Table 1
List and summary of representative research of the discipline construction of safety informatics.

Year Reference Summary of research

1995 He (1995) He put forward an important conclusion that, the safety information highway is the future direction of safety management science.
2005 Wang and Wang They discussed the status quo and outlook of intelligence and security informatics. In their study, safety informatics research in some safety
(2005) fields (such as public safety) were mentioned.
2007 Li and Chen (2007)They discussed the importance, connotation, extension, and system of safety management information system discipline.
2012 Zhang and Zhu Safety information engineering is a branch of safety informatics. They pointed out that safety information engineering is a vital professional
(2012) course for safety technology and engineering majors, and proposed a framework for the safety information engineering course.
2015 Huang et al. (2015)
They proposed six core principles of safety informatics, namely safety information quality principle, safety information grade principle, safety
information sharing principle, safety information prevention, and control principle, safety information feedback principle, and safety
information supervision principle.
2017 Luo and Wu (2017) They put forward the research methodology of safety informatics, which includes some specific research methods of safety informatics (e.g., the
collection method, the summary method, the statistic method, etc.), and the general procedure for safety informatics research.
2018 Wang and Wu They analyzed reasons for the establishment of safety informatics. According to their analysis, the establishment of safety informatics has a
(2018a) profound theoretical and practical basis. Meanwhile, they deeply explored the ten basic disciplinary issues of safety informatics (including its
definition, connotation, attribute, foundation, research object, etc.).

information model is the core of the basic theory of safety infor-
matics. In recent years, various theoretical safety information
models have been developed. The existing representative theoret-
ical safety information models are shown in Table 2, according to
which, at present, research on the safety information cognition
model has become relatively thorough, but are only in initial stages
for other theoretical safety information models. Therefore, there is
an urgent need for in-depth theoretical and empirical application
research based on available theoretical safety information models.
3.3. Accident causation model from a safety information
perspective
Accident causation models aim to help understand and explain
how and why accidents occur (Kim and Yoon, 2013). They can
provide a theoretical foundation for accident investigation and
analysis, hazard analysis, and accident prevention and control
strategies (Katsakiori et al., 2009). Therefore, accident causation
models are akin to important safety science principles (Hughes
et al., 2015). Because safety information is a key factor in any ac-
cident (Wu and Huang, 2019), it is an indispensable perspective to
discover the accident causation mechanism (Wang and Wu, 2018e).
At present, more than fifty accident causation models exist in the
literature (Hughes et al., 2015), among which 13 were developed
from a safety information perspective (see Table 3). If we attempt to
classify the accident models from a safety information perspective,
we can divide them into two types (see Table 3): First, “accident
causation models at the individual level”, namely, “human infor-
mation processing accident models” (Katsakiori et al., 2009), which
describe the accident in terms of human behavior and actions from

Table 2
Representative theoretical safety information models.

No. Model Type Main researches

1 Safety information cognition model
2 Safety information flow model
3 Safety information supply model
4 Safety information literacy (including safety
Wang and Wu (2018c) proposed the concept of safety information literacy for the first time, and constructed a safety
data literacy) model
5 Safety information behavior model
6 Safety information communication, diffusion
Wincek (2011) put forth a concise communication method for critical process safety information;
or transmission model
7 Safety information collection and analysis
model
8 Safety information feedback model

Leiter and Rheinberger (2016) developed a model of how athletes engaged in risky sports value safety information;

Wu (2017a,b) constructed a general safety information cognition model to reveal the mechanism and fault mode of
safety information transmission in complex systems;

Luo and Wu (2018) proposed a safety information cognition approach to reveal the accident mechanism, and

Lei et al. (2018) developed a safety information cognitive process model.

Westrum (2014) summed up his research and understanding of safety information flow. We think that his opinions
on the safety information flow can provide an important insight into research on the safety information flow model;

Wang and Wu (2018a) suggested that, in a system, the safety material flow, the safety energy flow, and the safety
behavior flow can be unified into the safety information flow, and

Wu and Huang (2019) built a system safety information flow structure model.

Many researches (e.g., Drupsteen and Boustras, 2016; Ferguson et al., 2011) pointed out that effective safety in-
formation supply is essential to ensure safety;

Wang and Wu (2018b) proposed a theoretical model for safety information supply, and

Shang (2017) discussed a public safety information sharing model, and

Kaza and Chen (2008) surveyed public safety information sharing initiatives.
information literacy model (according to their model, safety information literacy mainly includes four aspects,
namely, safety information demand consciousness, safety information acquisition ability, safety information eval-
uation ability, and safety information utilization ability);

Yang (2012) explored and constructed a model for information literacy of safety professionals in safety management,
and

Wang et al. (2019b) presented a theoretical framework for data literacy for safety professionals in safety
management.

Wang and Wu (2018d) proposed the concept of safety information behavior for the first time, and constructed a meta
model for safety information behavior which explained the mechanism of safety information behavior, that is ‘safety
information need/safety information demand/safety information motivation/safety information seeking
behavior/safety information utilization behavior’, and

Huang et al. (2017a) constructed a conceptual model of individual safety information capacity.

Xia (2015) built a quality and safety information diffusion model, and

Many scholars (e.g., Xiao et al., 2018) developed product or food safety information transmission models.

The Merseyside Accident Information Model (Davies and Manning, 1994a) can collect all available accident data
without writing, typing or coding, and accident data are immediately available for analysis.

Wu (1983) built a safety information feedback model.
6 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852

Table 3
Accident causation models from a safety information perspective.

Model type No. References Year Model Brief explanation

Individual level 1 Surry (1969)
2 Cui (1995)
3 Qin and Peng (2005)
4 Lawrence (1974)
5 Qin and Peng (2005)
6 Katsakiori et al. (2009)
7 Hale and Glendon (1987), as 1987 Hale and Glendon model
well as Lacroix and DeJoy
(1989)
8 Katsakiori et al. (2009)
Organizational 9 Leveson (2004)
(systemic)
level
10 Zhao and Zhou (2012)
11 Li et al. (2017)
12 Wang and Wu (2018e)
13 Wu and Huang (2019)
1969 Surry model
1970 Hale model
1972 Wigglesworth model
1974 Lawrence model
1978 Anderson model
1987 SRK framework
1998 CREAM
2004 STAMP model
2012 Accident causation model
based on safety information
missing
2017 Multilevel safety information Information asymmetry is the main cause of accidents in the organization.
asymmetry model
2018 FDA accident model
2019 Accident model based on
information flow
The error in human information processing can cause dangers.
An accident occurs when humans do not respond appropriately to the actual
situation of the event (namely, safety information).
Various information constantly acts on people’s senses, stimulating them. If
people react appropriately to the stimulus, an accident will not occur. On the
contrary, if people react to the stimulus incorrectly or improperly, risks may
occur, which may cause accidents.
Human error is the cause of accidents in gold mining. The most dominant of
human errors are failures to perceive warnings (namely, warning information) of
danger.
Based on the extension and amendment of the Surry model, the Anderson model
was proposed. It is similar to the Surry model.
SRK (Skill-, Rule-, and Knowledge-based behavior) framework distinguishes
between three different levels of human cognitive control of the environment.
Hale and Glendon’s model is concerned with safety perceptions and decisions,
and is based on the attribution theory which focuses on how people process
information in determining the causality of events.
CREAM (Cognitive Reliability and Error Analysis Method) describes the full
context in which errors and accidents occur.
STAMP (System-Theoretic Accident Model and Process) regards systems as
interrelated components that are kept in a state of dynamic equilibrium by
feedback loops of information and control.
Safety information is an informational expression of various factors of accidents.
The lack of safety information is the main potential cause of accidents.
FDA (Forecast-Decision-Action) accident model points out that, in the absence of
safety spoofing, the lack of safety information is the main cause of failures in
safety forecast, safety decision-making, and safety action.
The role of information flow in accident causation is profound. The breakdown of
information flow (such as the failure of information acquisition) can potentially
cause an accident.

a perspective of human safety information processing. Second,
“accident causation models at the organizational (systemic) level
(Katsakiori et al., 2009)”, namely, “organizational (systemic) infor-
mation processing accident models”, which indicate that the root
cause of accidents in the organization (system) is the lack of safety
information or the asymmetric safety information.
As seen in Table 3, different accident causation models from a
safety information perspective focus on different aspects and are
associated with different causes of an accident. Over time, the
evolution of accident causation models from a safety information
perspective has witnessed a shift from searching for immediate
causes at the individual level to the recognition of multiple causes
in the whole organization or at the organizational (systemic) level.
It is important to note that accident causation models at the
organizational (systemic) level, such as FDA accident model and
accident model based on information flow, involve not only orga-
nizational (systemic) factors but also individual factors. This shows
that the accident can be understood, explained, and analyzed more
systematically and comprehensively by adopting accident causa-
tion models at the organizational (systemic) level than at the in-
dividual level. At present, from a safety information perspective,
accident causation models at the individual level have been
extensively studied, however, there is a lack of in-depth exploration
of accident causation models at the organizational (systemic) level
as these have not been thoroughly applied to accident investigation
and analysis, nor to accident prevention and control. Therefore, in
the future, theoretical research of these aspects and its application
should be strengthened.
3.4. Safety management based on safety information
Information is a critical component of the problem-solving
process (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Accordingly, safety management
focuses on safety problem-solving with safety information as the
foundation. Therefore, safety management must be based on reli-
able and sufficient safety information. Wang and Wu (2019) state
that “the road to safety must pass through safety information”,
emphasizing that the essence of safety management lies in the
related information-based processes, and providing effective safety
information services for safety management should be the ultimate
goal and core task of safety informatics research. Thus, safety
management based on safety information is one of the major
research fields of safety informatics, and its research can be cate-
gorized into four major groups: (i) the importance and influence of
safety information for safety management, (ii) safety information-
based safety management approaches, (iii) safety behavior inter-
vention based on safety information, and (iv) safety information
management.
3.4.1. The importance and influence of safety information for safety
management
Presently, it is widely acknowledged that safety information is
an important basic element for solving safety problems (Wang
et al., 2017). For example, Jørgensen (2008) pointed out that sys-
tematic use of information from accidents (typically, accident in-
formation is a common and important source of safety information)
forms a basis for accident prevention activities. Wang et al. (2017)
found that many safety management failures in organizations
occur due to the lack of necessary safety information for safety
management (especially, safety decision-making). To reveal the
influencing mechanism of safety information on safety manage-
ment behavior (including safety forecast behavior, safety decision-
making behavior, and safety action (implementation) behavior),
Wang and Wu (2018f) constructed a model for safety information-
based safety management, that is, the SI-SB (Safety Information-
Safety Behaviors) system safety model (see Fig. 4).
 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852 7

In addition, a series of specific studies on the influence of safety 3.4.3. Safety behavior intervention based on safety information
information for safety management have been conducted. For Safety behavior intervention is one of the major aspects of safety
example, Seppa €nen and Virrantaus (2015) discussed the influence management. To intervene safety behaviors, behavior-based safety
of safety information quality on disaster management; Niu (2012) management was proposed and widely implemented (Choudhry,
analyzed the safety information needs of community emergency 2014). According to the IDAC model (which is composed of
managers; Wybo (2013) showed that temporal coherence of in- models of information processing (I), problem-solving and
formation is a key factor for efficient crisis prevention. Moreover, decision-making (D), and action execution (A) of a crew (C))
the information literacy (Yang, 2012) and data literacy (Wang et al., (Mosleh and Chang, 2004), the information-motivation-behavioral
2019a,b) of safety professionals in safety management were pro- skills (IMB) model (Fisher and Fisher, 1992, 2000), and accident
posed and discussed. However, in the field of the importance and causation models from a safety information perspective in Section
influence of safety information for safety management, most 2.3 (see Table 3), safety information has an important influence on
studies are superficial and theoretical, and profound studies safety behaviors (including both individual and organizational
(especially quantitative analyses and research) are still missing. safety behaviors). Safety information is an element that influences
and controls safety behaviors. In terms of individual safety behavior
intervention based on safety information, a series of representative
3.4.2. Safety information-based safety management approaches
research has been obtained in recent years, specifically:
In the information age, key safety management strategies
include safety engineering, safety education, safety enforcement,
(1) Wang et al. (2018b) proposed a model for safety behavior
safety economics, safety culture, and safety information. For
intervention based on safety information, that is the “safety
instance, Shi and Liang (2008) suggested that information strategy
information-safety knowledge-safety awareness-safety be-
is an important strategy for emergency management in enterprises.
haviors (S-IKPB)” model;
In order to effectively solve the problem of the lack of safety in-
(2) Huang et al. (2018a) studied the individual behavioral safety
formation for safety management, some effective, feasible, and
mechanism and its influence factors based on safety infor-
practical safety management approaches based on safety infor-
mation cognition;
mation have been proposed, namely: (i) the evidence-based safety
(3) Drupsteen and Boustras (2016) researched the effectiveness
approach (Wang et al., 2017), (ii) safety knowledge management
of safety information for workplace visitors; their study
(Hallowell, 2012), (iii) data-driven safety management (Wang et al.,
shows how safety instructions for visitors could be better
2019c), and (iv) safety management information system (Wang and
focused;
Zhang, 1999) or safety information database for safety management
(4) Wang et al. (2015) explored the effect of information sharing
(Chen et al., 2016). Although the aforementioned new safety
and communication on driver’s risk taking;
management approaches have been proposed, many studies on
(5) Ferguson et al. (2011) and Shen et al. (2013) explored the
themdsuch as empirical research, their applications in different
effect of safety information on human safety willingness and
industries or fields, quantitative analysis of factors influencing their
attitudes;
usedare yet to be performed. Therefore, more studies on these
(6) Waard et al. (2004) measured how much visual information
approaches are urgently needed.
from the road is required for proper and safe driving, and
Moreover, many scholars have carried out numerous studies on
(7) Hinks et al. (2009) studied the influence of chemical safety
safety information-based safety management in specific fields or
information on chemical disposal behaviors.
aspects of safety management. For example, Lind and Kivisto €-
Rahnasto (2008) discussed the utilization of external safety infor-
However, there is little research on organizational safety
mation or, more specifically, accident information in companies’
behavior intervention based on safety information. Therefore, we
safety promotion; Chung et al. (2012) proposed a framework for the
need to strengthen research in this area. Of course, a handful of
integration of plant safety information repository with safety-
studies, such as the FDA accident model and the accident model
related tools; Manning et al. (2000) believed that the Merseyside
based on information flow (see Table 3), involve the influence of
Accident Information Model (see Table 2) is a new approach to
safety information on organizational safety behaviors. According to
accident prevention; Pasquini et al. (2008) discussed how to elicit
these studies, certain potential strategies for organizational safety
information for safety assessment.

Safety forecast Safety decision

space in a system
Safety behavior

information information

System
Safety information
space in a system

Select

Fig. 4. SI-SB (Safety Information-Safety Behavior) system safety model (adopted from Wang and Wu (2018f)).
8 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852
behavior intervention (such as an evidence-based safety approach)
can be developed.
3.4.4. Safety information management
With the increase of safety information in safety management,
and the increased reliance of safety management on safety infor-
mation, safety information management has become increasingly
vital, making it central to information-based safety management. In
recent years, the academic sector has extensively carried out uni-
versal safety information management (Gielen et al., 2009), as well
as management on various specific types of safety information,
such as emergency information (Yao and Hu, 2016), accident in-
formation (Lind and Kivisto € -Rahnasto, 2008), error information
which may lead to accidents or disasters (Li, 2013), occupational
safety information (Keller and Cunningham, 2016), chemical (pro-
cess) safety information (Aziz et al., 2014), traffic safety information
(Abdi and Meddeb, 2017), food safety information (Peng et al.,
2009), and patient safety information (Sheikhtaheri et al., 2013).
In addition, safety management information or data systems as
effective tools for managing safety information have been exten-
sively studied and applied in safety management (Jung et al., 2008).
3.5. Safety big data
In recent years, due to the rapid growth of data, big data has
become a hot buzzword in various disciplines. The research object
of safety informatics includes safety data. With the arrival of the era
of big data, we can claim that safety informatics has entered the era
of safety big data. For this reason, in the last five years, safety big
data has become a major research interest and popular resource in
safety informatics, with the number of studies on safety big data
rapidly increasing. After an induction and classification, existing
studies on safety big data mainly involve the following three
aspects:
(i) Basic theories of safety big data. Studies in this area include
two main aspects: the construction of safety big data disci-
pline, and the basic theory of the application of safety big
data. For the construction of the discipline of safety big data,
Wang and Wu (2017) stated that safety big data science is an
important branch of safety informatics in the era of big data.
According to them, safety big data science is an applied sci-
ence that studies various safety phenomena based on the
analysis of safety big data, and its core purpose is to reveal
safety laws and rules hiding in safety big data to realize the
value of safety big data in safety management. In terms of
basic theory of the application of safety big data, Ouyang
et al. (2018) explored the methodologies, principles, and
prospects of applying big data in safety science research.
Moreover, Wang and Zhang (2018), as well as Ouyang and
Wu (2017), studied the safety big data sharing model.
(ii) Application of safety big data in safety management. Safety
big data has been applied to five specific aspects of safety
management (see Table 4), namely: safety decision-making,
safety monitoring, accident investigation and analysis,
safety risk prevention and control, and emergency
management.
(iii) Application of safety big data in safety management in spe-
cific fields. In recent years, the use of safety big data in safety
management in various specific areas, such as work safety
(Zhou, 2016), traffic safety (Shi and Abdel-Aty, 2015), public
safety (Cao et al., 2017), food safety (Marvin et al., 2017), and
patient safety (Linnen, 2016) has been widely discussed.
Safety big data is an emerging field in safety informatics
research. In recent years, although researchers have conducted
some exploratory studies on safety big data, there are many issues
(especially basic theories of safety big data, such as theories and
methods on the quality, collection, and analysis of safety big data)
that urgently need to be extensively studied. In our view, the basic
theories of safety big data are the core of big safety data research,
and the application of safety big data in safety management should
be based on basic theories of safety big data. At the same time, the
application of big data in some key areas, such as the safety of
critical facilities and equipment, major engineering safety, nuclear
safety, chemical safety, aviation safety, urban safety, and public
safety, needs to be strengthened.
3.6. Safety intelligence
Intelligence plays an increasingly important role in many do-
mains in the current “intelligence” age. Against this backdrop, the
concept of safety intelligence was also proposed by Wang and Wu
(2019). Safety intelligence is the safety information that can affect
safety management. This shows that safety intelligence is different
from safety information. In other words, while all safety intelli-
gence is safety information, all safety information is not safety in-
telligence. Safety management requires the support of safety
intelligence, hence, high-quality safety intelligence is indispensable
for safety management. Moreover, safety intelligence is a direct
foundation and is the catalyst to realizing intelligent safety man-
agement (Wang and Wu, 2019). For these reasons, emergency in-
telligence (which is an important type of safety intelligence) has
recently become an extremely popular topic in intelligence studies
(Li and Li, 2015a,b). Since 2018, some safety scientists such as Wang
and Wu (2019) also started to pay attention to safety intelligence
and develop its studies. As the essence of safety intelligence lies in
safety information, safety intelligence science must be the next
important research field in safety informatics (Wang and Wu,
2018g). Safety intelligence research presents five conspicuous
features:
(1) The discipline construction of safety intelligence science has
received initial attention, and we have built a theoretical
framework for safety intelligence science;
(2) The theories and methodologies of safety intelligence (e.g.,
the approach to obtaining and analyzing safety intelligence,
the theoretical framework of safety intelligence system, the
affect mechanism of safety intelligence for safety manage-
ment, the safety management model based on safety intel-
ligence, and intelligence-led safety management approach)
have been examined and briefly introduced by Wang and Wu
(2019);
(3) Existing research mainly focuses on public safety (Tang,
2017; Xue, 2011) and urban safety (Li and Li, 2015a,b),
while research in other safety fields is extremely rare;
(4) Existing research mainly focuses on abnormal safety man-
agement (namely, emergency management) (Li and Li,
2015a,b), and research for the whole process of safety man-
agement is rare, and
(5) Researchers mainly stem from the fields of intelligence sci-
ence and public administration, therefore, as there are a
handful of safety scholars who conduct safety intelligence
research, it leads to a lack of safety intelligence research from
a safety science perspective.
At present, research on basic theories of safety intelligence sci-
ence is still very scarce, which seriously hinders the research and
practice of safety intelligence science. We suggest that research on
basic theories of safety intelligence science must be further
 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852 9

Table 4
List of typical applications of safety big data in safety management.

No. Area Main researches

1 Safety decision-making
Huang et al. (2018b) developed a conceptual framework for big data-driven safety decision-making, and analyzed the influencing
factors of safety decision-making based on big data, and

To use data-driven safety decision-making to realize smart safety management in the era of big data, Wang et al. (2019c) stated the
definition, benefits, theoretical foundations, fundamental elements, and influencing factors of data-driven safety decision-making.
2 Safety monitoring
Shi and Abdel-Aty (2015) discussed the application of big data in urban highway safety monitoring, and

Bychkov et al. (2016) discussed the application of big data in ground-based safety monitoring.
3 Accident investigation and
Huang et al. (2017b) proposed a new paradigm for accident investigation and analysis in the era of big data, and
analysis
Huang and Zhou (2019) developed a mine accident prediction and analysis approach based on multimedia big data.
4 Safety risk prevention and
Walker and Strathie (2016) suggested that the big data and ergonomics methods is a new paradigm for tackling strategic transport
control safety risks, and

Cao et al. (2017) and Wang et al. (2018) discussed safety risk early-warning and governance based on big data.
5 Emergency management
Ragini et al. (2018) highlighted that the real-time categorization and classification of social media big data can ensure effective disaster
response and recovery,

Guo and Liu (2016) conducted a study on emergency data quality governance in the era of big data, and

Many other studies (e.g., Pang, 2015; Ma and Mao, 2015; Wu, 2017a,b) explored the application of big data in emergency management.

examined closely in the future. Moreover, we appeal to an
increasing number of safety scientists to engage in safety intelli-
gence science research.
3.7. Safety information technology
There is a general consensus that technology can improve safety
and since the 1980s, rapid developments in information technology
have led to it being widely used in the field. As a result, safety in-
formation technology becomes one of the major safety technolo-
gies and usually includes the use of electronic safety records and
other information technologies in one location. Safety information
technology can enhance safety monitoring, analysis, and predic-
tion; decrease human errors; and improve the efficiency of safety
management. In short, safety information technology is crucial for
modern safety management, leading to concerns from safety re-
searchers and practitioners about the research and use of safety
information technology. For example, an Information Technologies
for Safety Management conferencewas held in November 2011 in
Wuhan, China (Ding and Li, 2013) to discuss the same.
At present, according to the content of safety management,
typical safety information technologies mainly concentrate on five
aspects (see Table 5): safety monitoring (e.g., Aguilar and Hewage,
2013), accident prevention and control (e.g., Birkinshaw et al.,
1998), disaster prevention and control (e.g., Hiroyuki et al., 2015),
safety risk management (e.g., Hegde and Rokseth, 2020), safety
education and training (e.g., Smith and Ericson, 2009), and emer-
gency management (e.g., Sebillo et al., 2016). From the perspective
of the industry, existing safety information technologies mainly
involve eight industries, namely, construction safety (Ding and Li,
2013), transportation safety (Sun et al., 2010), chemical safety,
mining safety (Ma et al., 2019; Liang et al., 2019), food safety (Deasy,
2002), patient safety (Alotaibi and Federico, 2017), public safety
(Surobhi and Jamalipour, 2014), and urban safety.
As seen in Table 5, current safety information technologies cover
a wide range of systems and there is no doubt that safety infor-
mation technology will innovate with the development of infor-
mation technology. Therefore, with the continuous advancement of
information technology, especially with the emergence of various
new information technologies (such as big data technology,
blockchain technology, cloud computing, machine learning, artifi-
cial intelligence technology, and data mining technology), a series
of new safety information technologies are bound to emerge. What
is certain is that the future development direction of safety infor-
mation technology will be more automated and faster, and that the
number of intelligent technologies on safety information (data)
collection, analysis, processing, and use will grow. Meanwhile, we
should pay attention to the effective integration of information
technology and safety management practice. In addition, safety
information technology can also promote safety science research.
4. Discussion
In recent years, safety informatics has received increasing
attention and, thus, greatly developed, with a significant number of
research results having been achieved. However, limitations and
suggestions for future research still need to be outlined. Based on
Section 2 and Section 3, from a macro perspective, this section at-
tempts to provide a brief discussion on the limitations and the
future research directions in the safety informatics area.
First, the system of a discipline directly determines if the
discipline develops scientifically. However, as safety informatics is
an emerging area of safety science, there is no consensus on basic
factors of safety informatics as a discipline (including its definition,
connotation, attribute, foundation, research object, etc.) and/or
how to build a disciplinary system of safety informatics. Therefore,
future research should concentrate on the discipline construction
of safety informatics.

Table 5
List of typical safety information technologies.

No. Area Examples of main safety information technologies

1 Safety monitoring
2 Accident (disaster) prevention
and control
3 Safety risk management
4 Safety education and training
5 Emergency management
GIS, GPS, sensor technology, database technology, network technology, communication technology, etc.
Computer simulation technology, database technology, virtual reality technology, image measurement technology, big data
technology, etc.
Machine learning technology, big data technology, assisted decision-making support system, artificial neural network technology,
etc.
Multimedia technology, computer network technology, animation technology, virtual reality technology, visualization technology,
etc.
Internet of things technology, network technology, assisted decision-making support system, visualization technology, database
technology, artificial intelligence technology, etc.
10 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852
Second, existing safety informatics research mainly illustrates
safety informatics models and approaches (such as safety infor-
mation models, safety behavior intervention models based on
safety information, accident causation models from a safety infor-
mation perspective, and safety information-based safety manage-
ment approaches) from a theoretical perspective. Therefore, safety
information models and approaches in existing research still need
to be further developed and proved by using case studies and
survey-based researches, in other words, through empirical
research on safety information models and approaches.
Third, it is difficult to find studies that evaluate the usefulness of
an accident causation model from a safety information perspective.
Many studies that propose a new accident causation model from a
safety information perspective have included case studies of only
one specific accident. To validate the usefulness of an accident
causation model in explaining how accidents occur, the model
should be applied to a much larger sample of accidents.
Fourth, numerous theoretical safety information models and
accident causation models from a safety information perspective
have been developed, but little effort has been devoted toward
systematically evaluating their potential strengths and methods of
application. Therefore, future research should analyze their po-
tential strengths and explore methods of application.
Fifth, most safety informatics studies are qualitative, and
quantitative analyses and studies are still missing. For example, it is
difficult to find published research that performs a quantitative
analysis and research on the importance and influence of safety
information for safety management, and factors influencing the use
of safety information-based safety management approaches.
Therefore, the measurement of the desired effects of safety infor-
mation for safety management, and the quantitative analysis of
factors influencing the use of safety information-based safety
management approaches must be conducted in the future.
Sixth, safety big data science and safety intelligence science are
two new branches of safety informatics in the era of big data and
the intelligence age, and have brought new changes in the field of
safety informatics. However, there is still a lack of in-depth research
and practical application of safety big data science and safety in-
telligence science in safety informatics. Future research of safety big
data science and safety intelligence science needs to be carried out
under the guidance of the theoretical framework for safety big data
science and safety intelligence science in the literature (Wang and
Wu, 2018g).
Seventh, at present, various safety information technologies
have been widely used for safety promotion. However, the use of
safety information technologies to improve safety is limited in the
field of safety informatics. Future studies must make use of newer,
available information technologies (such as big data technology,
blockchain technology, cloud computing, machine learning, artifi-
cial intelligence technology, and data mining technology) to create
new and effective safety information technologies.
Eighth, although some published researches discussed safety
informatics combined with factors such as the big data era, Safety
4.0, Industry 4.0, and the intelligence age, discussion on opportu-
nities, challenges, and research paradigm changes of safety infor-
matics in relation to the same factors is not in-depth and specific
enough. In the future, the data-driven research paradigm for safety
informatics, and the theory and method of safety informatics to-
wards computational safety science should be concerned and
studied.
Finally, in the stage of Safety 4.0, Industry 4.0, and the intelli-
gence age, smart safety management will become the focus and
ultimate goal of safety informatics. However, discussions on pre-
vious achievements in smart safety management largely focused on
technology, and there has been no achievement in terms of system
design or realization under the smart safety management frame-
work. Therefore, more research on smart safety management is
urgently needed in the future. These should include research on:
(1) fundamental questions (such as what it is, its benefits, and its
fundamental elements) concerning smart safety
management;
(2) a smart safety management model;
(3) the analysis of factors influencing the use of smart safety
management;
(4) intelligence-led approach to realize smart safety
management;
(5) smart safety management standards and protocols;
(6) smart safety management automated devices;
(7) smart safety training and education;
(8) decision support systems for smart safety management;
(9) new information technologies (e.g., big data, blockchain,
machine learning, cloud computing, artificial intelligence,
augmented/virtual/mixed reality, etc.) applications for smart
safety management;
(10) smart safety management applications in different
industries;
(11) smart safety management in legacy industrial environments;
(12) the combination of smart safety management and traditional
safety management approaches; and
(13) behavioral and organizational issues in smart safety
management.
5. Conclusion
Safety is of utmost importance to human health, loss preven-
tion, environmental protection, sustainability, and cleaner pro-
duction. In the information era, safety information is a vital strategy
for safety promotion, and safety informaticsdas a new and
promising area of safety sciencedshould be paid more attention by
researchers and practitioners. Safety informatics has undergone
four stages to date, namely, the embryonic stage (1940e1980), the
initial stage (1980e1990), the formation stage (1990e2010), and
the deepening stage (2010epresent). Thus far, safety informatics
research results have been very fruitful and focus on seven aspects:
(i) the discipline construction of safety informatics, (ii) theoretical
safety information model, (iii) accident causation model from a
safety information perspective, (iv) safety management based on
safety information, (v) safety big data, (vi) safety intelligence, and
(vii) safety information technology. In addition, with the rapid
development and innovation of information science and safety
science, safety informatics will develop rapidly in the future, and
will present several new opportunities and challenges. Therefore,
future research on safety informatics is not only necessary, but also
promising. There is a need for numerous safety informatics scholars
and practitioners to collaborate to promote the healthy develop-
ment of safety informatics. Finally, it should be noted that this study
is based on the doctoral dissertation entitled ‘Study on the Basic
Theories of Safety & Security Informatics towards Safety & Security
Management’ by Wang, who is the first author of this paper, and
received a doctorate of safety science and engineering from Central
South University in China in 2019.
Author contribution section
Bing Wang designed the research framework and drafted the
manuscript, Chao Wu revised the manuscript.
 B. Wang, C. Wu / Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020) 119852
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by the Major Program of National Social
Science Fund of China (grant number s18ZDA049 and 19ZDA142),
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant numbers
51534008 and 71904095), and the Beijing Natural Science Foun-
dation (grant number 9194027).
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