Sand Control 155

standalone screens (Section 3.5) are also unlikely to be successful. There are cases of
engineers deliberately perforating sand control completions to increase productivity
(Peggs et al., 2005).
Negative skin factors are often associated with sand production. This is used to
advantage with CHOPS (Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand) completions for
example. Walton et al. (2001) examine the perforating of unconsolidated sandstones
and with the aid of modelling confirms the long held belief that a stable arch can
develop even though the perforation collapses. Ablation of sand from this
hemispherical arch extends the zone of plastic deformation into the formation.
As the formation expands, porosity and permeability increases. Massive cavities
behind pipe are unlikely to occur in these weak sandstones.
Accepting a degree of sand production requires an understanding and mitigation
of the associated risks:
1. Erosion of tubulars and surface equipment especially where high-velocity gas is
involved. Sand fill can also interfere with the use of corrosion inhibitors.
2. Reducing the effectiveness or lifetime of artificial lift.
3. Fill of completions obscuring lower intervals and limiting well intervention.
4. Filling of surface equipment such as separators.
5. Interference with the sealing of valves and the operation of instrumentation.
Erosion of tubulars and surface equipment can be mitigated by reducing flowline
bends, appropriate sizing to reduce velocities, upgraded wall thicknesses, and better
materials (duplex instead of carbon steel for example). As part of the upfront design,
erosion potential can be mapped (Andrews et al., 2005). Increased inspection (wall
thickness checks on critical flowline bends for example) and maintenance may be
required. Erosion-resistant chokes (e.g. tungsten carbide or ceramic) can be
deployed. Erosion and the impact of solids production on erosion rate for different
materials is discussed in Section 8.2.6 (Chapter 8). Erosion is particularly a problem
for subsea developments where access and inspection is restricted and flexible
flowlines are common.
Chapter 6 can be used to assist in the choice of sand tolerant artificial lift systems.
Gas lift and progressive cavity pumps (PCPs) are generally more sand tolerant than
electrical and hydraulic submersible pumps (ESPs and HSPs).
The tendency of wells to fill up with sand will depend on the flow rate,
completion sizes, pressures, etc. It will also depend on the produced sand grain size.
The well performance section (Chapter 5) provides guidance on the use of
multiphase models that can be used to calculate the settling velocity. For a vertical
well, it is straightforward to estimate the settling velocity of the solids (essentially a
simplified form of Stokes’ law) (Danielson, 2007). In a deviated well, with a
dispersed flow regime, the velocity on the low side of the well must be calculated.
At lower velocities, migratory dunes can form, but this still involves transport of the
solids. The critical areas for sand accumulation will be in the 50–601 hole angle and
where pressures are highest and flow areas greatest. In practice, even with high
enough velocities to lift solids out of the completion, solids can still settle across the
production interval as shown simplistically in Figure 3.20. The point at which solids
can be produced depends on flow rate, fluid viscosity and particle size and density.