2

CONTENTS
1. ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
EM.1 EM.42
1. Elementary Materials Science Concepts
1-5
2 Dielectric Properties of Insulators in Static and Alternating Field
6-14
3. Magnetic Properties and Superconductivity
15-24
4 Conductivity of Metals
25-33
Semiconductor Materials
34-42
2. PoWER SYSTEM-II
PS.1 PS.74
1. Basic Concepts of Power System
1-10
Power System Components
11-46
Over-voltages and Insulation Requirements
47-52
4 Fault Analysis and Protection Systems
53-63
5. Introduction to DC Transmission and Renewable Energy Systems
64- 74

3. CoNTROL SYSTEM o
CS.1 CS.78
Introduction to Control Problem
1-14
2. Time Response Analysis
15-29
3. Frequency Response Analysis
30-42
4. Introduction to Controller Design 43-60
5. State Variable Analysis and Optimal & Nonlinear Control 61 78

4. MICROPROCESSOR
o MP.1 MP.70
1. Fundamentals of Microprocessors 1-13
2 The 8051 Architecture 14-26
3 Instruction Set and Programming
27-45
4. Memory and VO Interfacing
46 60
External Communication Interface and Applications 61 70

Cii)
 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGNO EMD.1- EMD.50
5.
Major Consideration for Design 1-7
8 20
Transformers

Induction Motors 21-30

3.
Synchronous Machines 31-45

Computer Aided Design (CAD)

46-50

RESTRUCTURED PoWER SYSTEM RPS.1 RPS.46

6.
Introduction to Restructuring of Power Industry
1-8
1.

Fundamentals of Economics
9-16
2.
17-23
3. The Philosophy of Market Models

Transmission Congestion Management

24-30
4.
31-37
5. Ancillary Service Management
38-46
6. Pricing of Transmission Network Usage and Market Power

TEST PAPERS M.1 M.8

OMoDEL

Civ)
Electrical Materials
ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
ELEMENTARY MATERIALS
SCIENCE CONCEPTS
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
PART-A
Q.1 Define resistivity of a material.
Ans. Resistivity of Material: Resistivity is known as
specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity. It can be
defined as the intrins property ofa given material that shows
how it opposes the flow of current.
9.2 How does temperature affect resistivity?
Ans. Temperature affect on Resistivity: Resistivity is
affected by temperature and for most materials the resistivity
increases with temperature. An exception is semiconductors
(e.g. silicon) in which the resistivity decreases with
temperature.
Q3 What is skin effect in electrical?
Ans. Skin Effect: Skin effect is the tendency ofan alternating8
electric current (Ac) to become distributed within
a conductor such that the current density is largest near the
surface of the conductor, and decreases with greater depths
in the conductor. The electric current flows mainly at the
"skin" of the conductor, between the outer surface and a
level called the skin depth.
EM.1
PART-B
Q4 Write the factors affecting skin effect.
Ans. Factors affecting Skin Effect
(i) Frequency: Skin effect increases with the increase
in frequency.
ii) Diameter: It increases with the increase in diameter
of the conductor.
(ii) The Shape of the Conductor: Skin effect is more in
the solid conductor and less in the stranded conductor
because the surface area of the solid conductor is
more
(iv) Type of Material: Skin effect increase with the
increase in the permeability ofthe material. Permeability
is the ability of material to support the formation ofthe
magnetic field.
Q.5 Define crystalline materials.
Ans. Crystalline Materials: A crystal or crystalline solid is
a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules,
or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure,
forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. The
process of crystal formation via mechanisms of growth is
called crystallization or solidification.
The crystalline state of the particle can affect the
stability, solubility, dissolution, and efficacy ofthe drug. The
crystalline state is more stable than that of the amorphous
one. With time, high-energy amorphous particles could be
 EM.2-
transferred to low-energy crystalline form depending on the
temperature, type of stabilizer used, and the presence ofthe
crystalline form.
Q.6 Differentiate between crystalline and amorphous
solids.
Ans. Difference between Crystalline and Amorphous
Solids
) Crystals have an orderly arrangement oftheirconstituent
particles. In comparison, amorphous solids have no such
arrangement. Their particles are randomly orgánised.
i) Crystals have a specific geometric shape with definite
edges.Amorphous solids have no geometry in their shapes.
ii) Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point on which
theywilldefinitely melt. An amorphous solid will havea
range oftemperature over which it will melt, but no definite
temperature as such.
(iv) Crystals have a long order arrangement oftheir particles.
This means the particles will show the same arrangement
indefinitely. Amorphous solids have a short order
arrangement. Their particles show a lot of variety in their
arrangement.
(V) Crystalline solids cleavage (break) along particular points
and directions. Amorphous solids cleavage into uneven
parts with ragged edges.
(vi) Crystals are also known as true solids, whereas another
name for amorphous solids is super-cooled liquids.
07 What is crystalline defect?
Ans. Crystalline Defect: Crystal defect is an imperfection
in the regular geometrical arrangement of the atoms in
a crystalline solid. These imperfections result
from deformation of the solid, rapid cooling from high
temperature, or high-energy radiation (X-rays or neutrons)
striking the solid. Located at single points, along lines, or on
whole surfaces in the solid, these defects influence its
mechanical, electrical, and optical behaviour.
Point defects include the Frenkel type, the Schottky
type, and the impurity type. The Frenkel defect involves a
single ion, which is displaced from its normal lattice point and
shifts to a nearby interstice, or space, between atoms in the
lattice. In the Schottky defect, two ions of opposite sign leave
the lattice. Impurity defects are foreign atoms that replace
some of the atoms making up the solid or that squeeze into
(B. Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
the interstices and they are important in the electrical behaviour
ofsemiconductors, which are materials used in computer chips
and other electronic devices.
Line defects, or dislocations, are lines along which
whole rows of atoms in a solid are arranged anomalously.
The resulting irregularity in spacing is most severe along a
line called the line of dislocation. Line defects can weaken or
strengthen solids.
Surface defects may arise at the boundary between
two grains, or small crystals, within a larger crystal. The rows
of atoms in two different grains may run in slightly different
directions, leading to a mismatch across the grain boundary.
The actual external surface of a crystal is also a surface
defect because the atoms on the surface adjust their positions
to accommodate for the absence of neighbouring atoms
outside the surface.
Q.8 Writea short note on the applications of hall effect.
Ans. Applications of Hall Effect
) Determination of Type Semiconductor: For an n-
type semiconductor the Hall coeficient is negative
whereas for a p-type semiconductor it is positive. Thus,
the sign ofthe Hall coefficient can be used to determine
whether a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.
(i) Calculation of Carrier Concentration: The Hall
voltage VH is measured as usual by placing the two
probes at the center of the top and bottom face of the
sample.
(ii) Measurement of Magnetic Flux Density : Since
hall voltage VH is proportional to the magnetic flux
density B for a given current I through a sample, the
Hall effect can be used as the basis for the design of a
magnetic flux density meter.
(iv) Measurement of Power in an Electromagnetic
Wave: In an electromagnetic wave in free space the
magnetic field H and the electric field E are at right
angles. Thus, if a semiconductor sample is placed
parallel to E, it will derive a current I in the
semiconductor. The semiconductor is subjected
simultaneously to a transverse magnetic field H, i.e., to
the magnitude of the Pointing vector of the
electromagnetic wave. Thus, the Hall effect can be
used to determine the power flow in an electromagnetic
wave.
(v) Designing of Electric Meters: The gauss meter
and electronic meter based on Hall voltage (VH) can
be designed.
Electrical Materials
C EM.3)
Write down the types
0.9 of solid
Ans. Types of Solids: All solids have
the property of
incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength.
In the
broadest sense, solids may be categorized as either crystalline
solids or amorphous solids, each characterized by specific
properties and structures.
Crystalline solid : Crystalline solids are solids which,
besides being incompressible and rigid, have characteristic
geometrical forms i.e. the atoms or molecules in these solids
are arranged in a regular geometrical pattern, throughout the
entire three-dimensional network of the crystal. Sugar,
Rocksalt, Mica, Quartz, Sulphur, Calcite, Diamond etc. are
the examples of crystalline solids.
(i) Amorphous solid: Amorphous solids are solids which,
though being rigid and incompressible, do not have
characteristic geometrical forms i.e. the atoms or molecules
in these solids are not arranged according to a certain definite
geometrical order. Flour, talc powder, glass, rubber, plastics
etc. are the examples of amorphous materials.
PART-C
Q.10 What do you mean by term bonding in solids'.
Explain all ypes
of bonding.
Ans. Bonding in Solids: An atom is rarely capable offree
existence. The substances generally exist in the form of group
of atoms. Each such group in which the atoms are held
together and which is electrically neutral, is called a molecule.
The attraction between the atoms of a molecule which is
responsible for its stable state is called chemical bond. For
example, a water vapour molecule consists of two hydrogen
atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. Hydrogen chloride
molecule contains one atom ofhydrogen, bonded to one atom
of chlorine.
The properties of solids are mainly determined by the
type of bonding that exists between its atoms. The bondingin
orystalline solids can be classified into four types.
() lonic bond or Electrovalent bond
i) Covalent bond
i) Metallic bond
(iv) Vander waal's bond
The forces which bind atoms together in solids are all
electrostatic in origin. The strength and the type of bonding is
determined by the distribution ofthe electrons in the outermost
shells in the atoms involved. A brief discussion of different
types of bonding is given below.
1. Ionic Bonding or Electrovalent Bond: lonic bond is
formed, when a metallic atom (e.g. sodium) combines with a
non metallic atom (e.g. chlorine) to form a compound. During
the bond formation there is always transfer of one or more
ofthe valence electrons from the metallic to the nonmetallic
atom. In this way, the metallic atom becomes a positively
charged particle. These oppositely charged paticles (known
as ions) are then held together by electrostatic forces of
attraction. Compounds thus formed are said to contain ionic
electrovalent bonds. For example sodium chloride (NaCl) is
an important ionic compound which is formed due to the
reaction between sodium and chlorine.
Properties of lonic Bonds
They have high cohesive energy due to which their
melting and boiling points are very high. Cohesive
energy of an ionic crystal is defined as the energy
required in transforming the crystal into isolated ions.
(i) They are hard and breakable.
ii) They are soluble in water.
Civ) Their heat of vaporization is very high.
(v) They are poor conductor of electricity in solid state
since all the ions are bound to their fixed places in
crystal lattice and there are no free electrons to carry
electric curent.
2. Covalent Bonding : Covalent means sharing. Covalent
bond is said to be formed when two non-metallic atoms
combine by sharing of electrons in their outermost shell so as
to acquire a stable configuration. This type of bond forms
because of the electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of
the atoms (that are positive) and the shared electrons (that
are negative). There are no ions present (no positive or
negative charges) because the electrons are shared, not
transferred from one atom to another.
Diamond is an important example of a covalent bonded
solid. The valency ofa carbon atom is four. The four outer
electrons of a carbon atom form covalent bonds with
electrons, one each, of four adjacent carbon atoms to givea
strong directional bond. Thus, in diamond each carbon atom
is covalently bonded with its four nearest neighbors at the
four corners of a regular tetrahedron with the atom under
consideration lying at its centre (Fig. 1). Each covalent bond

(EM.4
is formed by two electrons and each participating atom
contributes one electron to it. Silicon, Quartz and Germanium
are other examples of crystals having covalent bond.
Properties of Covalent Bonds
) Covalent bonds are very strong therefore the materials
having such bonds are quite hard.
) The covalent solids have high melting and boiling points.
Gii) Since covalent solids do not have free electrons, they
are poor conductors of electricity.
(iv) They do not form ions when dissolved in solvents.
Fig. 1: Structure of Carbon
3. Metallic Bonding: The valence electrons in metals are
weakly bound to the nucleus and can get detached easily.
When a large number of atoms having weakly bound valence
electrons are brought together, they give rise to a metal crystal
in which these electrons get detached and begin to move
freely in the lattice of positive ions. The electrons thus do not
remain localized but move freely and behave as if there is a
common property of all the atoms present in the metallic
crystal. A metal, therefore, behaves as if it is a regular array
of positive ions immersed in a sea of uniformly distributed
free electrons (Fig. 2)
Sea of Electrons
-000-0O-0
-0-0O--OO-0
Current carrying conductor or semiconductor, a voltage is
developed across the specimen in a direction perpendiculr
(B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
together. A metallic bond is much weaker than a covalen
bond. The reason is that in a metallic bond, the electron
move freely throughout the crystal but in a covalent bond
the valence electrons are localized.
Properties of Metallic Bonds
(a) The metal acts as good conductor of
electricity
because the free electrons in a metal act as charge
carriers.
slide over
(b) The free electrons allow the metal ions to
each other.
because when a
(c) They act as good conductor of heat
in that pan
part of a metal is heated, the electrons
acquire heat energy. This energy is transferred to the
cooler parts, resulting in the conduction of heat.
strong
(d) The free electrons hold the ions together by
electrostatic forces. This gives metals high melting and
boiling points.
(e) As the metallic bonds are non-directional, the metals
can be readily deformed and also alloyed with one
another, without breaking their crystal structure
() The metals present a shiny appearance. When light
energy falls on a metal, it is absorbed by the electron
gas and, as a result, the electrons at the surface begin
to oscillate. Now light which makes the metal appear
bright and shiny.
Erplain Hall Effect. Obtain the expression for hall
coefficient.
Ans. Hall Effect: Hall Effect is an importantobservation i
material science. It describes what happens to current flowing
through a conducting material (metal or semiconductor), if
is exposed to a magnetic field B. The Hall Effect occurs in
i
semiconductors as well as metals.
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to
|

to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenot

Positively charged ions
Fig. of
2:Structure Metallic Crystal
The force that binds a metal atom to a number of
electrons within its sphere of influence is known as metallic
bond. The force ofattraction between electrons and positive
ions is greater than the repulsive force between. electrons
and between ions and it is responsible for holding the metal
is called the Hall Effect and the voltage so developed is called
Hall voltage
Hall electric field is generated by accumulation o
opposite moving charges under the effect of Lorentz forc
due to perpendicular magnetic field. This field cancel the forc:
exerted by the magnetic field and electrons can again mov
freely along the conductor.
 Electrical Materials EM.5
ry:Let Ler us consider a rectangular strip n-type
Theory: ...(iv)
1. of
conductor arrying a current I along the positive X-axis E BYa
Current density (J) can also expressed as
as shown in fig.
Let us assume that the current is caused by the motion J-n_eva
electrons moving with a drift velocity v, in a direction where n, is the density of electrons in conductor using
of
opposite to the rection of.current. this, we get

Ya
.(V)
Probe attached to face-2
ne
using equation (v) in equation (iv), we have

EHnBJ ...(vi)

I directionnof 2. Hall Coefficient: The Hall coefficient R is defined as

conventional the Hall field divided by the applied current density (J) and
current flow
magnetic field (B).
V+++ ++1
+t+t++ Ea
+++ t+++++++1 RH .(vii)
JB
EH
RJB viii)
y Probe attached to face-1
Fig.: Experimental Setup for Hall Effect Using equation (vi) in equation (viii), we get
Let a magnetic field of intensity B is applied along the
2z-axis Under the effect of magnetic field all
in -ve direction. RH ne ix)
conduction electrons experience a force known as Lorentz
force in +ve y-direction, i.e., The negative sign is here due to consideration of
F-Beva ) n-type ofsemiconductor.
This force (F) displaces the electrons along the -ve Let 'w is the width (i.e. distance between face-1 and
y-direction as perthe Flemming's left hand rule and the faceface-2) of conductor and t is the thickness thus one can
2,i.e., surfaceIJKL collects electrons and become negatively write that
charged. On the other hand, face-1 i.e. surface MNOP,
becomes positively charged due to loss of electrons. Hence,
a potential
called as Hall Voltage (V) is developed between W
face-1 (MNOP) and face-2 (IJKL) which establishes an
electric field between these two faces called "Hall Electric
and (xi)
direction. This electric field exerts an wt
Field
E" -ve y-
in
Electric force on the electron in the y-direction, i.e., using both these equations (x) and (xi) in equation (vii),
..i) we have
F eFH
of charges as the face-1 and face-2
The accumulation
the conductor continues until the force F on moving charge
DI

ue to electric field (E) is large enough to cancel the force B LB

Lexerted by the magnetic field (F). Ultimately a stationary wt

slate is reached in which the net force on the electrons in y-

Ction vanish and the electrons can again move freely along
VHt
che
conductor.
R1B xii)
Atequilibrium F=F The quantities V t, I and B are measurable, hence
USing equation (i) and equation (i), we have the Ry can be determined.
..(ii)
-eE-Beva
 DIELECTRIC ProPERTIES OF INSULATORS
IN STATICc AND ALTERNATING FIELD

PREVIOus YEARs QUESTIONS

2
Ans. Internal Field : In dielectric solids, the atoms on
molecules experience not only the external applied electric
PART-AA
field but also the electric field produced by the dipoles. The
resultant electric field acting on the atoms or molecules of
dielectric substance is called the local field or internal field.
Q.1 Write the examples of polyatomic molecules.

PART-B
Ans. Anything that consists of two or more atoms is called
molecular, for example oxygen (0,), nitrogen (N,), ozone
(O,), carbon dioxide (CO.), methane (CH,), benzene (C.H
and way bigger like rotaxane or proteins or polymers. Q.5 The electronic polarizability of the Ar atom is
1.7x1040 Fm?. What is the static dielectric constant
Q.2 What is dielectric polarization? solid Ar (below 84K) ifits density is 1.8 gcm
f
IR.T.U, 2014, 20071
Ans. Dielectric Polarization: Dielectric polarization is the
term given to describe the behavior of a material when an
Ans. To calculate e, we need the number of Ar atoms per
external electric field is applied on it.
unit volume N from the density d. IfM =39.95 is the relative
atomic mass of Ar and N, is Avogadro's number theen
Q.3 Why does the electric field inside a dielectric
decrease when it is placed in an external electric N,d 6.02x10x1.8
N M
field? 39.95
N =2.71 x 102 cm3
Ans. A dielectric material gets polarized when it placed in an
electric field. The field produce due to the polarization of
With N2.71 1028 m3
material minimize the effect of external field. Hence, the and a=1.7 x 10 Fm, we have
electric field inside a dielectric decreases when it is placed in
an external electric field. E,I4a
-12.71x10 )(1.7x10)
Q.4 What is internal field 1 8.85x10-12

&,1.52
 Electrical Materials
Tf we use the Clausius-Mossotti EM.7)
equation, we get
2N Q.8 Explainfrequency dependance ofelectronic and ionic
polarizability. IR.U. 2004, 2006]

Na ENa
23, OR
With the help of graph, explain the frequency
E,1.63 dependance of different contributions to the polarizability
The two values are different by about of die lectrics. R.T.U. 2009
7%.

Ans. Frequeney Dependance of lonic Polarizability

o.6 Estimate the shift of the electron cloud with respect to Polarizability
he nucleus in argon (Z=18) atom when field
a10 V/m is The separation of negative and positive charges and the
applied. The polarizability
of argon is 1.8 x10 Emf. resulting induced dipole moment are temmed polarization. An atom
IR.TU. 2009 is said to be polarized if it possesses an effective dipole moment.

Ans. We know that E=E, sinot

P aE
given a =1,8x10 F.m2

E =10
m

P 1.8x1040 x105 e=1.6x10-19

but P-Zex V=V, sinot
The induced dipole moment depends on electric field
1.8x1040x10 10-16
Ze 18x1.6x10-19 16
causing it. We define quantity "Polarizability", a to relate the
induced dipole moment Pinduced to the field E causing it
= 0.0625x10-16
PnducedaE
here 'a' is the coefficient called "Polarizability" of atom.
Q.7 The polarizability of argon is 1.8 x 100 Em.
nce the polarization of a heutral atom involves the
Calculate the dielectric constant of argon at NTR when
the volume of the (N = 6.023x105) argon is asplacement of electrons, 'a' is called electronic polarization
22.4x 10'm. IR.TU. 20091 Ze
and denoted by "a" and defined by m.o
Where
Ans. Given polarizability
a =1.8x100 F.m
Znumber of electrons orbiting the nucleus
Volume = 22.4 x 10 m'
ee charge
a =4Tk, R m mass of electron
1.8x1040 =
22.4x10xko oscillation frequency of the centre of mass
ofthe electron cloud about the nucleus.
8x10 40 P P. sin(ot + )
k 22.4x103 0.08035x1043
An AC field is applied to a dipolar medium. The
k=8.03x1045 polarization P(= Np) is out of phase with the AC field.
 EM.8 B. Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
Effect of Frequency on Polarization: Let us assume that P.(t)-Re NaE,e
the electron cloud is moved in the direction opposite to the field
when the atom is subjected to an alternating field, say in DE,(cosot + jsin ot)
P.(t)= ReN(a'-ja
equilibriurm the centre of electron cloud is at a distance Xo
separated from its field free position x = 0, now if at t=0 the = Na,E, cos ot +No E, sin ot
applied field is suddenly removed, the cloud experiences a
column force. The magnitude ofthis force is
(e/m)2bo,/m) eb/2mfo
ex(for Z=1) .(1)
4o (Ao) +(4b o /m) (Ao)' +(b/m)

=
a "is maximum for Aø 0
If the mass of the electron cloud is m, it experiences
an acceleration and starts moving towards x =0 position. The Frequency Dependence of Ionic Polarization
difference equation of the motion of the electron cloud may The difference between the frequency dependence
be written as of ionic polarizability and that of electronic polarizability is of
quantitative nature only since the masses of the particles
dx
ma e'x -ax .(2) involved in ionic polarization are those of atom rather those of
4T E
R
electrons. The natural frequency of the ionic vibrations lie in
where a is the force constant. the infrared part ofthe electromagnetic spectrum corresponding
to o 104 rad/sec. Hence even for the rapidly varying fields
x is the displacement.
encountered in microwaves the ionic polarity stability may be
m is cloud mass. considered as instantaneous and frequency independent.
Without damping the motion of the electron cloud
would be identical with that for a harmonic oscillator. The
solution ofequation becomes
+a)N
3E
E, +2

x=x' sin (@t+K) The expression for ionic polarization may be written as
where x'and K are integration constants.
P,()-R,{NaE,e
O0resonance angular frequency
m Pt) Na,E, cosot +Na,E, sin ot
ax-26 .(3)
dt
Ia,a,
2b-,ea 67Tmc

dx dx
m ax 2b-eE, cosot
dt

d'x a
m +ax +2b+eE, cos ot 0 .(4) mo
dt

x(t) = Re[A *e"] .(5)

-
(2bo/m)
m (-o)+ 4b'o/m (o-0)+(4b'o* /m 2b
m
Fig.: Real and Imaginary Parts of Electronic Polarizability as a
where a, and a are respectively the real and Function of Angular Frequencies for a Swing of Electron
maginary parts of polarizability.
Electrical Materials EM.9
When an electric field is applied to a substance it
a Explain ferroelectricity. becomes polarized, the electrons and nucleus
assume new
geometric positions and the mechanical dimensions of the
Ans.
. Ferroelectricity: Ferro-electric materials have a high substance are altered.
dielectric constant
con which is non-linear. It depends
to a The phenomenon is called electrostriction. The
onsiderable extent on the intensity of the electric by the
field. reverse effect i.e., the production of polarization
Such materials exhibit hysteresis can take place only if the
loops; i.e. the application of mechanical stresses
being
larization is notta linear function of applied electric field. It latticehas no centre of symmetry, the phenomenon
is the centre of gravity of the positive and negative charges known as Piezoelectricity
in a body, do not
coincide in the absence of an applied electric
field, the substance has an electric dipole
moment and is said
to be spontaneously polarized. Such a substance is called
Corro-electric. It contains small regions which are polarized
in different directions even in the absence of an electric
(a) (b)
field. When the temperature exceeds a certain value called
the Curie point, the substance loses its
ferro-electric Fig.I
properties. Above the curie point the formation of small
regions domains is disrupted by thermal agitation and the Figure 1(a) shows a two dimensional unit cell. When
a field is applied as in fig. 1(b) the charges assume new ositions
permittivity is reduced to the small value. Examples offerro-
and the linear dimension of the sample changes.
electric materials are Rochelle salt, potassium dihydrogen,
phosphate (KH,PO,) and its isomorphous salts and barium
titanate (BaTiO,). The curie point for Rochelle salt is about
24°C and this substance has a very narrow temperature range
ofabout 40°C within which it is ferro-electric. (a) (b)
Ferroelectricity bears a close analogy to ferromagnetism.
Fig.2
Just as ferromagnetics have regions with aligned magnetic
moments, so also in ferro-electric.There are large regions which When a mechanical force is applied to the unit cell in
are characterized by alignment of the electric field. For this which the second row of charges is a line of symmetry as in
reasons the electric field turns the whole of such a region in the fig. 2 (b). The distance between the first and the second row
direction of the field and overcomes the thermal agitation that is equal to the distance between the second and the third
tends to scatter the electric dipoles in different directions. The row, hence there is no change in the electric moment of the
aligned electric field of such regions of a ferro-electric combine charge array because new dipole moments of equal magnitude
with the external electric field increasing it by thousands of times. but opposite sense are induced.
The charge of a condenser is increased the same number of However if the array of charge has no centre of
times whena ferro-electric is used instead of air. symmetry as in fig. 3. The dipole moment is increased or
The lower temperature and the stronger electric field decreased depending upon the field direction.
are more predominant it is the effect of the latter over the
Tandom thermal agitation. Insufficiently strong fields, the
electric dipoles of all regions of the ferro-electric are practically
n the direction of the field. This produces the greatest possible
E CompresSion
Tension
charge density.
Fig.3
The dipole moment again increases or decreases
M0 Explain Piezoelectricity. depending upon the type of mechanical force i.e. tension or
compression.
Piezoelectricity Piezoelectricity provide us with a means
n.Converting :
energy and vice Piezoelectric materials serve as a source of ultrasonic
or electrical energy to mechanical
versa. waves. At sea, they may be used to measure depth, the
 EM.10 B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
distance to shore, the position of icebergs, submarines and Electronic Polarization
the like, Rochelle salt, quartz and BaTiOg exhibit piezo-
electrostatics properties. The change in crystal dimensions This type of polarization has been explained with the
under the action of an electric field differs for different help of rare gases atoms, in which it is assumed that interaction
directions with respect to the crystal's axis of symmetry. among the atoms is negligible. This is because the distance
Therefore, different deformations will be obtained from a between the molecules is large enough (monoatomic gases)
crystal if rods and plates having different orientations are and any neighbour-neighbour reactions can be eliminated.
cut from the crystal and placed between the condenser plates.
-ze
PART-C +ze
-ze

Q.11 Explain the significance of electronic polarization? (a) (b)

Also derive thefollowing expression for e,.
Where N= number of molecules per unit volume
a electronic polarizability.
Fig. : Atomic Model for Electronic Polarization
(a) without field, (b) when the electric field is applied
A simple model of an atom on which to base of
calculations of electronic polarization is that of an atom hving
a positive nucleus of charge Ze (Z is the atomic number of
the atom, and e is the charge of an electron), surrounded by
IR.T.U. 2014 a spherical negative cloud ofcharge having a magnitude Ze -

[fig. (a)]. It is assumed that the charge cloud is of uniform

density and of radius R. With no external field, the nucleus is
Ans. Polarization Mechanism: In dielectric materials, all at the centre of this sphere of charge. Under the influence of
electrons are bound, the only motion possible in the presence
of an electric field is a minute displacement of positive and
the field E,the nucleus and the electron cloud shift with respect
to one another by a distance x (the electron cloud is assumed
negative charges in opposite directions. The displacement is to remain spherical).
usually small compared to atomic dimensions. A dielectric in
which this charge displacement takes place is said to be Under equilibrium, the positive charge remains at a
polarized and its molecules are said to possess induced dipole distance x from the centre due to two forces: one is
the
moments. These dipoles produce their own fields, which adds coulombic attraction between the charges; and the
other is
the force on the nucleus due to the field E, equal
to that of external field. to ZeE.
In addition to displacing the positive and negative
The charge enclosed in the sphere of radius
x,
charges, an applied electric field can also polarize a dielectric -Ze
by orienting molecules that possess a permanent dipole
moment. Such molecules experience atorque which tends to
TR
align them with the field but collisions arising from the thermal
agitation of the molecules tend to destroy the alignment. AAn The magnitude of coulomb attraction
between this
equilibrium polarization is thus established is which there is, Charge treated concentrated at a point, and the
nucleus will be
on the average a net alignment.
In the following is discussed the four basic polarization
mechanisms:
F- (zey(4n0,*)-
4Te, R
The total force on the nucleus must be zero in
(a) Electronic or Induced Polarization
equilibrium, so we obtain (equating two forces),
(b) lonic Polarization
(c) Orientational Polarization
ZeE Z
(d) Interfacial or Space Charge Polarization 4Tte, R
 Electrical Materials
-EM.11
or x=(4T6 R/Ze)E
() Gi) Dipolar Polarization If two different atoms
:

The dipole moment induced by form a chemical bond, one of the two is more likely to part
the field, will be given with one or more of its valence electrons than the other. Thus
by
when Ze and Zpe represent the nuclear charges of the two
Pind Ze x=4TE, R' E =a, E atoms where Z represent the atomic numbers and if atom A
2) has a tendency to give valence electrons to atom B there are
This dipole is induced by the more than Zp electrons around the nucleus of atom B and
field and never existed

.
ta the absence of the field. The induced fewer than Z electrons around that of atom A. We may
dipole moment is
proportional to ne Tield strength and proportionalityfactorq. therefore say that atom A is more electropositive than atom
is called the electronic polarizability. Note that is B. Consequently, the bond between A and B may be said to
oroportional to R, i.e. to the volume of electron
cloud. be of an ionic kind and therefore it is evident that the molecule
If a gas has N such atoms per m', subjected AB carries an electric dipole moment even in the absence of
to a an electric field. Such a dipole moment is called permanent.
homogeneous field E, then the electronic polarization
(dipole For molecule consisting of more than two atoms (e.g. water,
moment per unit volume) is
alcohol etc.) several bonds may carry a permanent dipole
Pe-Na E
3) moment and the resulting permanent dipole moment as a whole
is obtained by vector addition ofthe moments associated with
Comparing with P =E,(,-1)E, we conclude
that the various onds. When an external field E is applied to a
for rare gases are EgE-) = Na, ..(4) molecule carrying a permanent dipole moment, the former
will tend to align the permanent dipole along the direction of
, =14Nxe E. The contribution of this process of orientation of the
permanent dipoles to the polarization P is called the
orientational or dipolar polarization.
This gives a relationship between measurable e, and
the atomic constant ae From eq. (2) and (4) we have new
Space charge Polarization: The fourth type of
Polarisation is called space charged polarisation and occurs
definition of e,
due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at
which is, EH+4 TNR° (for a rare gas) .(5) the interfaces in amultiphase material.
Because the electronic structure of an atom is
of a with
relatively temperature independent, the variation
the temperature is expected to be zero. Experiments agree
that this is true.

Other Polarization Mechanismns EF=0 E.P

Besides "electronic" polarization in which the dipole
moment results from a shift of the nucleus relative to the
A12 Explain how the dielectric constant of aferroelectric
electron cloud, are two other types of polarization
there crystal varies with temperature. Name two ferroelectric
mechanisms, viz., ionic and dipolar.
materials. What are the applications of ferroelectric
polarization takes materials?
) lonic Polarization : The ionic molecule
R.TU. 20131
account ofthe fact that when some of the atoms in a
from
ve an excess positive or negative charge (resulting
the ionic character of the bonds), anelectric field will tend to
Ans. An electrical dipole is simply a separation between a
negative and positive charge of equal magnitude.
This leads to an
Snittpositive ions relative to negative ones. When two charges of equal magnitude but of opposit
induced by
nduced moment of different origin from that
The ionic direction are kept at some distance between them let "
ciectron clouds shifting relative to nucleus.
to each then the two charge will generate electric dipole moment
POlarizability measures the shift ofthe ions relative
measures the shift which is defined as
as the electronic polarizability
Just
ofthe electrons relative to the nucleus. P q.
EM.12- B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers

Consider that a dielectric material is exposed to an
electric field. Then
) Dipole lines align themselves in the direction of
the field.
(ii) All dipoles available in the material tries to align.
i.e. combination of both the electrical field may change
the distribution of existing dipoles while trying to align tve.
The total effect of an electric field on a dielectric material is
called the polarization ofthe material.
Variation of Dielectric Constant with Temperature
In ferro-electric type material, which exhibits an
permanent electric dipole moment even in the absence of an
external electric field, i.e. spontaneous polarization takes place
for E 0.
(a) Ferro-electricity disappears above a certain
temperature called transition temperature. As temperature
increases the spontaneous polarization (permanent dipole
moment) decreases and at a particular temperature, the
spontaneous polarization vanishes. This temperature is known
as curie temperature.
(b) Curie temperature can also be defined as the
temperature at which ferroelectric materials converts into
paraelectric materials.
Ferro Para
region region
T
Fig. (b)
Ferroelectric Materials
Types
1. Barium Titanate (BaTiO,)
2. Lead Titanate (PbTiO,)
3. Lead Zirconate Titanate
4. Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanate
5. Lead Magnesium Niobate
Ferroelectric Materials Applications
1. Capacitors: A capacitor is an electronic component used
for a number of electronic circuits. It consists of 2 electrodes
with a dielectric material in between. A Ferroelectric Material
is preferred for the manufacturing of a capacitor. Capacitors
are generally formed by the Barium Titanate (BaTiO,) material.
2. Storage memories SRAM and DRAM are volatile,
EEPROM and CMOS require a battery backup and are very
costly. Ferroelectric Random Access Memory is non-volatile
as well as cheaper. FRAM is reliable as well.
3. Waveguides: A waveguide is a device which controls
the propagation of light within the device. It carries the
electromagnetic wave. The material used inside a waveguide
is a Ferroelectric Material
4.Optical Memory Display: Latest optical memory displays
technologies are devised using the Ferroelectric Material. PLZT
s most preferred Ferroelectric Material for this purpose.

5. Displacement Transducers: The Ferroelectric Material

Tc is used in pressure sensors. These pressure sensors
are also
termed as displacement transducers.
Fig. (a)

() Below curie temperature, the dielectric constant

is a function of electric field. Above curie temperature.13 Draw the polarization with applied field forferro
dielectric constant varies with temperature by following Curie- electric.
Weiss law, OR
Explain electrostriction action. How ferro, pyro and piez
C electric materials can be classified on this action? Show
T-T the spontaneous polarization for ferroelectric crystal.
R.TU. 2011
where T> Te
 Electrical Materials- EM.13
Ans. Ferro Electric Materials: For
the dielectric materials, The existence of both direct effect and it inverse is to be
the polarization is a linear function ofthe applied field. There distinguished from a similar property called "electrostriction".
are however, materials called "Ferroelectric materials", in In this case, the materials becomes strained in an electronic
which polarization is not a unique function ofthe field strength.
field E but in a manner depending on E° and there is no inverse
Ferroelectric materials exhibit hysteresis
loop analogous to of this effect.
ferromagnetic materials. In these materials, the polarization
is not determined by the applied field E alone but depend Fig.2 shows the difference between two effects.
upon the previous history of the material. Ifa virgin specimen
of ferroelectric material is subjected to an electric field, and
the field is gradually increased, the polarization "P" increases
alongthe curve OABC in fig.1. When the field is then gradually Contraction Expansion
decreased, it is found that, E =0, there is a polarization
if still
left. This polarization is called "permanent polarization'", in
P,
other words, the material is spontaneously polarized.
An electric field E is required to reduce the polarization
down zero.
to
Where E.= coercive field. Contraction Expansioon
2

E. applied in opposite direction.

Fig. 2: Diference between twoeffects

A pyroelectric material is one which exhibits a
spontaneous polarization in the absence of an electric field
and change its polarization on heating.
SE The effect is represented by equation

AP-AT
where,
Fig. 1: Hysteresis Curve of Ferroelectriccrystal AP Change of polarization
The existence of dielectric hysteresis loop in material AT Raising the temperature
implies that the substance possesses "Spontaneous polarization'"
ie. polariziation that persists when applied field is zero.
- Pyroelectric coefficient.

Fig. shows an extrapolation of the linear segment

1 A ferroelectric material is one which exhibits a
BC which intercepts the P axis at a value P, which is the spontaneous polarization in the absence of an electric field which
spontaneous polarization. may be switched in direction by the application of a field.

When an electric field is applied, the domain for which
the direction of polarization is parallel to the field, grown at
the expense of other domain for which the polarization points
in other directions. This process corresponds to curve OAB.
The specimen may ultimately become single domain
and further increase of P with increasing applied field is due
to normal polarization.
Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric: Piezoelectric materials become
electrically polarized in response to an applied mechanical stress.
This property is known as piezoelectric and has an inverse, when
anelectric stress (voltage) is applied it generates field E.
Ferroelectric material show a hysteresis in the
polarization field direction like a ferromagnetic material.
All the above mentioned properties are possible only
in inherently asymmetric materials. It has been observed that
in some materials, the existence of a polar axis in a crystal
allows the appearance of spontaneous electrical polarization
and these materials are pyroelectric. A restricted group of
yroelectrics have the further property of being ferroelectric.
Thus "all ferroelectrics are pyroelectric, but the comverse
is not true. All piezoelectric are not pyroelectric and all
pyroelectric are not ferroelectric.
 EM.14 B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
Spontaneous Polarization for Ferroelectric NP2
Crystal: The .(4)
hysteresis loop of a ferroelectric material
as the temperature increases.
changes its shape P E
3kT
Spontaneous polarization
vanishes above certain temperature called the ferroelectric Internal field is
Curie temperature", 0, and the loop merges into a straight
line. Below the curie temperature O, the dielectric constant
is evidently a function of field strength and is no longer a
E -E-P
"constant" one can of course define a differential relative Substituting E, in equation (4)
dielectric constant on curve OAB as

dP P
1)
1)dE
as
Fora solid dielectric, the internal field may be written NP;/3KT
E (5)
or P1-NP2/3kTe,)
E E+
(6)
where, E=Applied field or
P=Polarization
NP and
Y Internal field constant. where, e e
3ke
We also know
Cis called Curie constant
P NaE =NaETP and is called Curie temperature.
Equation (6) may be written in the form
NaE (2)
or P=
Nar -,(,-)

This relation indicates the possibility of spontaneous Xe,-1

polarization when the denominator is zero, a non-vanishing C
solution for P when E is zero. The condition for "spontaneous" loreT-6
polarization is

Nr 1 ..(3)

Physically, this means that, ifthe interaction between

the atom is large enough and Na is also large enough,
spontaneous polarization may occur
Temperature
Many theories have been put forward to explain the Fig.3
theory offerroelectricity.Assumingthat, the permanent dipoles
are responsible for spontaneous polarization, we may write Fig.3 shows the variation of e, as a function of
P P NaE temperaturefor ferroelectric material. The permittivity shows
We know that orientational polarization Po is a function
a characteristic peak near the curie point Te and e, may
become very large.
of temperature and may be written as
O00
 MAGNETIc ProPERTIES
AND SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 3
PREVIOUs YEARS QUESTIONS

Ans. Magnetic Permeability: The ratio of magnitude of

PART-A magnetic induction field B inside the material and the
magnitude of magnetizing field H is known as magnetic
permeability.
Q1 Find the relative permeability of a ferromagnetic
material, if field of strength 220 Amp/metre
produces magnetization 3300 Amp/meter in it.
[R. TU. 20091
Q4 Define initial permeability.
B
Ans. We know that H, Bo
Ans. Initial Permeability(4 k): It is the initial slope of
Given B=3300 the B versus H characteristic of an unmagnified
and B-220 ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic) material and typically

, B 3300
220
represents the magnetic permeability under very small applied
magnetic fields

0.2 Define magnetic susceptibility.

Slope
(4 4)
Ans. Magnetic Susceptibility: The ratio of the magnitude.
M and the
of magnetic dipole moment per unit volume H
magnitude of the magnetizing field is known as magnetic
Susceptibility, B-HH

m
M
the magnetic susceptibility is zero in vacuum. Magnetic
Susceptibility is pure number as the units of Mand Hare same. Fig.: Initial Permeability
Initial relative permeability (4 is the relative
Q3 Define magnetic permeability.
permeability of an unmagnified ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic) material under verysmallapplied fields.
 PapersSolved
EM.16 B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E.
T-Te At this
singularity at
The susceptibility has a
spontaneous magnetization
temperature and below there exist a
PART-B 2) Ferromagnetism

Very TeCurieTemperature
high
A paramagnetic salt contains 102 ions/m' with
magnetic moment of one Bohrmagnetion. Calculate
ne paramagnetic susceptibility and the
Ferro
T-Tc 111,
Para P
Molecular Magnetic Alignmerm
magnetization produced in a uniform magnetic field
of 10 ampere/metre when the temperature is 27°C.
IR.T.U. 2013, 2012)
(b) Ferromagnetism

Ans. Magnetic moment. (3) Anti Ferromagnetism

HnHB = 9.27x 1024 A/m

FerroA
T+Ts
Number of ions per m. Para
N 1028
Ho 4 T x 10; H 10° A/m and
TITLT,
k 1.38x 1023
T
Room temperature, Te
300 K. (c) Anti Ferromagnetism
T (273+27) K =

(4) Ferrimagnetism
Magnetic susceptibility.
X NH 3 kT
X [4 Tx107x105x(9.27x1024] 1
1T-Tc
(31.38 103x 300
[4
X
T x (9.27) x 10]
0.87 x 104
/(3 x 1.38x 300)
Pard
Jull
Magnetisation, M = X
H 0.87 x 10 x 10
Te
= 87 A/m.
(d) Ferrimagnetism

Lo.6 Draw the susceptibility withtemperaturefor dia, para, (5) Paramagnetismn

ferro, ferri and antiferromagetic materials.
IR.T.U. 2011]

Ans. (1) Diamagnetism 1

M-XH
<0
= constant Tc T
slope X (e) Paramagnetism
Fig.: Magnetic Susceptibility versus Temperature Graph
(a) Diamagnetism
Electrical Materials EM.17)
Resistivity of copper wire = 1.72 x 10 Qm
0.7 Calculate the critical current density for Imm Length of wire,
iiameter wire of load at 4.2 K. A parabolic dependence
of eritical field H, on T may be assumed. ) Nichrome wire
Given: Tc (P) = 7.18 K and H, (P) = 6.5 x 10 Amp/m
IR.TU,2010
R-
100x10 xl
Ans. Critical current density is 40-
0.4
1000)
4
.TR 0.4
whereI, is critical current. x
40x 1000 40xx04
4
100x10 x
105.024m
100x10
We know critical field, H
27TR

i) Copper wire: R=
I = H2TR.

Given R=
Imm=
.5 x 10 m 40-72x10xl
2
T0.4
1000
So J KH,2R
TR
Given H 6.5 x 10' Amp/m
xT0.4
40xx 40xx0.4
l- 292.24mn
1.72x10 1.72x10x10
6.5x10 x2
So J 0.5x103
QS Explain magnetic flux density B, magnetic flux
x10-26x
0.5
10'Amp/m intensity H and magnetization M. How are they related
to one another? IR.TU. 2009, R.U. 2003/

Ans. Magnetic flux density: It is defined as the magnetic

Q.8 Calculate the length of heater element having 0.4mm
lines of force per unit area of the pole face.
diameter to get a resistance of 402 and 1000 watts
if
Nicrome wire having resistivity A
()
100 x 10 Am is used Where is the magnetic lines offorce in Wb and A is
(ii) Copper wire having resistivity the area of pole face in cm.
1.72 x 10 m is used R.TU. 20101 Magnetization vector (M)
Consider atightly wound long solenoid, ideally infinitely
0.4 long with free space as the medium inside the solenoid. The
Ans. Diameter of heater element, d = 0.4mm 100o
magnetic field is B. This field depends on the current I
Resistance of element, R = 402 through the solenoid wires and the number of turns per unit
Wattage of element 10002 length n and is given by

Resistivity of nichrome wire 100x 10 2m B, Hnl=Ho

 EM.18 (B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
susceptability x ofthe
wnere
l' is the current per For isotropic medium, magnetic
nat is , unit length of the solenoid
'=nl and isthe absolute permeability ofthe free
space in henry per meter.
medium is defined simply by
.3)
M-uH
Now ifthe material is filled in the solenoid then magnetic
field is changed. The new magnetic field is now B. B-B,+H,M
Each atom ofthe material responds to the applied field B- Hu, +HoM
Do develops a net magnetic moment
and along the field.
he medium therefore develops a net magnetic moment along B-H(+M
the field and become magnetized. The magnetic vector M
describes the extent of magnetization of the medium. M is QXO Distinguish between diamagnetic, paramagnetic
defined as the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.
i
Ifand ferromagnetic materials.
IR.T.U. 2007; R.U. 2006, 2004, 1999, 1998
there are N atoms in a small volume AV and each atom
has a magnetic moment then M is defined as
Paramagnetic
Ans. Difference between Diamagnetic,
and Ferromagnetic materials
Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
S.No.Diamagnetic Ferromagnetic
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
number of atoms, A is average magnetic materials have a
where n is materials have a materials have a
small and positive large and positive
very weak and
moment. susceptibility to susceptibility to an
negative
susceptibility to magnetic fields. external magnetic
magnetic fields. field.
Diamagnetic These materials They exhibit a
materials are are slightly strong attraction to
slightly repelled attracted by a magnetic fields.
by a magnetic magnetic field.
field.
These materials These materials These are able to
don't retain the don't retain the retain their
Fig. Free space as medium magnetic magnetic magnetic
properties when properties when properties after the
the external field external field is external field has
Magnetic field intensity(H): It is the force that the
is removed. removed. been removed
field would exert on any unit magnetic pole placed. In the Diamagnetic Paramagnetic They get their
properties arise properties are strong magnetic
field it is also known as magnetic force from the due to the properties due to
realignment of presence of some presence of
H- Ho
the electron
orbits under the
unpaired
electrons and
magnetic domains.

influence of an from the

Relation between B, H and M extemal realignment of
magnetic field. the electron
orbits caused by
H (1) the external
magnetic field.

but relative permeability ,,

increases with respectto
Example
Copper, Silver,
Example:
Magnesium,
Example : Iron,
Nickel, Cobalt,
spacewhena material medium is introduced. Gold, etc. Molybdenum, etc.
the field in free
Lithium, etc.

(2)
Q.11 Prove that the ferromagnetic material become
paramagnetic above curie temperature. [R.U. 2006, 2004
where is free space permeability/
 Electrical Materials
AnS. There is a critical temperature
EM.19
called curie point above Ans. Meisner's Effect: This effect is the total exclusion
which the ferromagnetic materials lose
their magnetic of any magnetic flux from the interior of a super conductor
roperties. Above the curie temperature the domain
pro structure A super conductor below its critical temperature expels all
tends to disrupt and the domains lose
their alignment become the magnetic field from the bulk ofthe sample as if it were a
arranged in random fashion, thus the
material loses its perfectly diamagnetic substance. This phenomenon is known
ferromagnetic property. Even in case
of ferromagnetic as the "Meisner's Effect".
materials at very high temperatures (T>
T), the thermal Suppose that we place a super conducting material in
agitation is so great that internal field is not sufficient
to a magnetic field above Te. The magnetic field lines will
maintain alignment of magnetic
dipole moments. The
behaviour becomes analogous to a paramagnetic penetrate the sample however, when the super conductor is
material
except thatthe field acting on the dipole is coded below T, it rejects all the magnetic flux in the sample
the internal field as depicted in fig.(a). The super conductor developing surface
As a model, let us consider a system of N spins
per currents field cancel every where inside the sample. Thus,
m.each giving rise to a magnetic moment of1 Bohr magneton,
Pa, either parallel or antiparallel to the external field. The
below T a super conductor is a perfectly diamagnetic
magnetization of such a system may be obtained from substance(m-1).
Now for the case of perfect conductor in a magnetic
M-NP field and then cool it below To. the magnetic field is not
tanh(M)
kT (1) rejected. These two types of behaviorare identified in fig.(b).
Ifwe switch offthe field, the field around the super conductor
Atsufficiently high temperatures, H,P, (H+yM)<<kT. Thensimply disappears. But switching off the field means there is
since,tanh a=a for a << 1, we may write equation (1) as a decreasing applied field. This change in the field induces
current in the perfect conductor by virtue of Faraday's law
M- (Nu.PIKT)(H +yM) of induction.

or, M1- NuPiH ..(2) B off

T
From this expression, we have, magnetic susceptibility as

Nu,PIk C
H T-Nu,P;R) T- ..(3)
MTTM
Super conductor
T> T T<T
where C Nu,P}/k and 0= y C. (a)
For the model, we have a relation which is identical
Conductor
in form with the Curie-Weiss law. For a ferromagnetic
material C and 6 can be determined from measurements of
Susceptibility as a function of temperature. The value of y for
a Ierromagnetic material is of the order of 10.

It is important to note that the molecular field is in no

sense a real field, it is rather a force which tends to align or T>T T<T.
disalign the atomic or magnetic moments, and the strength of
(b)
the force depends on the amount of alignment already
attained, because the molecular field is proportional to Fig.
magnetization. This force is also called exchange force.
Q.13 Differentiate between soft and hard magnetic
912What is meisner's effect? materials.

EM.20
Ans. Diffe rence between hard magnetic
magnetic materials
Soft Magnetic Material
Resistance to the moment
of domain walls is small.
2. A small value of coercive
field Hc
3. Void free homogeneous
structure.
4. Easy to magnetized and
demagnetize the material.
5. Low hysteresisloss.
6. Small area of hysteresis
loop. loop
7. Low electricalresistivityHigh electricalresistivity.
8. High permeability.
9, Steeply rising
magnetization curve.
10. Low eddy current losses
can be achieved using
laminated cores.
11. Used in application
requiring frequent reversal
of the direction of
magnetization used for
transformer cores,
magnetic switching,
magnetic amplifiers.
12.
H >H
13.
ExampleSoft iron, silicon
steel, nickel-iron alloys
etc.
PART-C
Q.14 Nane the categories into which magnetic materials direction to B and the specimen experiences a net force
can be classified. Mention their magnetic properties and| toward smaller fields, as depicted in fig.2.
examples.
and soft
Hard Magnetic Material
Resistance to the moment
ofdomain wallis large
Large value of coercive
field Hc
Domain walls are
immobilized from
movement by lattice
defects or imperfections of
a non-magnetic material
Hard to magnetize and
demagnetize material.
High hysteresis loss.
Large area of hysteresis
Low permeability.
Gradually rising
magnetization curve
Low eddy current losses.
Suitable for making
permanent magnets used
in meters, motors,
transducers, focussing
magnets in T.V. tubes etc.
Example-Tungsten steel,
cobalt, steel, etc.
IR.T:U. 2014
B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
Ans. Classes of Magnetic Materials
The origin of magnetism lies in the orbital and spin
motions of electrons and how the electrons interact with one
another. The best way to introduce the different types of
magnetism is to describe how materials respond to magnetic
fields. The magnetic behavior of materials can be classified
into the following five major groups:
) Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of all matter
although it is usually very weak. It is due to the non.
cooperative behavior oforbitingelectrons when exposed to
an applied magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances are
composed of atoms which have no net magnetic moments,
(i.e. all the orbital shells are filled and there are no unpaired
electrons). When a diamagnetic substance such as a silicon
crystal is placed in amagnetic field, the magnetization vector
M in the material is in the opposite direction to the applied
field HH
Fig.1: Diamagnetic Material Placed in a Nonuniform Magnetic Field
Hence the resulting field B within the material is less
than HH. Thus the susceptibility is negative. The negative
susceptibility can be interpreted as the diamagnetic substance
tryingto expel the applied field from the material. When
a
diamagnetic specimen is placed in nonuniform magnetic
field, the magnetization M of the material is in opposite
Ifwe plot M versus H, we see
 Electrical Materials
M-H
1<0
H (100K) or the field is very high, paramagnetic susceptibility
slope= Xconstant
Fig. 2: Diamagnetism
Note that when the field is zero the magnetization is
zero. The other characteristic behavior of diamagnetic
materials is that the susceptibility is temperature independent.
Some well known diamagnetic substances are quartz (SiO,),
calcite (CaCO3), water, copper, silver, gold, etc.
() Paramagnetism
In this class of materials, some of the atoms or ions in
the material have a net magnetic moment due to unpaired
electrons in partially filled orbits. However, the individual
magnetic moments do not interact magnetically and like
diamagnetism, the magnetization is zero when field is removed.
In the presence of a field, there is now a partial alignment of
the atomic magnetic moments in the direction of the field. It
results in a net positive magnetization and positive
susceptibility, as depicted in fig.3.
EM.21)
At normal temperatures and in moderate fields,
the
paramagnetic susceptibility is small (but larger than the
diamagnetic contribution). Unless the temperature is very low
of the applied field. Some examples of
is independent
paramagnetic materials are oxygen gas, magnesium,
Montmorillonite (clay), Biotite (Silicate), siderite (Carbonate),
Pyrite (Sulfide), molybdenum, lithium and tantalum.
(ii) Ferromagnetism
in
Unlike paramagnetic materials, the atomic moments
these materials exhibit very strong interactions. These
interactions are produced by electronic exchange forces. They
results in a parallel alignment of atomic moments. The
exchange force is a quantum mechanical phenomenon due
electrons.
to the relative orientation of the spins of the two
moments
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel alignment of
resulting in large net magnetization even in the absence of a
magnetic field, as shown in fig.
The elements Fe, Ni and Co and many of the ir alloys
are typical ferromagnetic materials.
parallel alignment

may0 and
M-Xm

Fig. 5: Ferromagnetism

Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials

are their
(a)
a0 and M= 0 b) 40 and M=Xm
(a) Spontaneous magnetization and
In Absence of External Field In Presence of
External Field
b) The existence of magnetic ordering temperature
Fig. 3: Paramagnetism
in aligning the iv) Antiferromagnetism
In addition, the efficiency of the field
moments is opposed by the randomizing effects of Antiferromagnetic materials such as chromium have a
temperature. This results in a temperature dependent small but positive susceptibility. They cannot possess any
Susceptibility, known as the Curie law. magnetization in the absence of an applied field, in contrast
to ferromagnets.
M slope=
Antiferromagnetic materials possess a magnetic ordering.
In that ordering, the magnetic moments of alternating atoms in
the crystal align in opposite directions as depicted in fig6. The
M-xH opposite alignments of atomic magnetic moments are due to
X<0 quantum mechanical exchange forces. The net result is that in
the absence of an applied field, there is no net magnetization.
Fig. 4: Paramagnetism
 EM.22
B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
existence of magnetic dipoles, whether
permanent or induced
can be explained only on the basis
of quantum theoretical
considerations. If we regard matter as
M0 particles, there can be no magnetic moment
made up of charged
in the state of
thermal equilibrium ofa strictly classical
system even in the
presence of an applied magnetic field.
Thus magnetism is
essentially a quantum effect. The two fundamental
magnetism
Fig. 6:Antiferromagnetism diamagnetism and paramagnetism, have
their origin in
Antiferromagnetism occurs, belowa critical induced and permanent magnetic moments,
temperature respectively. The
called the Neel temperature Ty. Above TN, antiferromagnetic impossibility of magnetism in the domain of classical physics
materials become paramagnetic. may be argued in the following way.
As the magnetic field
is switched on, the electronic circulating
()Ferrimagnetism curents having an
associated magnetic moment are induced in
the system. But
these currents are destroyed by collisions in tending
to bring
M the system finally to the state of thermal equilibrium.
+--0+0-- None of the derivations ofrelations in classical physics
O >0-- includingthose for magnetic susceptibility is self-consistent.
---0- The permanent atomic magnetism (paramagnetism)
cannot
beaccounted for without restricting the circulating electrons
to the discrete stationary orbits as required
in the Bohr's
quantum theoretical model of
the hydrogen atom. In the
classical picture, there can be no magnetic
Fig. 7: Ferrimagnetism moment associated
with the current of circulating electrons
Ferrimagnetic materials exhibit magnetic because electrons in
behaviour accelerated motion would radiate
similar to ferromagnetism below a critical and finallyfall on the nucleus,
temperature, called causing the atomic structure
the curie temperature Tc Above to collapse. Diamagnetism, where
T it becomes paramagnetic. the applied magnetic field is pushed out ofthe system, can be
The origin of ferrimagnetism is based on magnetic ordering.appreciated similarly
by realizing that the discrete quantum
as illustrated in fig.7.All atoms have their spins states occupied by electrons
one direction and all B atoms have their alignedin are stable to a certain extent only
spins aligned in the against external perturbation, like the magnetic field the
opposite direction. The oppositely directed magnetic in
moments present case.
have different magnitudes and do not cancel. The
net effect We define below the fundamental
is that the crystal can possess magnetization physical quantities
even in the that concern the magnetic
absence of an applied field. properties of materials. In
vacuum the intensity of the applied
magnetic field H and the
All useful magnetic materials in electrical engineering magnetic induction B
are related by the equation
are invariably ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic.
B HoH
where is permeability
Q.15 Explain the physical basis of free space
of diamagnetism and (4 4x 10 V s/A m).
paramagnetism of materials. Describe the Weiss
molecular field theory of ferromagnetism and derive the The magnetic state of a system is specified by its
Curie-Weiss law. magnetization M, defined as the magnetic
IR.TU. 2012 moment per unit
volume. M is related to B and H
by

Ans. Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism B HH+ M)

For convenience in discussions it is a practice to
Unlike the dielectric response, the magnetic response introduce an external induction such that
of most of the solids is dominated by permanent dipoles
BoHH
 Electrical Materials
Mostly, there is a linear relationship between Bo
and
M given by
H M xB,
HM
Bo
where is called the magnetic susceptibility.
The susceptibility when denoted by XM»
represents
the susceptibility of one gram mole of the material, or simply
the molar susceptibility. For isotropic materials, M and B
(orH) are parallel vectors and X is a scalar quantity. It is
a tensor in anisotropic substances. The sign of the
susceptibility distinguishes between diamagnetism
and
paramagnetism. It is negative for the diamagnetic substances
and positive for the paramagnetic substances.
The magnetic behavior of matter is fundamentally of
atomic origin with modification caused by inteeratomic
interaction.
Weiss Theory
The Weiss molecular field theory of ferromagnetism
represents the first realistic attempt to account for the
properties of a ferromagnet. This theory rests on two
hypotheses
) Below the Curie point, a ferromagnetic substance is
composed ofsmall, spontaneously magnetized regions
called domains. The total magnetic moment of the
material is the vector sum of the magnetic moments
of individual domains. it is now known that these
assumed domains really exist and are usually 0.1 and
0.01 cm across.
() Each domain is spontaneously magnetized because a
strong molecular (magnetic) field tends to align the
individual atomic magnetic moments within the
domain.
The consequence of these assumptions is that, while
cach domain is spontaneously magnetized, the directions of
magnetization of the domains do not coincide; therefore the
Overall magnetization of the sample may be much smaller
than if it were composed of a single domain. Application o
arelatively weak field (-100-1000 Oersteds) and often very
much less is sufficient to align the directions of the
magnetization of the domains, thereby achieving a large
magnetization.
-EM.23)
The second hypothesis.of the Weiss theory leads to
the existence of a Curie temperature below which a domain
may be spontaneously magnetized in the absence of an
applied magnetized field. According to the theory, the
effective field acting on any atomic magnetic moment within
the domain may be written as,
H H, + AM
where H, is an externally applied magnetic field and
AM (Magnetization) is the Weiss molecular field whose
order of magnitude in Fe is 10 Oersteds.
There is an overall general agreement between theory
and experimental result of
temperature dependence of
spontaneous magnetization for Fe, Ni and Co. The low
temperature behaviors, however, are better described by
magnon theory. The theory satisfactorily describes the
temperature dependence of susceptibility in the paramagnetic
region provided the temperature is well above the Çurie
temperature. The Curie temperature determined from the
theory of spontaneous magnetization differs by a few
degrees from the experimentally determined value for the
paramagnetic region.
Curie-Weiss Law for Ferromagnetism: The saturation
magnetization is so large that virtually all the magnetic dipoles
in a ferromagnetic material must be lined up with the field. It
is necessary to add a term to the energy which will make the
dipoles all line up.
By adding a new energy term the assumption is
introduced by Weiss.
It states that the field produced at any point by all
neighbouring molecules, is proportional to magnetization and
acting in the same direction as the intensityofmagnetization.
HAM
where Weiss constant field coefficient
H=Weiss field or molecular field belowsaturation
H. =H+H
Here H, is the total magnetic field.
By using the Langevin's theory, magnetization is given
by
N
M= 3KTH
EM.24 (B.Tech. (V Sem) E.E. Solved Papers
Now magnetic inacceptability
M
NHan
=
3KaT
[H+ Hy
M N
N
NH 3K T-
3KT H+ AM] 3K

Here N= No. of molecules

Hm Magnetic moment If C and T.= 4N
3K
K Boltzmann constant
T Absolute temperature measured in Kelvin C
T-T
M= NuH Here, C is material specific curie constant and Te is
3K T-N3K
the curie temperature measured in Kelvin.
The Curie-Wiess law describes the magnetic
susceptibility of a ferromagnetic in the paramagnet region
above the curie point.

O00
 CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

PREVIOUs YEARS QUESTIONS

4
Ans. Scattering Points Scattering is the process wherely
PART-A a beam of waves or particles is dispersed by collisions or
similar interactions. A scatter point module is used to
interpolate from group of scattered data points to guids. A
scatter point moves through time and space.
Q1 Define mean free path. R.T.U. 2011]
Q.5 Explain drift velocity for electrons. IR.T.U. 2011]
Ans. Mean Free Path: It is the mean distance traversed
by an electron between scattering events. If t is the mean Ans. Drift Velocity for Electrons: It is the average electron
free time between scattering events and u is the mean speed velocity, overall the conduction electrons in the conductor, in
ofthe electron, then the mean free path is 1= ut. the direction of an applied electrical force (F = -eE for
electrons). In the absence of an applied field, all the electrons
move around randomly, and the average velocity overall the
Q2 Define relaxation time. IR.TU. 2011
electrons in any direction is zero. With an applied field E
there is a net velocity per electron vdo in the direction opposite
Ans. Relaxation Time: It is equivalent term for the mean to the field, where vadepend on E, by vertue of vaHEx
free time between scattering events. It is the characteristic where H the drift mobility.
is
time for a distribution of electrons in a solid to approach or
+
"relax" to equilibrium after a disturbance is removed
Va
+tVs
IR.T.U. 2011
0.3 Define fermi velocity. PART-B

Ans. Fermi Velocity: If we have extracted all possible

energy from a metal by cooling it to near absolute zero Write important properties and applications
in the metal are still.0 of the
emperature (0 kelvin), the electrons following materials-
moving around. The fastest ones are moving at a velocity
corresponding to a kinetic energy equal to the fermi energy. (a) Copper
This is the fermi velocity. (b) Tin

(c) Mercury
Q4 Define scattering points. R.T.U. 20111 (d) Aluminium IR.TU. 2016
 EM.26
Ans.(a) Copper: Copper is one ofthe oldest metals known
to man and was found in ancient times in its native form. Its
bright colour made it easily visible. It is represented by 'Cu'.
Properties of Copper Copper has many useful
properties. It is a good electrical andthermal conductor. It is
corrosion resistant, duetile as well as a tough material. It is
nonmagnetic and attractive in colour. Copper can be combined
easily with other metals to make alloys. It can be recycled
without any loss of quality and can act as a catalyst too.
APplications: Copper wires allow electric current to
flow without much loss of energy. This is why copper wires
are used in main cables in house and underground. Copper
allows heat to pass through it quickly. It is therefore used in
many applications where quick heat transfer is important. It
1S a ductile metal. This means that it can easily be shaped
into pipes and drawn into wires. Copper pipes are lightweight
because they can have thin walls. Copper can be recycled
without any loss of quality and it can act as a catalyst.
(b) Tin: Tin is a chemical element witn the symbol "Sn'. Tin
is a malleable, ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white
metal.
Properties of Tin: Tin is a silvery-white, soft, malleable
metal that can be highly polished. Tin becomes a
superconductor below 3.72 K. Tin resists corrosion from
water, but can be attacked by acids and alkalis. It is used as
a protective coat for other metals.
Applications: Tin is used as a coating on the surface
of other metals to prevent corrosion. Alloys of tin are
commercially important in, for example, soft solder, pewter
bronze and phosphor bronze. A niobium-tin alloy is used for
superconducting magnets. In modern times, tin is used in many
metal
alloys, most notablytin/leadsoft solders, which are typically
60% or more tin. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal
was used for food packaging as tin cans.
(c)Mercury: Mercury is a chemical element with symbol
Hg'. It is commonly known as quicksilver. A heavy, silvery
d-block element, mercury is the only metallic element that is
liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
Properties of Mercury: Mercury is a dense, silvery-
white, poisonous metal with a mirror-like appearance. It is
the only common metal that is liquid at room temperature.
Mercury evaporates slowly at room temperature, Compared
to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair
conductor of electricity. Mercury does not react with most
B.Tech. (v Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, although oxidizing acids
such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua
regia dissolve it to give sulfate, nitrate and chloride.
Applications: Mercury is used in thermometers,
barometers, manometers, float valves, mercury switches,
mercury relays, and other devices. It is used in fluorescent
lamps. Likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic
strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury
sphygmomanometers.
a
(d) Aluminium : Aluminium is chemical element in the
boron group with symbol Al'. It is a silvery-white, soft,
nonmagnetic, ductile metal.
Properties of Aluminium: Aluminium is a relatively
soft, durable, lightweight, ductile, and malleable metal with
appearance ranging from silver to dull gray, depending on the
surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite.
It is Corrosion resistance.
Applications : Aluminium is used in a huge variety of
products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils, window frames,
beer kegs and aeroplane parts. It has low density, is non-
toxic, has a high thermal conductivity, has excellent corrosion
resistance and can be easily cast, machined and formed.
Aluminium is a good electrical conductor and is often used in
electrical transmission lines. It is cheaper than copper and
weight is almost twice as good as a conductor. It is often
used as an alloy because aluminium itself is not particularly
strong. Alloys with copper, manganese, magnesium and silicon
are lightweighted but strong. They are very important in the
construction of aeroplanes and other forms of transport.
Q.7 Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a
of resistivity 1.54 x 10 0-m, if the metal has
5.8 x 10 conduction electrons per m. IR.TU. 2009
Ans. Given n=5.8x 10 electron/m
P=1.54x102-m
The relaxation time will be
T 0ne
9.107x103
1.54x10x5.8x10%(1.6x10-1
= 4x1014 sec.
Electrical Materials
EM.27)
A copper wire of 2 mm diameter material i.e., electron density be n and E be the applied electric
5.8 x 10 S/m with conductivity field. Due to the applied electric field, let axial drift velocity
of and electron
a0032 mV-s is subjected mobility of the electrons be v metres/second.
mV/m. Find to an electric field of
() The charge
density offree of 20
Gii The current electrons
density (ii) The
current
the wire (iv),The electron drift velocity. flowing in

Ans. ameter of copper wire,

d 2 mm 0.002 m
Conductivity of copper,

5.8 x 10' S/m E

Electron mobility, Fig.

H0.0032m?/V-s The force F on the particle of charge qwhen an electric

Applied electric field, field E is appliedis given as F=aE, so the force acting on an
electron having charge e on it is given as
E -20 mV/m =
0.02 V/m
F eE . (i)
0 Charge density,
Also F ma ..i)
n =- 5.8x10 Where a is acceleration of electrons due to applied
epe 1.6x107x0.0032 field E
Combining Eqs. (i) and (Gi), we have
= 1.133 x 10/m>
Acceleration,
Gi) Current density,
J= oE = 5.8 x 10 x 0.02 a eE .(ii)
= 1.16x10 A/m? m

i) Current flowing in the wire, Because of collisions of electrons during motion, the
electrons will not get accelerated indefinitely. In fact, their
I = J x area of cross-section of wire
velocity will fall to zero. Ift is the relaxation or collision time,
the average velocity of electrons, known as drift velocity is
Ttd xx(0o.002)
=Jx1.16x10°
4
given as

- 3.644 A
=axT=XT
m
(iv)
(v) Electron drift velocity,
0.0032 x 0.02 Let I be the current flowing through the conductor on
VH E= application of electric field E corresponding to drift veloity
= 6.4 x 10 m/s v. In time dt, the electrons will travel a distance vdt and the
number of electrons crossing the cross-sectional area A in
time dt will be contained in volume Avdt. Thus, total charge
W Explain conductivity of metals.
flowing through the section in time dt

Ans. Conductivity of Metals

dq = envAdt (v)
metres and cross- Since the current in a conductor is defined as the rate
Consider a conductor of length I
in Fig. Let ne of change of charge per unit time, current I is given as
Sectional area
A square metres, as shown
of free electrons available
per m* of the conductor
r
 (EM.28 B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers

I==envA . (vi) (xii)

dt
The current density J*, defined as the current per unit which is noth ing but "Ohms' law.
area is given as
Electrical conductivity of the material is also given as

env (vii) = nepe

m
The above equation may also be written as
J pv where H is the mobility acquired by electrons
m
where p is the charge density in coulombs/m = en
due to presence of electric field.
Substituting the value of v from Eq. (iv) in above Eq.
(vii), we have Using Eq. iv), the mobility of electrons can also be
expressed as

en xxT ne"Etm m
(vil) (xiv)

net Thus, the mobility ofelectron in the metal is defined as

For a particular material, the quantity in above
m the steady-state drift velocity per unit electric field
equation is constant at particular temperature and is known
as electrical conductivity 'a' of the material and thus Q.10 The following data is known for a conductor
Current density, Fermi energy = 5.5 eV
J= oE. ix) Mobility of electrons = 7.04 x 103mV-s
So, the current density J is proportional to the Number of conduction electrons/n 5.8 x 10
conductivity of the material a and the magnitude of applied
clectric field E. In terms ofresistivity p, current density J is Calculate () Relaxation time (i) Resistivity of
given as conductor (ii) Velocity of electron with the Fermi
energy.
e 1.6 x 10-19 C, and m
P es. (x)
= 9.1 x 10- kg.

Ans. Mobility of electrons, H,= 7.04 x 103 m/V-s

Number of conduction electrons, n=5.8 x 10
P /m'
Relaxation time,
We know that the resistance R ofa conductor is given

as R =P where p is the resistivity of material and l is the texm

e
length of conductor. Thus
7.04x103x9.1x1031
I =JA-EA EI (xi) 1.6x10-19
p
= 40.04x 10-15 second
i) Resistivity of conductor,
R PA
Since E = V, the Eq. (xi) may be written as P 1
ne
 Electrical Materials
5.8x102x1.6x101x7.04x103
= 1.531 x 10-s Q-m.
ii) Velocity of electrons with Fermi energy,
2EF 2x5.5x1.6x10-19
V m 9.1x10-31
= 1.3907x 10 m/s
PART-C
Q.11 Explain the electrical properties of conductive and
resistive materials. R.T.U. 2014
Ans. Conducting Material
1. Steel: Steel contains iron with a small percentage
ofcarbon added to it. For wire, steel with 0.1 to 0.15 percent
carbon is used. Iron itself is not very strong but when carbon
is added to it, it acquires very good mechanical properties.
With the addition of small percentage of carbon, tensile
strength of steel increases but at the same time its ductility
decreases. If the carbon content is too high, the steel is brittle.
The steels are classified as under
(a) Mild steel containing carbon about 0.25%.
(b) Medium steel containing carbon about 0.45%.
(c) High carbon steel containing carbon about 0.70%
and above.
Properties
) The resistivity of steel is 8 to 9 times higher than
that of copper. Therefore, steel is not very often used as a
conducting material because of its low electrical conductivity,
inspite of the fact that it has higher mechanical strength, low
cost and is available in plenty.
i) It contains small percentage of carbon which
increases its mechanical strength.
0wti) Too high carbon content in steel makes it brittle.
(iv) Steel is easily corroded by moisture and heat.
(v) Overhead steel conductors are galvanized to
prevent corrosion. In this method the steel is thoroughly
EM.29
cleaned and then it is dipped in a bath of molten zinc. This
layer of zinc protects steel from rusting.
(vi) When alternating current flows in a steel wire, its
resistivity and losses are much higher than when D.C. current
flows, due to the magnetic properties of steel.
(vii) Aluminium conductors used for high voltage
systems, long spans, are usually reinforced with steel, which
gives high tensile strength to overhead lines. Such conductor
is called A.C.S.R. conductor.
(vii) It is less flexible than aluminium and copper.
Applications
) Galvanized steel wires are used as overhead
telephone lines and as earth wires.
(ii) Steel overhead conductors due to less electrical
conductivity are used only to transfer small amounts of power.
(iii) Steel is used as conductor rail interaction due to
its cheapness and rigidity.
2. Zinc
Properties
() It is a metal of bluish white colour.
ii) It occurs in nature as zinc sulphide (Zns).
(iii) Boiling point = 905°C; melting point= 1000°C,
electrical resistivity =15.5u /cm'; atoms weight= 181.2.
(iv) It is malleable and ductile.
(v)It is poor in electrical conductivity than copper.
Its conductivity is about half as that of copper.
(vi) It can be easily soldered. It has high corrosion
resistance.
(vii) Its commercial name is spelter.
(viii) It is affected by acids and alkalies.
Applications
) It is used for covering steel to protect it from
atmospheric corrosion. The process is known as galvanizing.
i) It is used for making alloys e.g. brass, bronze etc.
(ii) Zinc oxide is used as a pigment in paints.
iv) It is used for metal spraying.
(v) It is used simple voltaic cell as positive plate
(anode).
(vi) It is used for galvanizing steel parts such as wires
sheets.
 EM.30
Resistance Materials
Alloys of nickel, chromium, copper, iron and
manganese are extensively used as resistance materials. A
resistor is a device which is used to introduce resistance in
an electric circuit for the various purposes such as
) For controlling of current such as rheostats.
(ii) As heater elements for converting electrical energy
into heat energy.
(iin) As meter elements such as ammeter shunts and
voltmeter multipliers.
1. Tungsten
Properties
(i) It is grey in colour and is one of the standard
resistance materials.
(i) It has the highest melting point (3300°C) amongst
all the metals. Therefore, its refractory qualities are very much
favourable.
(ii) It is very hard metal and does not become brittle
at high temperatures.
(iv) It can be drawn into very thin wires for making
filaments.
(v)Its resistivity is about twice than of aluminium.
(vi) It has very high-tensile strength in its thinnest
form i.e. thinner the tungsten wire greater is its tensile strength.
(vii) It oxidizes very quickly in the presence of
oxygen even at temperatures of a few hundred degrees thermal properties.
centigrade.
(vii) It does notexhibit magnetic properties when pure
but can easily alloy with steel called "Tungsten Steel" which
m at 20°C.
is a magnetic material of top quality
(ix) Atomic weight= 184, Resistivity=5.46 u/cm.
x) In the atmosphere of inert gas (Nitrogen or Argon)
or in vacuum it can easily work upto 2000°C.
Applications
tis used in incandscent lamps as filaments due to
its high melting point.
(i) As heater coil in electron tubes to heat the cathodeQ.12 What are the main sources of electrical resistance
for liberating electrons (the process is called Thermionic
Emission).
ii) In the form ofan alloy of tungsten steel it is used
for making permanent magnets.
B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
When tungsten steel is used as filament
in
straight, coiled
incandescent lamps, the filament is made in
is made in straight
coil or coiled form. When the filament
lamp is operated
form, the filament wire is liable to sag if the
filament in coiled form,
in horizontal position. To male the
a mandrel. The efficiency
the wire is wound into a tight coil on
and it also hel in the
of the lamp improves by coiling
concentration of light.
To make the coiled-coil filaments,
the wire is first
is coiled on another
coiled on a mandrel, then the coil itself
is needed in a
mandrel. A coiled-coil form of filament
light source is
projector, where an extremely concentrated
in incandescent
needed. Tungsten is very commonly used
lamps as filament material due to the
following reasons:
() Highest melting point amongst all metals.
form.
(ii) Very high tensile strength in its thinnest
(iii) Can be drawn into very thin wires.
Civ) Does not become brittle at high temperatures.
2. Nichrome
Properties
) It is silver white in colour.
(ii) It is ductile and can be drawn into thin wires.
(ii) It is an alloy of Manganese 1.5%, Nickel 75%
to 78%, Chromium 20% to 23% and a little percentage of
iron.
iv) It has good mechanical strength and desirable
(v) Its maximum permissible temperature is 1100°C.
(vi) It has high value ofresistivity (100 x 10) ohm-
(vii) Its temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.0001
Applications
It is used in making heating elements for electric
heaters, electric ovens, electric iron, room heaters, electrical
furnaces etc.
in a metal? Discuss the effect of impurity,
temperature and alloying on the electrical
conductivity of metal
R.TU. 2012]
Electrical Materials -EM.31)
n. Causes of Electrical Resistance in Metals Strain: Strain on a metal wire or other conducting material
In physics, resistance is the degree to which a also affects the resistivity by altering slightly the length and
ferial fails to conduct electricity. It is the opposite of width of the material. Pulling on a wire acts to increase its
conductivity, which 1s the degree to which a material length and crimp its width somewhat, thereby increasing the
eonducts electricity. Most materials have a resistivity.
certain degree
ofconductivity and a certain degree of resistance,
but metals Effects of Impurities or Alloying on Electrical
send to be strong conductors. No metal is a perfect Conductivity
conductor, though, and the level ofrcsistivity will
vary under Effect of Composition: All additives to pure copper reduce
certain conditions.
its electrical conductivity, depending upon the element and
Electricity and the movement of electrons amount in solid solution. Only small decreases are
caused by
elements added in excess of solubility. There is a cumulative
Electricity is basically the conduct of electrons from
one point to another. An electron is drawn from one effect when more than one element is added.
atom, so that atom exerts a charge on the next atom, Effect of Alloying and Condition: As with other systems,
strength without
arawingan eiectron from it, and so on. Unfortunately, copper is intentionally alloyed to improve it should
from a conductivity standpoint, electrons have a unduly degrading ductility or workability. However,
tendency to go off in a separate direction every once be recognized that additions of alloying elements also degrade
in a while, because of collisions or interactions with electrical and thermal conductivity by various amounts
other subatomic particles. Metals are usually good depending on the alloying element and the concentration and
conductors because their atomic structure allows the location in the microstructure (solid solution, precipitate,
outer electrons to pass very easily from one atom to| dispersoid). The choice of alloy and condition is most often
The
the next, but there will always be a few electrons that based on the tradeoff between strength and conductivity.
are bounced out of their intended pathways. This optimum tradeoff is achieved by precipitation hardening
alloy
results in a loss of current, and the degree to which which is usually the most costly, because of either the
hardening alloys
it happens is referred to as a material's resistance. additions or extra processing. Precipitation
with increased
There are several factors that may affect the level exhibit increases in electrical conductivity, along
of resistance. strength during the aging heat treatment, as elements are
removed from supersaturated solid solution to form precipitates
Length as a Factor in Resistivity
of intermetallic compounds.
Length is one of several conditions that affect a
Effect of Temperature on Electrical Conductivity
material's conductivity and resistivity. The further an
electric current has to travel through a substance, the
a
Raising the temperature of metal increases its resistance.
The higher temperature, it causes an increase in vibration of
greater the resistance of that substance. Simply put,
subatomic particles, which increases the likelihood that an
the greater the length an electron has to go, the
electron will collide with one of them.
greater the chance that the electron will be bounced
some
from the intended pathway, thereby decreasing
of the electric charge. gxs Define and explain relaxation time, collision time
Width as a Factor in Resistivity and mean free path. Derive mathematical relation
for each term.
The width of a cross-section of the material through
which the current passes also affects the resistivity
and conductivity of a conductive material. The wider Ans. Relaxation Time, Collision Time and Mean Free
the Path: The relaxation time is closely related to the mean time
the cross-section, the lower the resistance of
conductor. A good analogy for the length and width of flight between collision and also to the mean free path of
factors would be a bowling lane. The longer thel the conduction electrons, which is the average distance of
the more chances a ball has to bounce into the gutter, undisturbed motion between collision. All the collision
but the wider processes occuring in the electron gas may be explained
the lane is, the better chance the ball
gutter.
has to reach the end without hitting the through relaxation time. The collisions are caused by thermal
 (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
EM.32 B.Tech.
or structural imperfections in the lattice. The relaxation time
is introduced as the characteristic time governing the dedt <v = 0 (iv)
establishment of equilibrium through collision, from an initial velocity in the non-
disturbed situatjon in which v+0. Or, if <v> 0 is the initial drift equilibrium is
to the
equilibrium distribution, the approach
The relaxation time is mathematically understood as solution of Eq. (iv).
described by the appropriate
follows:

equilibrium die out exponentially

The disturbances from
collisions from the point of
Let us now consider the
sh tterie the probability for an electron to
view of time. Assume that
during a short time interval dt
collide with a lattice (obstacle)
dt is a constant with the
dimensions of
is given by,T where t
probability that an electron moves
time. Let F() represent the
collision, and let F(t + dt)
for a timet without suffering a a period (t + dt). We may
Time, t represent the same probability for
Eq. () now write
Fig.: Decay of Drift Velocity According to
Let the electrons in a metal have an average velocity dF
at any instant, t= 0; given that for t> 0 there is no
F(t +dt) =F(t) +dt
dt
(Vi)
V0 and
external field, the electrons interact only with the lattice
ultimately the average velocity will go to zero. At any instant
(Taylor series expansion)
t(0), let the velocity be given by the expression (Fig.) and from probability theory
..()
where t is the relaxation time of electrons, F(t+dt) =F(t) F(dt) =F(t)| ... (vi)
The rate of change of velocity due to collision becomes
Comparing Eqs. (vi) and (vii), we have
(ii)
Jcoll
dF-F(t
The subscript "coll refers to collisions carried out by dt
the electrons with the lattice. or Ft) = e-t .(vii)
Equation (1) is the solution of a modified equation of
motion ofelectronsif we consider the frictional forces due to
Since FC)1 for t=
0 which fixes the integration
constant. The average time which elapses between collisions

-
collisions.
is given as
Considering the relaxation time, the frictional force on

the electrons due to collision may be expressed as 2 dt .ix)

0
Hence, the modified equation of electrons becomes
dF
d<v,,m<V
m-
dt
-eE .. (iii)
because gives
dt
the probability that the electron
collides between t and (t + dt). Substituting F(t) from Eq
In the absence of the external forces (-eE), the free (vii) in Eq. (ix), we have
motion satisfies
(x)
Electrical Materials
Hence, he physical meaning oft introduced in the
orobabilities above is that it represents the average time of
collisions.
For isotropic materials, the mean time of collision is
the same as the relaxation time, i.e., t= T.
EM.33)
empty, E, is called the Fermi level ofelectrons. The magnitude
of E, is of the order of several electron volts. At any
temperature T, the probability ofa state corresponding to the
energy E being occupied by an electron is given as
1

The mean free path of an electron, f(E) E-Ep)/KT

... (xii)
A, will be defined
S
A=vt' . (xi)
where k is Boltzmann's constant.

where v is an appropriate average velocity of electron. The velocity of an electron with Fermi energy, v, is
In the case of metals, the conductivity always refers to a
given as
single total velocity, the one corresponding to Fermi energy.
We know that free electrons in a metal can accept a series mv
2
E (xii)
of discrete energy levels. At absolute zero, all energy levels
below a certain value E, are filled, and those above E, being Thus mean free path, = v,t (xiv)
 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

PREVIOUs YEARs QUESTIONS

.5
Ans. An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of
th

semiconductor material in its extremely pure form. When

PART-A small amount of impurity is added to a pure semiconducto
crystal during the crystal growth in order to increase it
conductivity, the resulting crystal is called the extrinsi
Q.1 Define Fermi level. semiconductor.

Ans. The highest energy level, which an electron can occupy Q.5 Why the temperature coefficient of resistance of
in the valence band at 0K, is named as Fermi level. semiconductor is negative?

Q.2 Write importance of Fermi energy. Ans. With the increase in temperature, the concentration d
charge carriers (electrons and holes) increases. As mon
Ans. charge carriers are made available, the conductivity ofa pur
semiconductor increases ie. resistivity ofa pure semiconducto
) Fermi energy is used to separate the vacant and filled
states at 0K. decreases with the rise in temperature ie, semiconducto
have negative temperature coefficient of resistance
) It is used to know the status of the electrons.
Ci) Electrons are completely filled below Fermi level and
completely empty above the Fermi level at OKK. PART-B
(iv) Above OK some electrons absorb thermal energy and
they jumps to the higher energy levels.

Q.6 Describe the conductivity and mobility for intrinsim

Q.3 Define doping. semiconducto. R.TU 201

Ans. The process of adding impurity to a pure semi conductor

crystal to improve its conductivity is named as doping.
Q.4 Differentiate between intrinsic semiconductors and
extrinsic semiconductors?
Ans. Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor
intrinsic semiconductor contains equal number of electro
and holes, called charge carriers. The electrons are free
move in conduction band whereas holes in valence band.
absence of external electric field, the random motions of the
carriers give no net current in any direction. However, whd
 Materials
ctrical EM.35
field is applied to a specimen of semiconducto, an
n
ordered mo
is superimposed on the chaotic
motions of n
riers in the directie of theforce. This ordered
hargearriers, motion
ca produces current in
ofC the specimen. The
magnitude of current densities due
of to drift of electrons slope-E/2kT
and
given by
holesare

JnqVa 1)
J=pqp 1/T
(2)
Where q magnitude of charge of electron with
or hole, Fig.: Variatlon of conductivity of an intrinsic semlconductor
v, are the drift velocities of electrons temperature
Vand and holes,
p are electron and hole concentrations
n nd respectively. Mobility of Intrinsic Semiconductor
drift velocity per unit electric field
The
The mobility (u) of an intrinsic semiconductor varies
HVE, H= v,/E as T over a temperature (T) range of 100 to 400 °K. For
.(3)
The mobility
silicon, m =2.5 for electrons and 2.7 for holes. Similarly,
of a charge carrier is function of
for germianium m = 1.66 for electrons and 2.33 for holes.
temperature and is proportional to T2, Thus
The mobility of an intrinsic semiconductor decreases with
ha T4 and 4 = BT32 (4) the rise in temperature. Also, the mobility is a function of
where & and ß are proportionality constants. electric field intensity (Ev) and it remains constant only if
E<10 minN-type silicon. For 10 <E <10 V/m, varies
The currents due to electrons and holes are in the
same direction hence the total curent in the specimen is approximately as E-i2 For higher fields, and hence,
Fq (nhn + PH,) = (o, +o,) E (5) Hn varies inversely as E and the carrier speed approaches
Where o, nqua and o,
pq4 are the electrical a constant value of about 10 m/s.
conductivity of electrons and holes. The total conductivity
of the specimen is
Q.7 What is the mechanism by which conduction takes
o+o, nq4+ p94p .6) place inside the semiconductor?
Inintrinsic semiconductor n p ni, So
Ans. Conduction occurs in any given material when an applied
n,g (4 tH electric field causes electrons to move in a desired direction
CT (-EKT).q. (« T+ BT
exp within the material, This may be due to one or both of two

O exp (-EKT) (7) processes, electron motion and hole transfer. In case of former
process, free electrons in the conduction band move under
where o q (a + B) C.
the influence of the applied electric field. Electrons being
Eq. (7) can be written as negatively charged are repelled from the negative terminal
of the applied voltage and attracted towards the positive
(8) terminal. Hole transfer involves electrons which are still
Ino n o 2kT attached to the atoms i.e. those in valance band.
intrinsic
E4. (7) explains why the conductivity of In case some of the energy levels in the valence
band
semicon
onductor varies exponentially with increase in are not occupied by electrons, there are holes where electrons
amperature.
in o versus 1/T is linear.
The band gap could exist. An electron may jump from one atom to fill
A plot
lot of the
can
be determined by measuring the slope of the curve. hole in another atom. When it jumps, the electron
leaves a
 B.Tech. Paper
(V Sem.) E.E. Solved
EM.36 ty
hole behind it, and thus the 'hole has moved in a direction an N-type semiconductor is called the donor
impurity.
opposite to that fthe electron. The current flowing in such a
way is said to be due to movement of holes. (iv) Acceptor : Boron, Gallium, Indium or any othe
trivalent impurity used as dopant to produce a P-typ
semiconductor is called the acceptor type impurity
Q.8 Prove that the conductivity of semiconductor is given
by
Q.10 Write applications of semiconductor.
g= e(np, tPA

Ans. The conductivity o. of the semiconductor due to
electrons in conduction band is given as
One
where n is the number of electrons per unit volume of the
conduction (i.e., electron density or concentration), e is the
electron charge and p, is the electron mobility. Similarly, the
conductivity o, ofthe semiconductor due to holes is given as
Ans. Semiconductor are of enormous technologica
ca
importance because of their special properties, which
modified by doping. Some applications include
Thermistors: The resistivity ofsemiconductor varis
with temperature. This enables semiconductors tob
used as thermometers. Through doping, theappropriat:
sensitivity in the required ranges can be obtained.

hpe (i) HallProbes: Thesemeasure magnetic field strengths

h by using a small piece of semiconductor with known
where p is the number of holes per unit volume and is the
properties. By measuring the induced Hall voltagein
hole mobility.
an unknown magnetic filed one can find B using relation
Since in semiconductor the conduction is by free
electrons as well as holes, total conductivityo is given as By
V N

eneet pen (i) IR Sensors/Optoelectronic Devices: "Optoelectronic

e devices are capable of sensing or responding to light of
e(npePHh
various wavelengths. This is due to the phenomenon
ofphotoconductivity whereby a semiconductor can greatly
Q.9 Explain the following terms used in extrinsic increase its electrical conductivity ifthe radiation has
semiconductors: sufficient energy to promote electrons across the band
( Doping gap. Many different semiconductors are available with
i) Diffusion different band gaps to suit particular applications.
i) Donor (iv) Semiconductor Devices: These involve junctions
(iv) Acceptor ofp, i and n-type material. There are many types o
devices including diodes, transistors, FETs, LEDs, solar
cells, etc.
Ans.
) Doping: Addition of impurity atoms to intrinsic
semiconductor crystal is called the doping and the PART-C
impurity used for doping is called dopant.
(i) Diffusion The process of doping a semiconductor
with impurities is known as diffusion. Q.11 Write short note on intrinsic and extrinsic
(ii) Donor: Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorous or any pe semiconductor.
other pentavalent impurity used as dopant to produce
 Blectrical Materials
-EM.37
ntrinsic or Pure Semiconductors : Semiconductors Properties of an Intrinsic Semiconductor
pure form arecalled intrinsic semiconductor. Forexample, neutral, the number of
incrystal formedby silicon atoms alone. The silicon atoms As the crystal is electrically
electrons is equal to number of holes.
arrange themselves by haring an electron between the forbidden gap.
neighboring atoms using covalent bond. (i) Fermi level lies at the middle ofthe
Cii) The vacant place created in the
valence band dueto
In intrinsic semiconductor like silicon, the value of valence band to
farbjdden energy gap 1s 1.l ev. This energy is available for ti.e jumping of electron from the
has a positive
miconductors placed at room temperature. Due to this conduction band is called 'hole', which
hermal energy some covalent bond within the crystal breaks charge.
and some electrons are pumped from valence band to impurities), the number
For intrinsic semiconductors (no
nduction band. Avacancy is created in the bond from which holes.
of electrons is equal to the number of
clectron is freed. This absence of electron is named as .(1)
showr in fig. 1(a). This leads to the creation of
hole as semiconductor
electron hole pair. Thus at room temperature, a pure Thus, the conductivity for an intrinsic
emiconductor will have both electrons and holes traveling in can be calculated as
random directions. This electrons and holes are called intrinsic + n,q4, ...(2)
carriers and such type of semiconductor is called an intrinsic
ngu,
.(3)
semiconductor. since n. nn is given
The conductivity for an intrinsic semiconductor
by
-ng(u, +H .(4)
where i stands for intrinsic carrier concentration.
Extrinsic Semiconductor : The impurity added
Si semiconductors are named as extrinsic semiconductors. The
extrinsic semiconductors are classified as P-gype and N-tvpe
semiconductors, based on the type of impurity atoms added
Hole
to the semiconductors.
N-Type (Extrinsic) Semiconductor: Pentavalent element
Free like Antimony (Sb) or Arsenic (As) is added to pure silicon
Electron crystal. These impurity atoms replace some of the silicon
(a) atoms here and there in the crystal. The added Arsenic (As)
atom shares it's four electrons with the neighboring atoms
Conduction Band and releases it's fifth electron to the crystal for conduction.
So these pentavalent elements are called donor impurities,
as they donate electrons without creating holes as shown in
Fermi fig. 2(a).
Level In silicon, an electron needs 1.1 eV to move from
valence band to conduction band. This energy becomes
available to the semiconductor even at room temperature.
Valence Band So, at room temperature, few covalent bonds within the
material are broken by the thermal energy from the
surrounding and some electrons from the valence band are
(b) pumped to conduction band. This process leaves some
Fig 1: Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductor absence of electrons in the valence band. Electron hole
EM.38
pairs are created. At the same time, the number of electrons
in the conduction band increase further by the addition
of|
pentavalent impurities without addition ofholes which already
exist within the crystal. So the number of electrons are donor
electrons plus thermal electrons at room temperature. This
thermal excitation produces very less pair of electrons and
holes, whereas the added impurity donates more electrons.
The majority charge carrier electrons are of the order of
104, whereas the minority charged carrier holes are of the
order of 10" at 300 K.
Hence, the majority charge carriers are electrons in
this material. The electron carries a negative charge, so it is
named as N-type semiconductor and conduction is due to
large number of electrons. As the number of electrons in the
conduction band of N-type semiconductor is more than the
number of holes in the valance band, therefore the Fermi
level lies nearer to the conduction band as shown in fig. 2(b).
Si
As
Free
Electron
(a)
Conduction Band
Fermi
Level
i Valence Band
Donor
Level
(b)
Fig. 2: Conduction in N-Type (Extrinsic) Semiconductor
B Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers
P-Type Semiconductor: When trivalent element like
indium, aluminum, boron is doped with pure silicon, the added
impurity atoms replace some ofthe silicon atoms in the crystal
d establish a covalent bond with the neighboring atoms
Indium has three electrons but it is covered by four silicon
as shown in the fig. 3(a). So, one of the covalent bonds
is not completed by sharing of electrons between them and
so there is an absence of electron which creates a hole.
Indium needs one more electron to complete its
covalent band. So Indium is an acceptor of electrons. Now
this extrinsic semiconductor gains thermal energy from the
surroundings at room temperature. So some electrons absorb
this thermal energy and jump to the conduction band. This
creates electron hole pair due to thermal excitation. So the
total number of holes in the valance band is due to donor
atom plus thermally generated holes.
Si
Si In
Hole
S
Free
(a) Electron
Conduction Band
Acceptor
Level
Valence Band
Fermi
Level
(b)
Fig. 3: Conduction in P-Type (Extrinsic) Semiconductor
 Flectrical Materials
EM.39
some general
The holes are in majority and electrons are in minority. The Fermi-Dirac distribution has
in a graph1c
ience conduction is aue to majority charge carriers whichproperties, which are best explained
Fermi function
holes. Here the holes are behaving like positive charge representation. Some of the properties of the
riers. So this material is named as P-type semiconductor. are
number of holes in the valence band is more than the
c

The probability of
energy state is occupiedd:
aimber ofelectrons in the conduction band, the Fermi level
nearer to the valence band, in P-type semiconductor as
lies ne
shown in fig.
3(b). AE) E-EpVkT
an electron.
IfAE)=1, the energy level is occupied with
.12 Explain Fermi-dirac distribution function.

Ans.Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function of Fermi

IfAE)
IffE)
=

= ,
0, the energy level is vacant.
then there is a 50% change of finding the
electron in the energy level.
Function: The Fermi function fE,T) is a probability
Fermi function gives the probability
distribution function. The i) The probability of energy state is empty: 1-SE)
that a given available electron energy state will be occupied (ii) The Fermi function is simply a mathematical
ata given temperature. It determines the probability that an 0<fE)<1 function and has no units.
energystate (E) is filled with an electron when the material
Effect of temperature on fermi function
used is in under equilibrium conditions.
At OK, the electrons are filled upto a maximum energy
The mathematical form of Fermi-Dirac distribution comes
level called fermi energy level E All the energy level above
from Fermi-Dirac statistics and given by
the fermi energy level are empty.
=
E. T) exp E-EE+1 .(1) Case (i) : At T OK and E <E,
+ SE)=
Here fE,T) gives probability for occupation of (one)
state at E for the temperature T. This is the popular version
The probability of electrons to occupy the energy level
with the Fermi energy Ep as a parameter.
between fermi energy level is 100%.
The basic nature of this function states that at ordinary
temperatures, most of the levels up to the Fermi level Ep are Case (i) : At T OK and E>
E
filled, and relatively few electrons have energies above the
Fermi level. The Fermi level is of the order of electron volts
eg. for copper it is 7 eV), whereas the thermal energy kT is
IE)-1+ 11+0 =0
onlyabout 0.026 eV at 300K. Using this data in the Fermi
This means that at OK, electrons are completely
Tunction at ordinary temperatures, one find that its valueis
Ssentially one up to the Fermi level and rapidly approaches occupied below E, and above E, electrons are unoccupied.
zero above
it. Case (iii) : At T=0 K and E = E
The Fermi level (Ep) helps in determining carrier
distributions. To a first approximation, all the energy states
above the Fermi
SE) 20.5
level have a low probability of being filled
Withelectrons
and all the energy states below the Fermi level
It contains a convenient definition ofthe Fermi energy
cahigh probability of being filled with electrons. For an
iectronic state with energy the same as Fermi energy Eps The energy where exactly half of the available levels are
probability ofthat state being filled is 1/2, or 50%. occupied is the Fermi energy.
 EM.40
Ep
Boltzmann
Approximation
TT
E h n
2kT
Fig.: Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function Versus Energy
For (E-E)>>kT the Boltzmann approximation can
be used and given as
JE,T)=exp E
kT That
In this case the probability that a given energy state is
occupied by more than one electron is negligible, and the
exclusion principle is not important because there are always
plenty of free states around the electrons behave like to
classical particles.
Electrons with fermi energy move with fermi velocity
and the some is related to the fermi temperature by the relation,
KT
ii)
Q.13 Explain energy band gap of semiconductors.
Ans. Determination of Energy Band Gap of
Semiconductors: A diode is a two-terminal electronic
device made up ofsemiconducting material. In order to form
aPNjunction diode a p-type semiconductorisjoined with an
n-type semiconductor as shown in Fig.l. The concentration
of majority charge carriers (hole in p-type and electrons in n-
type) in junction diode depends upon the concentration of
impurity atoms in semiconductor but the concentration of
minority charge carriers (electron in p-type and kole in
n-type) depends upon energy band gap E, and temperature
of semiconductor. APNjunction may be considered as having
forward bias or a reverse bias. The forward bias condition
B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers)
represents a positive potential on the p side and a negative
potential on the n side. That is when the anode (p-type side)
of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of a battery
and the cathode (n-type side) is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be in forward bias,
allowing current to pass, through it.
P-type Depletion Layer N-type
h h
h
b h
Fig. 1: Typical PN junction
In case of a reverse biased system, the n side has a
positive potential while the p side has a negative potential.
is when the cathode (n-type side) is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and the anode (p-type side)
of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery. A diode doesn't flow current in reverse bias.
When reverse bias is applied across thejunction diode,
a reverse saturation current flows due to minority charge
carriers. Thus reverse saturation current depends upon the
temperature and band gap energy. Hence by measuring
reverse saturation current at different temperature and energy
band gap in a semiconductor can be determined.
As we know that the current across the junction under
an applied voltage V is given by equation (i)
1
. )
Here
e the charge on the electron,
V the bias voltage
k Boltzmann constant,
T the temperature of the junction and
the reverse saturation current, which is given by
expression (ii)
I =A (n,y, -P,Y,) (i)
In equation (ii), n, is the concentration of minority
electrons and v, is their mean velocity in p-type semiconductor
and p, is the concentration of minority holes, v, is their mean
Electrical Materials
EM.41)
in p-type
olocity in n-type semiconductor and A is the area of the
veloc type semiconductor and the hole concentration
concentration
junction. semiconductor are nearly equal to the impurity
difference.
Now if Ep Evp and Er, are the respective lowest energy and remain constant for low temperature
vel of conduction band, highest energy levels of valence
leve From equation (ix)
band and Fern
ermi level in p-type semiconductor and Een En

andEr are the respective notations in n-type semiconductor

and
n NNexP
Pp
AE
KT (x)
then

N,exp .(iii)
and Pn
NNexpKT
AE .. (xi)
nn KT

Substituting equation (x) and (xi) in equation (ii), we

Pp
N, exp pEp (iv have

similarly in n-type semiconductors A N.N,

n,-N,exp . (v)
exp (xii)
1A, KT

PaN, exp .. (vi)

Y
A, =A,N,N, .. (xii)
where
2(27mkT)32
where h3
(vii)
when PNjunction diode is reversed biased with larger
voltage, the exponential term in equation ) approaches to
2(27tmkT3/2 zero, so that
and p . (viii)
h ... (xiv)

here m mass of an electron, m,= effective mass of

a hole and h= Plank constant. -log, =log-AN,Np
types of
To form a PN junction, the Fermi level of both
the
semiconductor (p-type and n-type) becomes equal at
junction. Thus A,
loglog
EEp
AE ..(ix) or log10lo810A (xvi)
2.303kT
Hence n.P D,Pn=N,N,exP KT
if q 1.6x 10 coulomb, k-1.38 x 102 J/K and
where AE FpEp AE, in V, then

en-En= Energy Band Gapacceptor

At the ambient temperature, when
donor and logo=logio A, -5.036(AE
levels are completely active, the electron concentration
inn-
EM42- B.Tech. (V Sem.) E.E. Solved Papers

0810cOnstant-5.036x A x10 xVii)

Thermometer
Ifa graph is plotted between logo L, and (10 /T), this Stirrer
Junction
Diode log L
comes out to be a straight line as shown in Fig. 2(b) whose
CCI- PN Junction
slope is Insulator
Material 10/T
slope 5.036 AE Band Gap Experiment
(xvii) (b)

Fig. 2
Slope of the line
AF Therefore by determining I, at varyingtemperatures,
5.036
the determination of the energy band gap for a given
AE0.198 x slope ofthe line (xix) semiconductor like silicon and germanium can be made. ne
experimental setup for determination of energy band gap in
semiconductors is shown in Fig. 2(a).