micromachines
Article
Advanced Design and Fabrication of Dual-Material
Honeycombs for Improved Stiffness and Resilience
Jiajing Dong 1,2, *, Songtao Ying 1,2 , Zhuohao Qiu 1,2 , Xixi Bao 1,2 , Chengyi Chu 2 , Hao Chen 2 , Jianjun Guo 2
and Aihua Sun 2, *
Citation: Dong, J.; Ying, S.; Qiu, Z.;
Bao, X.; Chu, C.; Chen, H.; Guo, J.;
Sun, A. Advanced Design and
Fabrication of Dual-Material
Honeycombs for Improved Stiffness
and Resilience. Micromachines 2023,
14, 2120. https://doi.org/10.3390/
mi14112120
Academic Editors: Sangmin Lee,
Jongkyeong Lim, Hojin Kim
and Sanghyun Lee
Received: 18 October 2023
Revised: 11 November 2023
Accepted: 15 November 2023
Published: 18 November 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Micromachines 2023, 14, 2120. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14112120
1 College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China;
yingsongtao@nimte.ac.cn (S.Y.); qiuzhuohao@nimte.ac.cn (Z.Q.); baoxixi@nimte.ac.cn (X.B.)
2 Key Laboratory of Additive Manufacturing Materials of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Materials
Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China; chucy@nimte.ac.cn (C.C.);
chenhao21@nimte.ac.cn (H.C.); jjguo@nimte.ac.cn (J.G.)
* Correspondence: dongjiajing@nimte.ac.cn (J.D.); sunaihua@nimte.ac.cn (A.S.)
Abstract: Auxetic re-entrant honeycomb (AREH) structures, consisting of a single soft or tough
material, have long faced the challenge of balancing stiffness and rebound resilience. To achieve
this balance, dual-material printing technology is employed to enhance shock absorption by combin-
ing layers of soft and tough materials. Additionally, a novel structure called the curved re-entrant
honeycomb (CREH) structure has been introduced to improve stiffness. The selected materials
for processing the composite structures of AREH and CREH are the rigid thermoplastic polymer
polylactic acid (PLA) and the soft rubber material thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), created uti-
lizing fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing technology. The influence of the material
system and structure type on stress distribution and mechanical response was subsequently inves-
tigated. The results revealed that the dual-material printed structures demonstrated later entry
into the densification phase compared to the single-material printed structures. Moreover, the
soft material in the interlayer offered exceptional protection, thereby ensuring the overall integrity
of the structure. These findings effectively serve as a reference for the design of dual-material
re-entrant honeycombs.
Keywords: re-entrant honeycomb; finite-element simulation; dual-material printing; energy absorption
1. Introduction
Honeycombs are widely utilized as biomaterials with distinctive periodic topologi-
cal properties. These materials possess remarkable characteristics such as high fracture
toughness, excellent impact resistance, as well as effective vibration and noise reduction.
Meanwhile, honeycomb structures are reported to be better in mechanical performance
compared to foams of the same density [1–3], and find extensive applications in various
industries, including automotive, aerospace, and medical fields [4–6]. Among the various
honeycomb structures used, auxetic re-entrant honeycombs (AREH) exhibit a distinct
mechanical behavior when subjected to external forces due to their negative Poisson’s
ratio [7]; these structures exhibit superior shear resistance and greater energy absorption
efficiency [8,9]. When subjected to force or compression, they undergo lateral expansion or
inward contraction, which is distinct from the mechanical behavior of traditional structures
and is commonly referred to as metamaterial behavior [10]. Gibson et al. conducted ex-
tensive research on re-entrant honeycombs and proposed a formula for calculating their
relative density [11]. Liu et al. [12] demonstrated that, under quasi-static compression, the
re-entrant honeycomb structure absorbs more energy compared to the typical hexagonal
honeycomb structure at the same degree of strain. Hu et al. [13] investigated the dynamic
response of these structures utilizing the energy method and derived an analytical for-
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines
Micromachines 2023, 14, 2120 2 of 14

mula for the average crushing stress, considering the cell–wall angle, impact velocity, and
cell–wall length ratio.
According to different loading directions, the AREH structure exhibits distinct en-
ergy absorption mechanisms. For example, under in-plane loading conditions, bending
deformations of the cell walls and plastic hinges at the cell wall joints were found to be key
to absorbing the energy [14]. During the compression process, the inclined walls of the
cell undergo plastic deformation and squeeze each other. The specially designed negative
Poisson’s ratio structure causes the entire honeycomb structure to collapse layer by layer in
the plane, shrinking inward while absorbing a large amount of energy. This phenomenon
is often seen in the stress–strain curve. When plastic deformation occurs in the honey-
comb structure, the stress increases as the strain increases, [15] and the stress decreases
rapidly after the failure of a layer of cells. Under out-of-plane loading conditions, the main
modes of deformation are cell wall buckling and membrane deformations. However, the
out-of-plane response does not fully reflect the negative Poisson’s ratio effect of the AREH
structure. To enhance the distinctive mechanical properties of the structure, numerous
researchers have explored various approaches, including modifying the cell structure or
incorporating auxiliary structures [16–19]. Additionally, considerable research efforts have
focused on developing improved optimization techniques to enhance specific aspects of
the structure’s performance. Several existing optimization techniques include topology
optimization [16,20,21], homogenization [22], and genetic algorithms [23].
Owing to the ligaments in the auxetic structure’s rotational or bending deformation
properties, the stiffness of such structures is commonly not particularly high, making
them unsuitable for situations that require high stiffness [24–26], energy absorption and
strength [27]. However, the curved ligaments in natural structures such as turtle shells [28]
provide some bionic ideas. These structures exhibit superior stiffness and enhanced energy
absorption capabilities. Zied et al. [29] introduced two novel rigid plate auxetic honey-
combs in which the straight walls were replaced with double-arc walls. This modification
increases the in-plane stiffness while reducing auxeticity. The structure effectively dissipates
impact energy over a larger area. Another honeycomb arrangement called the re-entrant
circle (REC), developed by Chang et al. [17], replaces the inclined honeycomb walls with
double-circular-arc honeycomb walls. The additional plastic hinges in this configuration
increase the energy required for each unit during the crushing process, substantially en-
hancing the structure’s energy absorption capacity. Meanwhile, it has been demonstrated
that the multilayered hierarchical structure found in avian beaks [30] and nacre [31] can be
employed to disperse and absorb impact energy. Niu et al.’s [32] study on the integrated
production of soft and hard composite materials of various sizes under various circum-
stances led to the realization of the controllability and mechanical property enhancement
of tunable soft and hard hybrid structures. By using softer polymers in the hinge area,
Wang et al. [33] suggested that 3D re-entrant honeycombs could utilize dual-material print-
ing to reduce buckling issues. To enhance the functionality of chiral auxiliary metamaterials,
Zhang et al. [34] proposed a gradient-based mathematical programming technique employ-
ing topology optimization. Su et al. innovatively introduced the concept of dual-material
printing and incorporated a soft arch ligament into the re-entrant honeycomb, which
improved stiffness while retaining the NPR characteristics. Similarly, ROSS et al. [35] devel-
oped a series of dual-material combinations, similar to Su et al. [36], using soft connections
at the hinges. Experimental results revealed that the dual-material structure exhibited ex-
cellent rebound resilience under multiple loading cycles and compressive forces. Previous
research had incorporated soft materials into the honeycomb structure’s hinges to increase
rebound resilience, but this approach compromised the stiffness.
In this study, dual-material printing was incorporated to achieve a better balance
between bounce resilience and energy absorption capacity. The samples were created
via an FDM printing technique using two different types of materials. The deformation
mode of these new structures with various materials and configurations was predicted
and evaluated using a quasi-static test, integrating finite-element (FEM) simulation and
 these new structures with various materials and configurations was predicted and evalu-
ated using a quasi-static test, integrating finite-element (FEM) simulation and experi-
Micromachinesments.
2023, 14, The
2120 experimental findings were presented, comparing the stiffness and specific 3 of 14

energy absorption (SEA) of the newly developed re-entrant honeycomb structures to con-
ventional honeycomb structures. Additionally, the experimental results for the dual-ma-
terial structure wereexperiments.
comparedThe experimental
to those findings
obtained from awere presented,
single material.comparing the stiffness and
These findings
specific energy absorption (SEA) of the newly developed re-entrant honeycomb structures
provide valuable insights for dual-material printing and serve as reference data for print-
to conventional honeycomb structures. Additionally, the experimental results for the dual-
ing dual-materialmaterial
honeycomb structures using FDM printing technology.
structure were compared to those obtained from a single material. These findings
provide valuable insights for dual-material printing and serve as reference data for printing
2. Materials and Methods
dual-material honeycomb structures using FDM printing technology.
2.1. Fabrication and Mechanical Properties Characterization
2. Materials and Methods
The tested samples were fabricated
2.1. Fabrication and MechanicalviaProperties
fused deposition modeling (FDM) technol-
Characterization
ogy, using PLA filament (Raise3D, Shanghai, China) and TPU95A (PolyFlex, Brisbane,
The tested samples were fabricated via fused deposition modeling (FDM) technol-
Australia) as raw ogy,
materials. These
using PLA materials
filament were Shanghai,
(Raise3D, selected due to their
China) different(PolyFlex,
and TPU95A stiffness Brisbane,
characteristics. The detailed
Australia) asprint parameters
raw materials. canmaterials
These be found in selected
were Table S1due
(supplementary
to their different stiffness
material). Moreover, the tensile test was utilized to characteristic the elastic
characteristics. The detailed print parameters can be found in Table modulus and
S1 (Supplementary
yield strength of the samples.Moreover,
Materials). For hardthe plastics,
tensilethe
teststandard tested
was utilized methods of PLA
to characteristic sam- modulus
the elastic
ples followed ASTM D638-I [36,37], and TPU samples were fabricated following ASTM of PLA
and yield strength of the samples. For hard plastics, the standard tested methods
samples followed
D638-IV [20,38]. Meanwhile, ASTM D638-I [36,37],
the dual-material samples and TPUmade
were samples were fabricated
following following ASTM
ASTM D638-
D638-IV [20,38]. Meanwhile, the dual-material samples were made following ASTM D638-I,
I, with the middle slender consisted with PLA and TPU [39]. Then, their stress–strain
with the middle slender consisted with PLA and TPU [39]. Then, their stress–strain curves
curves were measured and displayed in Figure 1a–c.
were measured and displayed in Figure 1a–c.

Figure 1. Stress–strain curve

Figure for the (a) curve
1. Stress–strain PLA material
for the (a)(b)
PLADUAL material
material andmaterial
(b) DUAL (c) TPUand
material.
(c) TPU material.

2.2. Structure and Material Designs of AREH and CREH

2.2. Structure and Material Designs of AREH and CREH
The geometric shape of the unit cell in AREH structure is usually determined by four
The geometric shape of of
parameters theitsunit
basiccell in as
unit, AREH structure
in shown is usually
in Figure 2a, whichdetermined
are the lengthby four
of the inclined
parameters of its basic unit, as in shown in Figure 2a, which are the length of the inclined
rod (l), the length of the vertical rod (h), the wall thickness (t) and the concave angle (θ).
rod (l), the lengthThe
of the vertical
length of the rod (h),the
rod on the wall
left andthickness
right sides(t) andh;the
is 1/2 all concave
rod elements angle (θ).rectangular
have
The length of the rod on the left and right sides is 1/2 h; all rod elements have rectangular
sections. At the same time, to ensure that the structure exhibits a negative Poisson’s ratio
effecttime,
sections. At the same during deformation,
to ensure that the these parameters
structure mustasatisfy
exhibits negative 2lsinθ < h. In ratio
Poisson’s order to avoid
effect during deformation, these parameters must satisfy 2lsinθ < h. In order to avoid to
the overlap between the inclined rod and the vertical rod, it is necessary theensure that
lcosθ > t. In this study, the specific sizes were l = 15 mm, h = 30 mm, t = 3 mm, and θ = 30◦ .
overlap between the inclined rod and the vertical rod, it is necessary to ensure that lcosθ >
The overall structural dimensions obtained by the array were w = 125 mm and H = 80 mm,
t. In this study, the specific sizes were l = 15 mm, h = 30 mm, t = 3 mm, and θ = 30°. The
and the thickness of the whole structure was 20 mm. There are 6 nodes in a single AREH
overall structural cell,
dimensions
which areobtained by thedistributed.
symmetrically array were There
w = 125 aremm and on
3 nodes H =one80 mm,
side. and
These 3 nodes
the thickness of the
werewhole
drawn structure
into arcswasand 20 mm. There
arranged are 6 nodes
symmetrically. Thisinnewa single AREH
structure withcell,
arched walls
which are symmetrically
was named distributed. There are
curved re-entrant 3 nodes(CREH),
honeycomb on one as side.
shownThese 3 nodes
in Figure 2d.were
drawn into arcs and arranged
To imitatesymmetrically.
the soft and hard This new structure
sandwich structurewith
seenarched
in biologywalls was the dual
[30,31],
material design
named curved re-entrant honeycombof these two structures
(CREH), as shown wasincontinued.
Figure 2d. The whole structure was divided
into
To imitate the softtwo
and parts
hard from the wallstructure
sandwich thicknessseendirection as shown
in biology in Figure
[30,31], 2b,e.ma-
the dual The internal
terial design of these two structures was continued. The whole structure was divided intodesign is a
design is a TPU sandwich layer with a wall thickness of 1 mm, and the external
two-layer PLA shell with a thickness of 1 mm. It is fabricated using dual-material printing
two parts from the wall thickness direction as shown in Figure 2b,e. The internal design
technology, as shown in Figure 2c,f.
is a TPU sandwich layer with a wall thickness of 1 mm, and the external design is a two-
layer PLA shell with a thickness of 1 mm. It is fabricated using dual-material printing
technology, as shown in Figure 2c,f.
2023, 14, x 4 of 15

3, 14, x 4 of 15
Micromachines 2023, 14, 2120 4 of 14

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of honeycomb cell and sandwich composite structure and manufac-
tured specimen of (a–c): AREH, (d–f): CREH.

2.3. Finite-Element Method Simulation

Figure 2. Schematic Figure 2. Schematic
diagram diagram cell
of honeycomb of honeycomb cell andcomposite
and sandwich sandwich composite structure
structure and manufactured
and manufac-
Finite-element modelling
specimen of
was
(a–c):
processed
AREH, (d–f):
via the Abaqus/CAE
CREH.
package. The explicit
tured specimen of (a–c): AREH, (d–f): CREH.
method was chosen [40]. Models for these structures were created via SolidWorks 2019
and imported in 2.3. IGES Finite-Element Method Simulation
format. C3D8R-type mesh components were utilized for meshing.
2.3. Finite-Element Method Simulation
Finite-element
The material properties of PLA andmodelling
TPU were was processed via
determined the Abaqus/CAE
through package.
a fitting process, as The
is explicit
Finite-element modelling
method was was
chosen processed
[40]. Models via
for the
these Abaqus/CAE
structures were package.
shown in supplemental material page S4. Two rigid plates were fixed at the top and bot- 2019 and
created via The explicit
SolidWorks
method
tom and was chosenimported
a reference [40]. in IGES
pointModels
was format.
for these
established C3D8R-type
atstructures
the center mesh
werecomponents
of the created
top rigidviawere utilized
SolidWorks
plate for stressfor meshing.
2019 The
and
material properties of PLA and TPU were determined through a fitting process, as is shown
and imported inmeasurements.
displacement IGES format. To C3D8R-type
simulate the mesh components
quasi-static were utilized
compression for meshing.
experiment [16], a
in Table S2. Two rigid plates were fixed at the top and bottom and a reference point was
The material properties
displacement 45 mmofwas
of established PLA and
at applied
the TPU
center were
toofthe
the topdetermined
top rigidplate
rigid through
bodyfor plate a fitting
stressalong
and the -Y process,
displacementdirection. as is
measurements.
Figure
shown in3supplemental
illustrates the setup of the model between the two rigid plates. To
To simulate the quasi-static compression experiment [16], a displacement ofbot-
material page S4. Two rigid plates were fixed at define
the top contact
and 45 mm was
behavior
tom betweenapplied
and a reference surfaces,
pointtowas a tangential
the established
top rigid bodybehavior
atplate penalty
the center
along ofcoefficient
the thedirection.
-Y ofFigure
top rigid 0.2 was
plate 3forused as the
stress
illustrates and
the setup of
interaction attribute
displacement [16,35].
the model
measurements. After
between mesh
the two
To simulate division,
rigid a mesh
plates.
the quasi-static interface
To define was
contact
compression established
behavior between
experiment for[16],
the a a tan-
surfaces,
compressed of
displacement gential
sample
45 mm behavior
to was
establish penalty coefficient
the general
applied to the top of
contact0.2 was
rigidbetweenused
body plateas the interaction
surfaces
alongand attribute
theachieve [16,35]. After
self-
-Y direction.
contact mesh
functionality. division, a mesh interface was established for the compressed sample to establish the
Figure 3 illustrates the setup of the model between the two rigid plates. To define contact
general contact between surfaces and achieve self-contact functionality.
behavior between surfaces, a tangential behavior penalty coefficient of 0.2 was used as the
interaction attribute [16,35]. After mesh division, a mesh interface was established for the
compressed sample to establish the general contact between surfaces and achieve self-
contact functionality.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of finite-element method simulation.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of finite-element method simulation.
For the dual-material printed structures, the exterior and sandwich structures were
For the dual-material printed structures,
imported separately, the exterior
and the merging functionand
was sandwich
employed to structures were
combine the two sections
for computation.
imported separately, It should
and the merging be noted
function that
was each section
employed had its own
to combine theset of material
two sectionsattributes.
for computation. It should be noted that each section had its own set of material attributes.
Supplementary
Figure 3. material
Schematic diagram page S4 provides
of finite-element methodasimulation.
mesh sensitivity analysis, and a mesh
size = 1.2 mm was selected. Meanwhile, Poisson’s ratio was calculated by selecting two
For the dual-material printed structures, the exterior and sandwich structures were
imported separately, and the merging function was employed to combine the two sections
23, 14, x 5 of 15

Micromachines 2023, 14, 2120 5 of 14

reference points, denoted as 𝐻 and 𝐻 , with equal intervals on the left and right sides of
the boundary [41]. The specific calculation method can be obtained in supplemental ma-
Figure S2 provides a mesh sensitivity analysis, and a mesh size = 1.2 mm was selected.
terial page S5. Meanwhile, Poisson’s ratio was calculated by selecting two reference points, denoted as H i
and Hi0 , with equal intervals on the left and right sides of the boundary [41]. The specific
3. Results and Discussion
calculation method can be obtained in [41]. The specific calculation method is described by
Equations (S4)–(S7).
3.1. Analysis Methods
In this study,3.the quasi-static
Results compression experiment and finite-element simulation
and Discussion
are mainly carried3.1.outAnalysis
for theMethods
two printing methods to obtain the stress-strain curve, and
the Poisson’s ratio is extracted to analyze
In this study, the auxetic
the quasi-static characteristics.
compression experiment The quasi-static
and finite-elementcom-simulation
pression test can be
arefollowed after out
mainly carried printing
for thethe
twosamples
printing so that the
methods stress–strain
to obtain curve can
the stress-strain curve, and
the Poisson’s ratio is extracted to analyze the auxetic
be obtained. In Figure 4a, it can be clearly seen that there are three stages, namely, thecharacteristics. The quasi-static
compression
elastic stage, plateau stage and testdensification
can be followed after printing
stage. the samples
In the elastic stage,sothe
thatimage
the stress–strain
shows curve
can be obtained. In Figure 4a, it can be clearly seen that there are three stages, namely, the
an upward trend with a constant slope, which is Young’s modulus. The stress reduction
elastic stage, plateau stage and densification stage. In the elastic stage, the image shows
at the yield pointanis upward
due to trend
the rotation of the slope,
with a constant plasticwhich
hingeis and themodulus.
Young’s bending The of the cell
stress reduction
walls, after whichatthethestructure
yield pointenters
is duethe stress
to the plateau
rotation region.
of the plasticIn thisand
hinge process, the col-
the bending of the cell
lapse is accompanied
walls,by a near
after whichconstant load,enters
the structure creating a stress
the stress plateau.
plateau region.The third
In this stagethe
process, is collapse
the densification stage: the collapsed cell walls are squeezed tightly against each other, is the
is accompanied by a near constant load, creating a stress plateau. The third stage
causing the stressdensification
to rise sharply stage:
and theindicating
collapsed cell walls
that theare squeezedhas
structure tightly against each other, causing
failed.
the stress to rise sharply and indicating that the structure has failed.

Figure 4. (a)curve
Figure 4. (a) The stress–strain The stress–strain
and (b) thecurve and efficiency
energy (b) the energy efficiency
curve curvestructure
of AREH of AREH printed
structure printed
with PLA material. with PLA material.

Li et al. [42] proposed a method to evaluate the densification of a structure by cal-

Li et al. [42] proposed
culating itsaenergy
method to evaluate
absorption the densification
efficiency of a structure
during compression. by calcu-
This method was used to
lating its energy absorption
analyze the efficiency during efficiency
energy absorption compression.
of theThis
AREH method wasasused
structure, to in
shown an-
Figure 4b.
alyze the energy absorption efficiency of the AREH structure, as shown in Figure 4b. Ad-different
Additionally, this method can be applied to various structures made of
materials.
ditionally, this method canThebe detailed
appliedprocedure
to variousand content ofmade
structures energyofabsorption
differentcan be calculated by
materials.
Equations (S8)–(S10).
The detailed procedure and content of energy absorption can be found on page S5 in the
supplementary materials.
3.2. Experiments and FEM Simulations
The finite-element model (FEM) of the specimen was established, and the quasi-
3.2. Experiments and FEM
static Simulations
experiment was simulated. Table 1 presents the deformation of AREH samples
printed with either
The finite-element model (FEM) a single
of theTPU or PLA material
specimen during the and
was established, compression crushing process,
the quasi-static
along with the
experiment was simulated. predicted
Table deformation
1 presents mode profile
the deformation of obtained from simultaneous
AREH samples printed finite-
element simulations.
with either a single TPU or PLA material during the compression crushing process, along
with the predicted deformation mode profile obtained from simultaneous finite-element
simulations.

Table 1. The sequence of deformed configurations during deformation and failure of the AREH
samples.
 with
withthethepredicted
predicteddeformation
deformationmode
modeprofile
profileobtained
obtainedfrom
fromsimultaneous
simultaneousfinite-element
finite-element
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
with the predicted deformation mode profile obtained from simultaneous finite-element
with
with withthethe
with
the predicted
the
predicted deformation
predicted
predicted
deformation mode
deformation
deformation
mode profile
mode
mode
profile obtained
profile
profile
obtained
obtainedfrom
obtained
from from
from simultaneous
simultaneous
simultaneousfinite-element
simultaneous finite-element
finite-element
finite-element
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
with
with
with thethe
the predicted
predicted
predicted deformation
deformation
deformation mode
mode
mode profile
profile
profile obtained
obtained
obtained from
from
from simultaneous
simultaneous
simultaneous finite-element
finite-element
finite-element
with
with
Table
Table
Table the
the
Table
Table 1. predicted
predicted
1.The
1.1.The
1.Thesequence
The
The deformation
deformation
sequence
sequence ofofof
sequence
sequence deformedmode
mode
ofdeformed
ofdeformed profile
profile obtained
obtained
configurations
configurations
configurations
deformed
deformed during
during
configurations
configurations from
from
during simultaneous
simultaneous
deformation
deformation
deformation
during
during and
and
and
deformation
deformation finite-element
finite-element
failure
failure
failure
and
and ofofof
failure
failure ofthe
ofthe
the AREH
AREH
AREH
the
the AREH
AREH
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
samples.
simulations.
simulations.
samples.
samples.
samples.
samples.
with
with
with
Table
Table with
with
with
Table
Table 1.the
1.the
the
Table the
The the
the
The
1.
1. predicted
predicted
predicted
predicted
predicted
predicted
1. The
The
The sequence
sequence
sequence deformation
sequence
ofof
sequence deformation
deformation
deformation
deformation
deformation
ofofdeformed
deformed
deformed
of deformedmode
mode
mode mode
mode
mode profile
profile
profile
profile
configurations
configurations
deformed
configurations obtained
profile
profile
configurations obtained
obtained
obtained
obtained
obtained
during
during
configurations
during
during fromfrom
from
from
from from simultaneous
deformation
deformation
during deformation
deformation
deformation simultaneous
simultaneous
simultaneous
simultaneous
simultaneous
andand
andand
and failure
failure finite-element
failure
failure
failure
of finite-element
finite-element
offinite-element
finite-element
finite-element
of
theofthe
the
of the
AREH
the AREH
AREHAREH
AREH
Micromachines
mm
mm
mm 2023, 14, 2120
TPU-AREH
TPU-AREH
mm TPU-AREH simulations.
samples.
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
simulations.
samples.
samples.
TPU-AREH samples.
samples.
FEM
FEM FEMFEM PLA-AREH
PLA-AREH
PLA-AREH
PLA-AREH FEM
FEM
FEM FEM DUAL-AREH
DUAL-AREH
DUAL-AREH
DUAL-AREH FEM FEM
FEM FEM 6 of 14
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table 1.1.
1.1.The 1.The
The The
The sequence
sequence
sequence
sequence
sequence ofofdeformed
of deformed
deformed
ofofdeformed
deformed configurations
configurations
configurations
configurations
configurations during
during
during
during
during deformation
deformation
deformation
deformation
deformation and
and
and
and
and failure
failure
failure
failure
failure ofofthe
of
ofofthe
the the
the AREH
AREH
AREH
AREH
AREH
mm
mm TPU-AREH samples.
samples.
samples.
samples.
TPU-AREH samples.
TPU-AREH FEM
FEM PLA-AREH
PLA-AREH FEM
FEM DUAL-AREH
DUAL-AREH FEM
mm mm TPU-AREH
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the diagonal direction, generating a significant negative Poisson’s ratio effect. However,
a lower Poisson’s ratio leads to earlier densification, as evident in Figure 5b, where the
TPU-AREH structure exhibits the lowest Poisson’s ratio among the AREH structures, with
a value of −1.09. In comparison, Figure 5a demonstrates that the DUAL-AREH structure
exhibits better structural integrity, enters the densification stage later, and shows no cell
fractures or damage.
In contrast to pure TPU or PLA samples, the plastic hinges and cell walls of the
DUAL-AREH sample exhibited more stable rotation and deformation, allowing them to
withstand compression loads without breaking. This dual-material printed AREH sample
 Micromachines 2023, 14, 2120 7 of 14

presented the unique properties of the dual-material layering printing method, which
2023, 14, x includes layer-by-layer compaction and enhanced stiffness. Figure 5a indicated that the cell
7 of 15
walls of the DUAL-AREH printed sample do not experience wall fracturing or shedding of
the dual-material layers and inter-layers throughout the entire crushing process.

Figure 5. Comparison of compression testing in AREH structures using different materials: (a)
DUAL (b) TPU (c) PLA and (d) Poisson’s ratio of all samples.

The FEM simulation indicates significant stress concentration in the cells located
along the diagonal line within the overall structure. Experimental results confirm severe
deformation and even fracturing in these regions. The cell located at the center experiences
the most extensive damage, resulting in inward contraction. This specific deformation pat-
tern causes individual cells to gradually move towards the center of the specimen along
the diagonal direction, generating a significant negative Poisson’s ratio effect. However, a
lower Poisson’s ratio leads to earlier densification, as evident in Figure 5b, where the TPU-
AREH structure exhibits the lowest Poisson’s ratio among the AREH structures, with a
value of −1.09. In comparison, Figure 5a demonstrates that the DUAL-AREH structure
exhibits
Figure 5. better structural
Comparison integrity, of
of5.compression
Figure Comparison enters
testing the densification
in AREH
compression stage
testingstructures
in AREH later,
using anddifferent
different
structures using shows no cell
materials: (a) (a) DUAL
materials:
DUAL (b) TPU
fractures (c) PLA
or damage. and(c)(d)
(b) TPU PLAPoisson’s ratio of all
and (d) Poisson’s samples.
ratio of all samples.

The FEM simulation indicates significant stress concentration in the cells located
along the diagonal line within the overall structure. Experimental results confirm severe
deformation and even fracturing in these regions. The cell located at the center experiences
the most extensive damage, resulting in inward contraction. This specific deformation pat-
tern causes individual cells to gradually move towards the center of the specimen along
the diagonal direction, generating a significant negative Poisson’s ratio effect. However, a
lower Poisson’s ratio leads to earlier densification, as evident in Figure 5b, where the TPU-
AREH structure exhibits the lowest Poisson’s ratio among the AREH structures, with a
value of −1.09. In comparison, Figure 5a demonstrates that the DUAL-AREH structure
exhibits
Figure 6.better structural
Comparison
Figure integrity, enters
of 6.Force—displacement
Comparison the densification
Curves stage
of the Curves
of Force—displacement AREH later,
structure
of the AREHand shows
between no cell simulation
simulation
structure between
fractures or damage.
and experiment: (a)and
TPU (b) PLA (c)
experiment: (a) DUAL.
TPU (b) PLA (c) DUAL.

3.2.2. Deformation Mode of the CREH Samples

In contrast to pure TPU or PLA samples, the plastic hinges and cell walls of the
The inclined wall of the re-entrant honeycomb was converted into an arc wall, and the
DUAL-AREH sample exhibited more stable rotation and deformation, allowing them to
pure PLA and TPU samples were compressed quasi-statically. FEM simulation described
withstand compression loads
the stress withoutof
distribution breaking. This during
the structure dual-material printed
compression andAREH sample
the force–displacement
presented the unique properties
diagram obtained of
viathe dual-materialand
experimentation layering printingfit
FEM simulation method,
well, as which
is shownin-in Figure 7.
cludes layer-by-layer compaction
In Table and enhanced
2. The deformation mode of stiffness.
the CREHFigure 5a indicated
structure thatTPU
printed with thewas
cell similar to
that of the TPU-AREH structure. After loading, with the rotation of the plastic hinge and
the bending of the wall, the cell in the middle quickly protruded to one side after a brief
inward contraction.

Figure 6. Comparison of Force—displacement Curves of the AREH structure between simulation

and experiment: (a) TPU (b) PLA (c) DUAL.
 Micromachines
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FEM simulation. During the experiment, it was found that the PLA-CREH structure was
Micromachines
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accompanied by oblique collapse and instantaneous large displacement when it failed, so
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that there was a large fluctuation
includes
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The inhomogeneous dissipation of stress on the dual-material joint surface results in the
premature
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failure failure
failure
failure
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compared compared
compared
compared
compared totothe the
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the AREH AREH
AREH
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AREH structure.
structure. structure.
structure.
structure.
structure.
peeling of the PLA and TPU bonding layers [44]. As a result, a few TPU layers were
pulled out from the structure due to their high fracture elongation, and some energy was
consumed through friction. The overall deformation trends of the dual-material printed
samples remains similar to those of TPU printed samples. Therefore, it can be inferred that
the deformation mode of the CREH structure is primarily governed by the deformation
of the TPU material. While this deformation mode still exhibits negative Poisson’s ratio
nes 2023, 14, x 9 of 15

Micromachines 2023, 14, 2120 9 of 14

When the dual-material printed CREH samples were compressed to a depth of 16

mm, one side of the interface exhibited detachment. During compression, longitudinal
characteristics, adjustments to the structural design are necessary in practical applications
failure is closely linked to
to prevent and controlled
interference by the
with other in-plane shear response of the composite
structures.
[43]. The inhomogeneous dissipation of stress on
Table 3 presents the elastic modulus the dual-material joint surface
of structures printed resultsmaterials.
with different in
the peeling of Based
the PLA andquasi-static
on the TPU bonding layers [44].
compression Asdepicted
curves a result,ina Figure
few TPU layersillustrate
8, which were sam-
pulled out from thewith
ples structure
the sameduematerial
to theirbuthigh fracture
different elongation,
structures, and
it can besome energy
observed thatwas
the elastic
modulus of CREH configuration samples printed with TPU,
consumed through friction. The overall deformation trends of the dual-material printed PLA, and DUAL materials
samples remains increased
similarbyto47.15%,
those 24.68%
of TPUand 53.86%,samples.
printed respectively, compared
Therefore, to the
it can beAREH
inferredconfigura-
tion. This indicates that the CREH configuration is better
that the deformation mode of the CREH structure is primarily governed by the defor-suited for applications requiring
higher stiffness.
mation of the TPU material. While this deformation mode still exhibits negative Poisson’s
ratio characteristics, adjustments to the structural design are necessary in practical appli-
Table 3. The mechanical performance parameters of AREH and CREH samples.
cations to prevent interference with other structures.
Table 3 presents the elastic Elastic Modulus
modulus Yield Stress
of structures printedEnergy
withAbsorption
different materials.Energy
(MPa) (MPa) Efficiency (Max) Absorption (J)
Based on the quasi-static compression curves depicted in Figure 8, which illustrate sam-
ples with the same TPU-AREH 1.23
material but different 0.07 it can be observed
structures, 0.27 5.34
that the elastic
TPU-CREH 1.81 0.05 0.25 3.73
modulus of CREH configuration samples
PLA-AREH 68.14 printed with
2.35 TPU, PLA, and 0.33 DUAL materials 166.47
increased by 47.15%, 24.68% and 53.86%,
PLA-CREH 84.96 respectively, 2.84 compared to 0.25 the AREH configura- 68.45
DUAL-AREH
tion. This indicates 15.69
that the CREH configuration 0.75 suited for applications
is better 0.39 75.22
requiring
DUAL-CREH 24.14 0.85 0.36 85.69
higher stiffness.

Figure 8. Comparison
Figure of force–displacement
8. Comparison curves for samples
of force–displacement of samples
curves for differentofstructures printed with
different structures printed with
different materials: (a) TPU
different (b) PLA
materials: (a) (c)
TPU DUAL.
(b) PLA (c) DUAL.

Furthermore,
Furthermore, the theofyield
yield stress stress of
the AREH the AREH
structures structures
printed withprinted
PLA andwith PLAma-
dual and dual
terials increased by 20.85% and 13.33%, respectively, from 2.35 MPa and 0.75 MPa to 2.84MPa to
materials increased by 20.85% and 13.33%, respectively, from 2.35 MPa and 0.75
2.84 MPa
MPa and 0.85 MPa. and 0.85the
However, MPa.
CREHHowever, the CREH
structure structureusing
constructed constructed using TPU
TPU material didmaterial
not did
not show advantages, which was due to the low stiffness of the hyperelastic material itself
show advantages, which was due to the low stiffness of the hyperelastic material itself
and the similar deformation modes of the two structures.
and the similar deformation modes of the two structures.
3.3. Advantages of the Dual-Material Structures
Table 3. The mechanical
Whenperformance
reinforced parameters of AREH dual-material
by TPU interlayers, and CREH samples.
printed CREH samples demon-
strate excellent flexibility, as is shown in Figure 9c. Meanwhile, the TPU intermediate
Elastic Modulus Yield Stress Energy Absorption Efficiency Energy Absorption
rubber absorbs shock and energy, preventing stress concentration from plastic hinges and
(MPa) (MPa) (Max) (J)
delaying the onset of further damage. Due to the higher stiffness of the CREH structure,
AREH 1.23 0.07
there 0.27 following wall bending.5.34
will be visible stress concentrations This is shown in the
CREH 1.81 wall bending and breaking damage0.25
0.05 3.73as the detachment
in the PLA printed samples, as well
AREH 68.14 2.35 interfaces in the dual-material
between 0.33 printed samples. When the166.47
samples printed with
CREH 84.96 2.84 structure enter the stress0.25
the CREH 68.45
plateau region, Figure 5d shows a rapid decrease in
AREH 15.69 the Poisson’s
0.75 ratio of the PLA-CREH structure,
0.39 reaching a 75.22 of −1.17, these
minimum value
CREH 24.14 outcomes
0.85 cause earlier densification stage
0.36 [35]. 85.69

3.3. Advantages of the Dual-Material Structures

When reinforced by TPU interlayers, dual-material printed CREH samples demon-
strate excellent flexibility, as is shown in Figure 9c. Meanwhile, the TPU intermediate rub-
ber absorbs shock and energy, preventing stress concentration from plastic hinges and
delaying the onset of further damage. Due to the higher stiffness of the CREH structure,
 there will be visible stress concentrations following wall bending. This is shown in the
wall bending and breaking damage in the PLA printed samples, as well as the detachment
between interfaces in the dual-material printed samples. When the samples printed with
the CREH structure enter the stress plateau region, Figure 5d shows a rapid decrease in
Micromachinesthe
2023,Poisson’s
14, 2120 ratio of the PLA-CREH structure, reaching a minimum value of −1.17, these 10 of 14
outcomes cause earlier densification stage [35].

Figure 9. Details in Figure 9. Details

the quasi-static in the quasi-static
compression processcompression process
compared with FEM:compared with (b)
(a) EXP-PLA FEM: (a) EXP-PLA
FEM-
PLA (c) EXP-DUAL(b)(d) FEM-PLA (c) EXP-DUAL (d) FEM-DUAL.
FEM-DUAL.

The densification points and absorbed energy of the samples were calculated using
The densification points and absorbed energy of the samples were calculated using
Equations (S4) and (S5), as depicted in Figure 10b,c. Dual-material printing technology
Equations (S4) and (S5), asdelays
effectively depicted in Figure 10b,c.
the densification stage ofDual-material
the honeycombprinting
structure technology
in both the AREH and
effectively delaysCREHthe densification
configurations.stage
Whenof compared
the honeycomb structure
to pure TPU and PLAin both the AREH
samples, the densification
and CREH configurations. When compared to pure TPU and PLA
strain of the DUAL-AREH structure increases by 34.94% and 8.10%,samples, the densifica-
respectively. This
tion strain of the DUAL-AREH
increase is evenstructure increases
more pronounced inby
the34.94% and 8.10%, respectively.
CREH configuration, This
with respective increments
of 86.61% and 88.0%. This is because the CREH structures
increase is even more pronounced in the CREH configuration, with respective increments possess higher stiffness, as
shown in Figure 10a. During the compression process,
of 86.61% and 88.0%. This is because the CREH structures possess higher stiffness, as a large number of stress concen-
tration
shown in Figure 10a. pointsthe
During arecompression
generated dueprocess,
to the rotation
a large of the plastic
number hinge,concentra-
of stress leading to ruptures
in these parts (From 1 to 5 in Figure 9a). By appropriately incorporating a soft–hard
tion points are generated due to the rotation of the plastic hinge, leading to ruptures in
composite, the densification process can be delayed, thus preventing premature struc-
these parts (Fromtural
1 tofailure.
5 in Figure 9a). By appropriately incorporating a soft–hard compo-
However, the densification strain of the DUAL-CREH structure is very close
site, the densification process can be delayed,
to that of the DUAL-AREH thus preventing
structure, which can be premature
caused bystructural fail-
the delamination of the
ure. However, the densification
soft strain ofofthe
and hard interfaces theDUAL-CREH
CREH structure, structure
leadingistovery close
earlier to that of the
densification
of the DUAL-AREH structure,structure.
DUAL-CREH which can be caused by the delamination of the soft and
In Section
hard interfaces of the CREH structure,2.2, where the central
leading partdensification
to earlier of the structures
of thewas removed to print the
DUAL-CREH
structure. soft materials. This design sacrificed structural integrity and reduced the specific energy
absorption (SEA). As shown in Figure 10d, the SEA of the DUAL-AREH sample was
1.032 J/g, which was approximately half of that calculated in the PLA-AREH structure
(2.287 J/g). However, the DUAL-CREH structure exhibited a noteworthy increase in SEA
compared to PLA-CREH sample, changing from 0.932 J/g to 1.222 J/g; this represented
a 31.12% improvement. This can be attributed to the fact that DUAL-CREH structures
printed with dual materials do not fail prematurely and have later densification, leading to
more energy absorption.
Meanwhile, dual-material printed samples clearly exhibit rebound resilience after
compression testing. As shown in Figure 11, all the DUAL samples experienced a significant
rebound from 36 mm to almost 63 mm in the minimal spring back area. It was observed
that the height of the pure TPU samples rapidly rebounded to 84% of the original height
after the load was removed and returned to 100% of the original size after standing for 1 h.
This rebound behavior is determined by the material properties of TPU. However, such
rebound characteristics are not observed in the PLA material. The experimental results
demonstrate that the DUAL samples, printed using both TPU and PLA materials, obtain a
certain resilience of 33.3% from the TPU layer present in the interlayer.
Micromachines 2023,2023,
Micromachines 14, x 14, 2120 11 of 14
11 of 15

Micromachines 2023, 14, x 12 of 15

Figure 10. Performance comparison of all samples: (a) force–displacement curves, (b) densification
Figure 10. Performance comparison of all samples: (a) force–displacement curves, (b) densification
point, (c) total energy absorption (EA) up to densification stage (d) SEA.
point, (c) total energy absorption (EA) up to densification stage (d) SEA.

In section 2.2, where the central part of the structures was removed to print the soft
materials. This design sacrificed structural integrity and reduced the specific energy ab-
sorption (SEA). As shown in Figure 10d, the SEA of the DUAL-AREH sample was 1.032
J/g, which was approximately half of that calculated in the PLA-AREH structure (2.287
J/g). However, the DUAL-CREH structure exhibited a noteworthy increase in SEA com-
pared to PLA-CREH sample, changing from 0.932 J/g to 1.222 J/g; this represented a
31.12% improvement. This can be attributed to the fact that DUAL-CREH structures
printed with dual materials do not fail prematurely and have later densification, leading
to more energy absorption.
Meanwhile, dual-material printed samples clearly exhibit rebound resilience after
compression testing. As shown in Figure 11, all the DUAL samples experienced a signifi-
cant rebound from 36 mm to almost 63 mm in the minimal spring back area. It was ob-
served that the height of the pure TPU samples rapidly rebounded to 84% of the original
height after the load was removed and returned to 100% of the original size after standing
for 1 h. This rebound behavior is determined by the material properties of TPU. However,
such rebound characteristics are not observed in the PLA material. The experimental re-
sults demonstrate that the DUAL samples, printed using both TPU and PLA materials,
obtain a certain resilience of 33.3% from the TPU layer present in the interlayer.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Samples
Samplesafter
afterreleasing
releasingthe
theload:
load:(a)
(a)PLA,
PLA,(b)
(b)DUAL,
DUAL,(c)
(c)TPU.
TPU.

4. Conclusions
In this work, a unique curved re-entrant honeycomb (CREH) structure was designed
based on auxetic re-entrant honeycomb (AREH) structures. Various composite structures
Micromachines 2023, 14, 2120 12 of 14

4. Conclusions
In this work, a unique curved re-entrant honeycomb (CREH) structure was designed
based on auxetic re-entrant honeycomb (AREH) structures. Various composite structures
were fabricated using the dual-material fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique, com-
bining soft and rigid layers. Combined with quasi-static compression tests, the mechanical
performance and deformation modes of the composite structures were analyzed using
finite-element simulation methods under different material combinations. The results indi-
cate that the CREH structure exhibits higher stiffness compared to the AREH structure; the
elastic modulus of the CREH samples printed with TPU, PLA, and dual materials increased
by 47.15%, 24.68%, and 53.86%, respectively. In addition, the incorporation of the soft TPU
material effectively alleviates stress concentration issues and prevents rapid densification or
failure via rupture, particularly for the CREH structures which possess higher rigidity. The
densification strain of the dual-material printed CREH structure increased by 86.61% and
88.0% compared to the use of single TPU and PLA materials, respectively. In addition, the
dual-material printed samples also exhibited a resilience not possessed by PLA, reaching
33.33%. This capability is attributed to the soft interlayer, which enables the structure to
withstand multiple loads. Dual-material printing provides more design inspiration for
complex lightweight energy-absorbing honeycomb structures, particularly for materials
prone to brittle fracturing, such as polylactic acid (PLA). By altering the filling ratio, filling
structure, and incorporating various material combinations, including suitable mechanical
interlocking structures, the requirements of different working conditions can be met.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/mi14112120/s1, Figure S1. Zwick/Roell Z100 Universal test
machine. Figure S2. Mesh sensitivity analysis. Table S1. Print parameters of the tensile tested speci-
men. Table S2. Polynomial data to curve fitting the TPU. Refs. [45,46] are cited in the Supplementary
Materials.
Author Contributions: J.D.: Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing—original
draft. S.Y., Z.Q. and X.B.: Data curation, Investigation. C.C. and H.C.: Investigation, Methodology.
A.S. and J.G.: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing—review & editing. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research is supported by the National Key Research and Development Project (Grant
No. 2022YFB3706303), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52273241), the
Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. LZ22E030003).
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article and Supplementary Materials.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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