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Maloa and Bux PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING AS A PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE -
A SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIENCE

PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING AS A PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

- A SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIENCE

Dr Frans Maloa
University of South Africa
maloaf@unisa.ac.za
Ms. Ciara Bux
University of South Africa
48447196@mylife.unisa.ac.za
WORKING PAPER
ABSTRACT
Student success is a major concern for institutions of higher education worldwide. In South
Africa, graduation rates across all provider types of MBA qualifications are not very high.
What is the cause of less than desired success rate? A range of available arguments and
evidence suggests the lack of an appropriate cognitive selection battery in predicting
academic performance. The application of psychometric testing is required to select MBA
students who are appropriately qualified to enter and complete the program successfully. This
paper explores the current state of psychometric testing as a predictor of academic
performance and suggests an integrated selection framework to improve student selection.

Key words: Cognitive tests, MBA, academic performance, psychometrics, intelligence,

selection battery.

Proceedings of the Fifth International conference on Engaged Management Scholarship, Baltimore,

Maryland, September, 10-13, 2015 .

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2676348

Maloa and Bux PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING AS A PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
- A SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIENCE

INTRODUCTION
Applications to higher education have increased over the years forcing universities to select
students based on their predicted academic performance (Bischoff, 2012). The production of
university graduates and especially postgraduate students is an essential component of the
national system of innovation in modern industrialized societies (Council on Higher
Education, 2010). The Master of Business Administration (MBA) program has become a
major component of the general credentials that business professionals must have to achieve
success (Christensen, Nance & White, 2012). As a result, the demand for MBA education has
increased considerably.
Student success is a strategic priority for institutions of higher education (Visser & Van Zyl,
2013). According to Davis & Venter (2011), student success rates not only enhance the
reputation of an institution, but also increase government funding. Therefore, in order to
ensure a good reputation, business schools need to select applicants who are most likely to
succeed (Safón, 2012).
However, South African institutions offering MBA programs do not have high graduation
rates (Kotze & Grissel, 2008), this despite the fact that Business Schools strive to admit
students who are most likely to succeed (Bischoff, 2012). A range of available arguments and
evidence suggests the lack of an appropriate cognitive selection battery in predicting
academic performance. The challenge with MBA admissions has thus been to select students
who are appropriately qualified to enter the program (Christensen et al., 2012).
Davis and Venter (2011) contend that selection of students with ability to complete the MBA
program improves when the drivers of student performance are known. Knowledge of factors
differentiating between successful and unsuccessful students can lead to the identification of
focus areas for potential development within institutions and courses (Davis & Venter, 2011).
This knowledge could lead to an improvement in throughput and a reduction in student
dropout (Davis & Venter, 2011). Thus, identifying the best predictors of academic
performance is extremely important as a metric to evaluate the effectiveness of colleges and
universities (Komarraju, Ramsey, and Rinella, 2013).
While the low success rate of MBA students forms part of a major debate in South Africa, the
debate has largely overlooked the process of selection of students. Prior to this research, there
has been limited if any, empirical studies on the selection process and instruments used for
selection. This research paper argues that paying attention to the type of psychological
assessments used to select students at the initial stage of the MBA program may assist in
selecting students that have the capacity to complete the program successfully.
There are three aims for this study. Firstly, the aim is to conceptualize the constructs of
cognitive tests and academic performance in the literature. The second aim is to explain the
theoretical relationship between cognitive tests and the academic performance. The third aim
is to suggest an integrated selection framework to improve student selection on the MBA
program.

Proceedings of the Fifth International conference on Engaged Management Scholarship, Baltimore,

Maryland, September, 10-13, 2015 1

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2676348

Maloa and Bux PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING AS A PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
- A SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIENCE
The following section presents the relevant literature and concepts that frame a theoretical
understanding of the key relationships. A discussion of the methodology and significant
findings of the research paper will follow next. The last section will present a proposed
selection framework to improve on the selection of students, followed by presentation of the
practical implications and recommendations for future research.

RELEVANT LITERATURE AND CONCEPTS THAT FRAME A THEORETICAL

UNDERSTANDING OF THE KEY RELATIONSHIPS
The next section presents a brief description of the psychological assessment namely
cognitive ability and academic performance, followed by a discussion of the relationship
between the two constructs.
Cognitive ability
General cognitive ability refers to the “repertoire of intellectual (or cognitive) skills available
to the person at a particular point in time” (Humphreys, 1989). Similarly, Foxcroft and Roodt
(2009) defined cognitive ability as the range of intellectual (or cognitive) skills that are
available to a person at a given point in time. Most tests of cognitive ability assess a
combination of reasoning, verbal, and quantitative skills or discipline-specific knowledge,
that correlates and fit into a hierarchical structure with a single overarching general ability
(Kuncel & Hezlett, 2010). Ng and Feldman (2013) state that students that already possess
high cognitive ability when they enter university are most likely to complete their formal
qualification and earn further educational qualifications.
The results from cognitive ability assessments apply in the educational context and assist to
determine school readiness and provide a comprehensive picture of specific aptitudes
necessary in decision-making (De Beer 2011). Standardized tests of cognitive abilities
underpin the psychological approaches to intelligence that focus on understanding
individuals’ ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, learn and adapt, process
and comprehend complex ideas and information (Kuncel & Hezlett, 2010). As such,
cognitive ability assessments are a way to obtain reliable and relevant information about an
individual.
Academic performance
The single most important and widely used indicator of student success at university is
academic performance (Richardson, Abraham & Bond, 2012). Academic performance is
typically defined and determined by indicators such as course grades, accumulated grade
point average (GPA), earning of diplomas or degrees, certificates, vocational licenses, or
other such educational credentials (Hattie & Anderman, 2013). Allen and Robbins (2010)
state that predicting academic performance of students at university is important since it is
directly related to and indicative of student retention and graduation.
The relationship between cognitive tests and academic performance
Tests of cognitive abilities, such as college admission tests, are some of the strongest and
most consistent predictors of academic performance in educational settings (Kuncel &
Hezlett, 2010). According to Ng and Feldman (2010), developmental psychologists and
educational researchers have observed and confirmed the correlation between cognitive
ability and academic performance. Similarly, Hofer et al. (2012) found that scores on diverse

Proceedings of the Fifth International conference on Engaged Management Scholarship, Baltimore,

Maryland, September, 10-13, 2015 2

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2676348

Maloa and Bux PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING AS A PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
- A SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIENCE
intelligence tests and subtests are usually highly correlated with half or more of the variance
often being accounted for by a single factor (called g), and more specific mental abilities
loading on other factors such as memory, verbal comprehension, and numerical facility.
Komarraju et al. (2013) contend that studies that have offered empirical evidence to support
the role of cognitive ability as a valid predictor of college performance include; Schmitt et al.,
(2009); Kuncel and Hezlett, (2010); and Sackett et al. (2009).
METHODS
The research paper used a systematic literature review (Kahn, Kunz, Kleijnen & Antes, 2003)
to explore the study. Systematic review refers to a qualitative technique based on a clearly
formulated research question that identifies relevant studies and offers a model for
summarizing and analyzing the literature to improve future practice and possibly encourage
higher levels of research methods (Kahn et al., 2003; Fieden, 2010; Salkind, 2012)).
To extract pertinent research from the published literature a scan of the electronic databases
for Business (ABI INFORM), Psychology (PsycINFO), Health Sciences and Health
Administration (CINAHL, MEDLINE), EBSCOHOST, Emerald, Science Direct, Google
Scholar, took place prior to searches that are more detailed. Key words used in the literature
searches included psychometric testing, psychological assessments, academic performance,
cognitive ability and cognitive assessment. An electronic search reviewed the reference lists
of articles for additional publications.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria ensured the retrieval of valid scientific records. The selection
criteria for this review included: (1) articles published between 2007 and 2015; (2) those
studies written in English; and (3) examined cognitive ability and academic performance
within an institution of high learning. The criteria for exclusion related to: (1) articles from
areas remote to the field of psychology, unless they strictly related to the concept of
psychometric assessment and academic performance. A review of 100 manuscripts took
place. From the body of literature reviewed, this paper highlights a sample of 20 studies
reporting on the examination of psychometric assessment/cognitive assessment and academic
performance.
FINDINGS
Most research confirms that a widely used selection tool for admission into an MBA program
worldwide is the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT) (Kass et al., 2012). The
GMAT focuses on two measures namely general verbal (GMAT-verbal) and the
mathematical skills (GMAT-quantitative). According to Kass, Grandzol, & Bommer (2012),
there has been considerable support for the validity of the GMAT in predicting the academic
performance of students on MBA programs’ (e.g., Kuncel, Crede & Thomas, 2007; Oh,
Schmidt, Shaffer & Le, 2008). Similarly, a study conducted by Cilan and Can (2014), also
found the GMAT to be one of the most important instruments to predict MBA academic
success.
However, Research by Yang and Lu (2001, 17) showed that although the GMAT (when
applied as admission test) does possess predictive powers towards successful completion of
the MBA and graduation, the GPA is an even better predictor for success (especially if the
GPA refers to a degree in the economic and management sciences faculty). Hobbs and
Gropper (2013) on the other hand, found that the quantitative assessment, whilst consistently
positive, was not a statistically significant predictor of academic success. However, evidence

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Maloa and Bux PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING AS A PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
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by Siergert (2008), found that the GMAT Numerical section scores accounted for 36% of the
variance in executive MBA programs. However, recent studies for example, Gray (2014) has
also confirmed the relationship between psychometric testing and academic performance of
students to be positively significant as indicated by results depicted in table 1.
Table 1 cognitive ability and academic performance
Study n Age Academic g SAT/ACT Prior ability
Performance

Brady-Amoon & Fuertes 271 m=21.26 GPA 0.16

(2011)

Cassidy (2011) 97 m=23.5 GPA 0.519**

Chamorro-Premuzic & 158 19.2 GPA 0.24*

Furnham (2008)

Conrad (2006) 300 19.48 GPA –self 0.28*

reported

Duff et al (2004) 146 17-52 GPA 0.274*

Eppler & Harju (1997) 212 m = 19.2 GPA 0.37***

Eppler & Harju (1997) 25 m=29.8 GPA 0.09

Furnham & Zhang 64 20 - 55 Mean exam 0.22

(2006) results

Kaufman et al. (2008) 315 m =23.5 GPA 0.28

Kobrin et al. (2008) 151, 316 18+ GPA 0.35 0.36

Ning & Downing (2010) 581 m = 20.24 GPA 0.1*

Robbins et al. Meta-analysis GPA 0.39 0.448

Adapted from Gray et al (2014)

Gray, McGuinness, Owende and Carthy (2014) conducted a comprehensive literature
investigation on the relationship between psychometric testing and academic performance in
tertiary education. In their findings, Gray et al (2014) contend that a meta‐analysis of 109
studies conducted by Robbins et al. (2004) found a moderate correlation between academic
performance and SAT scores (r=0.388, 90% CI [0.353, 0.424]) and a marginally higher
correlation between academic performance and HSGPA (r=0.448, 90% CI [0.409, 0.488]).In
addition, the study also established that Eppler and Harju (1997) determined that correlations
between academic performance and SAT scores were not as strong for mature students.
Further, Brady‐Amoon and Fuertes (2011) attributed their insignificant correlation (r=0.16,
n=271) to the fact that study participants included a more diverse group of students from a
variety of ethnic backgrounds, thereby supporting the findings of Schmitt et al. (2009) that
the interaction between prior academic ability and GPA differs for students from different
ethnic groups. Furthermore, the study also contends that the lower correlations reported by
Ning and Downing (2010) (r=0.1, p<0.05, n=581) could be attributed to their measure of
prior academic performance, which was based on A level 4 scores in just two subjects. In
addition, the study pointed out that the relatively high level of correlations reported by

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Cassidy (2011) could also be attributed to a difference in how prior academic performance is
measured. The study also highlighted that Cassidy used GPA accrued in the first year of
study as a measure of prior academic performance in order to predict students’ final GPA
aggregate.
The South African context
South African universities and business schools use an array of different MBA admission
tests in their approach to the admissions process. Some South African institutions make use
of a battery of cognitive tests; namely the APIL (learning potential assessment), as well as the
Critical Reasoning Test Battery (CRTB) which includes Numerical and Verbal Reasoning
Tests. There has been a fair level of support for the correlation between cognitive ability and
academic performance as demonstrated by studies conducted in South Africa as depicted in
table 2 below.
Table 2 findings of correlation between cognitive tests and academic performance
Study Assessment instrument Findings
De Beer (2011) Learning Potential (r =.850**, p=.000, n=239)
Computerized Adaptive Test
(LPCAT posttest)

Learning Potential (r = -.377**, p=.000, n= 239

Computerized Adaptive Test
(LPCAT difference)
De Beer and Van der MCPM1 and LPCAT
Merwe (2006)
Kotzè and Griessel Numerical aptitude
(2008) Person job score (PJS)
MCPM1 and the LPCAT pretest (R² = 0.23) and the
post-test (R² = 0.25) were not
statistically significant, while the Pearson
correlation values between the LPCAT
pretest (r = 0.31 ; p = 0.04) and the post-test (r =
0.29 ; p = 0.05) and the MCPM
were statistically significant.
(R² =.018, p=0.000*)
(R² = 0.25, p=0.001*)

Du Plessis (2008) Dynamic assessment (r = 4293, p=0.03*)

(Masters dissertation)
APIL B (SV)
Bux (2014) APIL instrument
Masters dissertation
MAFANI (2013) SHL test battery
(Doctoral thesis) Managerial and Graduate
Item Bank
(Verbal Critical Reasoning
(VMG3)
Numerical Critical Reasoning
(NMG3)
Critical Reasoning Test
Battery (Diagrammatic Series
(DC3.1).
Occupational Personality
Questionnaire (OPQ32i)
NCR2 (r = 0.311, p=0.05*)
VCR2 (r =0.359, p=0.000*)
there was a statistically significant correlation
between the Management Accounting Aspects and
all three ability tests at 99% confidence level
(VMG3: r = 0.483, p = 0.000; NMG3: r = 0.683, p =
0.000; DC3.1: r = 0.381, p = 0.002).
There was a statistically significant correlation
between the Marketing Management module, with
both VMG3 (r = 0.261, p = 0.027) at 95%
significance level and NMG3 at 99% significance
level (r = 0.452, p = 0.000).
Quantitative Techniques for Management yielded a
statistically significant correlation for NMG3 at
99% significance level (r = 0.595, p = 0.000) and
DC3.1 at 95% significance level (r = 0.300, p =
0.021).

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Du Plessis’s study (2008), found that the results from the APIL instrument were able to
demonstrate utility in predicting future academic performance of sampled South African
university students, and consequently has utility as a selection method. Additionally, a study
conducted by Aprolab, the test developer of the APIL instrument, amongst a sample of 52
MBA students at the Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) confirmed APIL as a
significant predictor of MBA examination marks at GIBS (Taylor, 2012).
Additionally, Psytech SA (2010) conducted a study on a group of MBA students who
completed the NCR2 prior to enrolling on the course. Their scores on the tests correlated with
their subsequent performance across different MBA courses. The results revealed that the
NCR2 is a statistically significant predictor of performance on an MBA program.
With regard to the CRTB2 Numerical Reasoning Test, authors such as Kotze and Grissel
(2008) concluded that a significantly positive correlation exists between students’ aptitude
test results (numerical) and individual course results, as well as with their average academic
performance on an MBA program. In terms of the CRTB2 Verbal Reasoning Test, authors
Fish and Wilson (2009) concluded that factors that successfully predicted success on a part-
time MBA program included a verbal skills test.
Schaap and Luwes (2013) provided further supporting evidence in their study where a
cognitive ability test, the Learning Potential Computerized Adaptive Test (LPCAT), an
assessment similar to that of the APIL, found cognitive ability to be a statistically significant
predictor of future academic performance of students. Watkins et al. (2007) concluded from
a longitudinal study that intelligence influences future achievement.
In addition, a doctoral dissertation by Mafani (2013) conducted at the Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan university also proved that there is a significant correlation between
psychometric testing and academic performance in the selection of students registered for an
MBA program.
In light of the above, the value of studying the relationship between cognitive tests and the
academic performance of students on an MBA program is evident. However, South African
studies have also indicated that cultural fairness also influences psychometric testing in the
context of South African student selection.
Cultural factor
Psychological assessment in South Africa provokes many strong opinions. It is highly
controversial in South Africa due to past discrimination, unfair, and unbiased use of tests
(Laher & Cockcroft, 2014). Since the first democratic elections in 1994, the country adopted
a new constitution and stronger demands for all psychological testing to be culturally
appropriate (Laher & Cockcroft, 2014). Psychological testing needs to meet stringent
psychometric standards and cater for all age groups in the multicultural society (Foxcroft,
Paterson, le Roux & Herbst, 2004).
However, to ensure the cultural and fair use of assessments in South Africa, regardless of the
context in which it is used, all testing should comply with all the legal imperatives that
regulate psychological testing. The primary South African legislation governing
psychometric assessment use is the Employment Equity Act (no. 55 of 1998), which requires

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that all psychological tests should be valid and reliable and used in a fair manner that is free
from bias. The act specifically states:
“Psychological testing and other similar forms or assessments of an employee are prohibited
unless the test or assessment is being used:
a) Scientifically shows to be valid and reliable;
b) Applies fairly to all employees
c) Is not biased against any employee or group”
The Employment Equity Act has major implications for psychological assessment in South
Africa, because of the many measures currently in use (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009; Laher &
Cockcroft, 2014). Assessment practitioners and test publishers need to demonstrate, or prove
in court, that psychological assessments are not conducted unfairly (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009;
Laher & Cockcroft, 2014).
However, besides the available number of psychological assessments available in South
Africa, graduation of students on the MBA program is still very low (Council on Higher
Education, 2010). Against this background, it becomes essential for more appropriate
selection measures for MBA programs to be used (Bischoff, 2012) within the South African
context in order to increase student success rate.
Proposed integrated selection method for student selection.
Besides the literature review that gave evidence to the correlation of the cognitive ability and
academic performance, the MBA throughput is still low. In order to overcome this challenge,
this research paper proposes the adoption of the theory of fit as proposed by Baker and Pifer
(2015) as an assessment framework in the selection of MBA students. According to Baker
and Pifer (2015) research based on three types of fit (person – environment fit, person –
culture fit, person – vocation fit) may provide critical insight and offer a framework based on
antecedents and outcomes to understudied populations of doctoral students and future
research directions. Fit refers to the congruence between an individual’s personal values and
those of social structure or organization, and is a construct in organizational studies that sheds
light on critical professional outcomes such as persistence and commitment to a discipline, an
institution, or the academic career (Baker & Pifer, 2015).
The use of fit theory as a selection framework may shed light on the multiple points at which
students form perceptions of fit, the antecedents of those processes, and the corresponding
outcomes (Baker & Pifer, 2015). Fit theory has the potential to inform the next generation of
research about student selection by emphasizing students’ perceived compatibility within the
departmental contexts, institutional and disciplinary culture, and the academic (or alternative)
profession. Therefore, the psychological assessment of potential students should be able to
include the fit theory as proposed by (Baker & Pifer, 2015) together with the dynamic
assessment approach that would test the student’s ability to learn from the environment.

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Dynamic Approach

Niche Core Competencies

Person – environment fit

Competitive Edge
Frame of Reference (Values, Norms,

Person – vocation fit

Beliefs, Assumptions)

Person – culture fit

Envisioning Future
Assessing Current
Scientific

Theory Robust, flexible

Professional Role

Brand/
Value
Reputation Proposition
Socialization

Integrated selection framework (authors compilation)

Person – environment fit

PE Fit is a combination of person–organization fit (compatibility between a person and the
entire organization), person–group fit (interpersonal compatibility between an individual and
his or her immediate work group), and person–person fit (fit between a subordinate and
supervisor; protégé and mentor). The multidimensional view of PE Fit encompasses how
both MBA and DBA potential students’ perception of fit in the university and the academic
department or program. As well as person–person fit with faculty, staff, and other students –
particularly those who comprise a student’s immediate work group, lab group, or research
team; cohort, classmates, or peer group; and peer mentors such as more advanced students.
Thus, student selection uses simulation exercise.
Person – culture fit
For the purposes of applying Person culture Fit, it is important how both MBA and DBA
potential students perceive culture of the institution in comparison to their personal values.

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The academic department, discipline, and related professional associations serve as examples
of structures that reinforce the culture of a community and students’ sense of fit (i.e.
alignment of values) within it. Thus, selection assessments should be able to test the cultural
fit between the individual applicant and the culture of the specific institution or business
school.
Person–vocation fit
Programs that support policy- or industry-based employment opportunities should emphasize
the range of skills necessary for enacting research in organizational contexts beyond the
college or university and create opportunities for relevant coursework, fellowships, and
mentorships. Potential students need to be tested on their understanding of industry specific
knowledge in order to assess their potential problem solving skills in practice. Thus, potential
students need to demonstrate their understanding of industry specific knowledge in order to
assess their potential problem solving skills in practice.
DISCUSSION
The literature findings have demonstrated that there was correlation between cognitive tests
and academic performance. However, such assessments were limited since there was no
improvement in the student pass rate on the MBA program. From the literature investigated,
it would seem that the criterion for selection is limited since it bases selection on paper
assessment. The assessment fails to encompass a comprehensive method that would include
the socialization aspect. This is because; the corporate world expects an MBA student to
interact more with others than to work in isolation. This means that student selection should
not be restricted to paper exercise that contains verbal and numeric testing only.
However, the Barker and Pier (2015) study seems to provide a solution to overcome the
challenge and limitation of the cognitive tests by suggesting the application of the fit theory
in the selection of students. There are three fundamental principles that derive from the
Barker and Pier study, which incorporates into the psychological testing and selection of
MBA candidates. Application of the fit theory might imply that business schools need to
design and develop simulation in their assessment that would be able to demonstrate the
following:
a. The students’ potential to engage with the vision and objectives of the business school.
b. The student needs to demonstrate the ability to relate to the culture of the business school
and its constituency, i.e. other students and members of staff.
c. The students’ potential demonstrated on how to transcend knowledge from theory to
application of such newly acquired knowledge beyond the business school to the real
world.
As asserted by (Baker & Pifer, 2015) acquiring and mirroring the skills, knowledge, and
behaviors valued by the community, students will move from the periphery to become more
central, engaged members of that community.

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CONCLUSIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Conclusions drawn from the literature review indicate that practitioners should consider
cognitive tests for the prediction of academic performance together with the application of
the fit theory in order to achieve an effective method of selecting students with the greatest
chance to succeed in their studies.
The findings of the study contribute valuable new knowledge by highlighting the usefulness
of the combination of the psychological assessment and the practical fit theory as a selection
method in predicting academic performance. The conclusions from the findings further
indicate that practitioners can benefit from understanding the relationship between cognitive
tests and academic performance and the fit theory to inform selection procedures at business
schools. Although focus of this paper is on the MBA program, it is important since the MBA
throughput contributes to the selection of students into the DBA program. Getting more
students who are successful in completing their MBAs would improve the number of students
who would be able to pursue their DBA program.
Furthermore, experience from South Africa on the use of cognitive assessments seems to
suggest that it would be important for international students to be aware that they may need to
complete a psychometric assessment with emphasis based on the cultural fairness of the
selection instrument.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Further research needs to conduct investigation on other cognitive ability tests that are used
for selecting students into the MBA program in the South African context in relation to the fit
theory.
It is also imperative to identify other possible predictors of the MBA program, which may
complement current assessment for the selection of doctoral students as this could increase
the percentage of the predictability of variation of academic performance.
Research should use both national and international populations of students to increase the
statistical influence of the results obtained.
Ongoing institutional research should constantly evaluate the effectiveness of the selection
battery used by different institution.

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Bisschoff, C. A. (2012). Empirical evaluation of a preliminary model to identify low-risk

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Braxton, J. M., Hirschy, A. S., & McClendon, S. A. (2011). Understanding and reducing
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