Oscilloscope: Determining the Impedance of an RC

Circuit.
Carlota Figueroa Ortiz
Double Degree in Mathematics and Physics
Date of Experiment: 28th March 2023
Date of Submission: 11th April 2023

INTRODUCTION
The objective of this experiment was to empirically determine the impedance of an RC circuit
(composed of a resistor and a capacitor, connected in series with a signal generator) through the use of
an oscilloscope. Afterwards, the goal was to compare these results to the theoretical predictions and
verify whether they were compatible.

MATERIALS
• Digital oscilloscope
• Low frequency oscillator (signal generator)
• RC series circuit

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The signal generator will generate an alternating current that travels through the series circuit. When
the only element is a resistor, the current and voltage phasors are in phase, thus Ohm’s law is applicable
(even if the current flowing through the circuit is alternating). However, in the presence of the capacitor
there is a phase difference between the voltages across the resistor and the capacitor, as a consequence
of the current flowing through the circuit oscillating at the same frequency (𝜐) as that produced by the
signal generator, but with a certain time lag. Recalling the equation for the harmonic signal of the
generator, it is possible to quantify this phase shift:

𝑉! = V" cos(𝜔𝑡) → 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼" cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

Where V" represents the peak voltage of the signal generator, 𝐼" the peak current, and 𝜑 the impedance
phase. The immediate consequence of this is that Ohm’s law for direct currents is no longer valid.
Hence, a new quantity is defined: impedance. The capacitive impedance depends on the angular
frequency of the applied alternating voltage. For an RC circuit, the impedance phase and modulus are
reduced to:

1 #
|𝑍| = >𝑅# + @ C (1)
𝐶𝜔

1
𝜑 = arctan @ C (2)
𝑅𝐶𝜔

Note that, without the capacitor, the modulus of the impedance is reduced to just the resistance.
Furthermore, the following properties are derived:
|𝑍| → 𝑅
𝜔→∞⟹G
𝜑→0

|𝑍| → ∞
𝜔→0⟹I 𝜋
𝜑→
2

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METHOD
First, the series circuit with the signal generator, resistor and capacitor should be assembled, with care
to respect the ground terminals, as shown in Figure 1. The terminals of the generator (which are the
ends of the RC circuit) should be connected to Channel I of the oscilloscope. Next, the terminals of the
resistance will be connected to Channel II.

Figure 1: Diagram of the setup for the RC circuit (Physics Lab, Universidad Complutense de Madrid 2023).

Figure 2: Photograph of the experimental setup.

Channel I shows the generator signal, whilst Channel II displays the voltage drop across the resistor
and, since the resistor does not change the phase of the signal, this can be used to calculate the
impedance of the circuit, as follows:

Voltage drop: 𝑉! (𝑡) = 𝐼(𝑡) · 𝑅 = 𝐼" cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 ) · 𝑅 = V"! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

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 𝑉" 𝑉"
Impedance modulus: |𝑍| = =𝑅· (3)
𝐼" V"!

Please note that 𝑉" is the voltage provided by the generator, and V"! the voltage measured across the
resistor.

The lag between the current and voltage phasors (which is the impedance phase) can be measured using
the oscilloscope’s XT mode and calculating the time difference between the moments when each signal
is equal to zero, as observed in Figure 3.

The following mathematical expressions

can be obtained, and used to derive 𝜑:

𝜋
𝜔𝑡$ =
R 2 ⟹ 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑡 ) = 𝜑
𝜋 $ #
𝜔𝑡# = − 𝜑
2

⟹ 𝜑 = 2𝜋𝜐(𝑡$ − 𝑡# ) (4)

Figure 3: Diagram showing time difference in voltage signals.

Where 𝜑 is an angle measured in radians. Please note that, although the equations make use of the peak
voltages, the experimental method uses measurements of peak-to-peak voltages instead. The equations
are equivalent.

The measurements, both for the difference in time and for the peak-to-peak voltages will be performed
using the oscilloscope’s cursors. Furthermore, since the signal generator used for this particular
experiment tended to fluctuate significantly, the measurements for the frequency of the alternating
current were taken directly from the generator’s display: the oscilloscope would’ve provided results
with more precision that was really the case. The discussion of the uncertainties associated to each of
these measurements is done in the next section.

RESULTS
CALCULATION OF THE UNCERTAINTIES
THEORETICAL RESULTS
The theoretical values will be obtained from using Equations 1 and 2. Although these will be plotted as
a continuous function, it is important to note that each individual result for both the modulus of the
impedance and the phase angle would still have an uncertainty associated to it. For simplicity reasons,
the angular frequency will be used in the equations moving forward, noting the following:

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐 ⟹ ∆𝜔 = 2𝜋∆𝜐

These uncertainties are calculated through the method of partial derivatives, as shown below:

# # #
𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍
Δ𝑍 = >@ ∆𝑅C + @ ∆𝐶C + @ ∆𝜔C
𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝜔

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 # # #

𝑅 −2 −2
⟹ Δ𝑍 = X⎛ ∆𝑅⎞ + ⎛ ∆𝐶 ⎞ + ⎛ ∆𝜔⎞
1 1 1
[𝑅# + 𝐶 % 𝜔 # [𝑅# + 𝐶 # 𝜔 % [𝑅# +
⎝ (𝐶𝜔)# ⎠ ⎝ (𝐶𝜔)# ⎠ ⎝ (𝐶𝜔)# ⎠

# # #
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Δ𝜑 = >@ ∆𝑅C + @ ∆𝐶C + @ ∆𝜔C
𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝜔
# # #
−𝐶𝜔 −𝑅𝜔 −𝐶𝑅
⟹ Δ𝜑 = >@ # # # ∆𝑅C + @ # # # ∆𝐶C + @ # # # ∆𝜔C
𝑅 𝐶 𝜔 +1 𝑅 𝐶 𝜔 +1 𝑅 𝐶 𝜔 +1

Please note that, for a more accurate comparison of the results, although the theoretical values will be
considered a continuous function, this will be done by interpolating the values obtained with the
theoretical formulas with each value of the frequency used during the experimental method. This means
that each theoretical value will have an associated uncertainty to it, given by the uncertainties in the
resistance, capacitance and angular frequency obtained via the experimental method. To calculate the
uncertainty boundaries, the uncertainty will be added and subtracted from each theoretical value, giving
rise to two new sets of data, which will be individually interpolated. This will be further discussed when
presenting the results graphically.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Since the peak-to-peak voltages and differences in time are calculated through the oscilloscope’s
cursors, an adequate uncertainty is the smallest change obtained when moving the dial of the
oscilloscope, rather than the precision of the measurement itself. As for the angular frequency, its
uncertainty depends on the uncertainty of the frequency of the signal generator. As previously
mentioned, the frequency fluctuated a lot, hence the uncertainty will be taken as the greatest variation
in the value displayed on the generator noted whilst the measurements were being taken.

Now, as for the impedance and phase shift, for the experimental results, these are calculated from
Equations 3 and 4 respectively. Once again, the method of partial derivatives is applied to obtain the
uncertainties, as follows:
# # #
𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍
Δ𝑍 = >@ ∆𝑅C + ^ ∆𝑉 _ + @ ∆𝑉 C
𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑉""! ""! 𝜕𝑉"" ""
# # #
𝑉"" 𝑅 −𝑅 · 𝑉""
⟹ Δ𝑍 = >^ ∆𝑅_ + ^ ∆𝑉"" _ + ^ ∆𝑉""! _
𝑉""! 𝑉""! 𝑉""! #

# #
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Δ𝜑 = `@ ∆𝜐C + a ∆(𝑡$ − 𝑡# )b
𝜕𝜐 𝜕(𝑡$ − 𝑡# )

#
⟹ Δ𝜑 = [(−2𝜋(𝑡$ − 𝑡# ) · ∆𝜐)# + c−2𝜋 · 𝜐 · ∆(𝑡$ − 𝑡# )d

Please note that, since the cursors are being used, no independent measurements of 𝑡$ and 𝑡# are being
taken. Since the oscilloscope directly calculates the difference, there is only one associated uncertainty
to the measurement. From now on, 𝑡$ − 𝑡# will be referred to as ∆𝑡.

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DATA
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Please note that the parameters of the components of the RC circuit are as follows:

𝑅 = (2207 ± 1) Ω
𝐶 = (103 ± 2) nF

Table 1: Direct measurements.

Frequency of Signal Peak-to-Peak Peak-to-Peak Voltage Time difference

Generator Generator Voltage across Resistor
𝜐 (Hz) ∆𝜐 (Hz) 𝑉"" (V) ∆𝑉"" (V) 𝑉""! (V) ∆𝑉""! (V) ∆𝑡 (ms) ∆∆𝑡 (ms)
30.0 0.3 28.8 0.2 1.30 0.02 8.08 0.08
50.0 0.3 28.8 0.2 2.08 0.02 4.72 0.04
85.0 0.3 28.8 0.2 3.56 0.02 2.68 0.04
140.0 0.5 28.6 0.2 5.76 0.04 1.56 0.01
230.0 0.5 28.6 0.2 9.12 0.08 0.840 0.004
390.0 0.5 28.6 0.2 14.0 0.1 0.426 0.002
650.0 0.5 28.2 0.2 19.2 0.2 0.202 0.002
1100 2 28.0 0.2 23.6 0.2 0.0804 0.0004
1800 2 28.0 0.2 25.8 0.2 0.0320 0.0002
3000 3 28.0 0.2 26.8 0.2 0.0104 0.0002
NOTE: The uncertainties are given to one significant figure because that’s the smallest change that changing the
dial of the oscilloscope would produce. As for the frequency of the signal generator, I had to visually estimate the
fluctuation: since there is a very low precision associated with the method, the results are given to one significant
figure to avoid adding inexistent precision to the measurements.

Table 2: Indirect measurements.

Frequency of Signal Impedance Impedance Phase (phase

Generator difference)
𝜐 (Hz) ∆𝜐 (Hz) |𝑍| (kΩ) ∆|𝑍| (kΩ) 𝜑 (°) ∆𝜑 (°)
30.0 0.3 48.89 0.83 87.3 1.2
50.0 0.3 30.56 0.36 84.96 0.88
85.0 0.3 17.85 0.16 82.0 1.3
140.0 0.5 10.96 0.11 78.62 0.58
230.0 0.5 6.921 0.078 69.55 0.36
390.0 0.5 4.509 0.045 59.81 0.29
650.0 0.5 3.242 0.041 47.27 0.47
1100 2 2.618 0.029 31.84 0.17
1800 2 2.395 0.025 20.74 0.13
3000 3 2.306 0.024 11.23 0.22

THEORETICAL RESULTS
Although theoretical results for each value of the frequency used in the experiment are being given, as
was explained previously, these results will be graphically represented by a continuous function. This
will be done by choosing to represent the data as a continuous, smooth line on Excel, allowing the
program to interpolate the values and generate the function. The uncertainty associated to the frequency
of the signal generator is the same as in the experimental case.

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 Table 3: Theoretical results for the Impedance of the RC circuit.

Frequency of Signal Impedance Impedance ± Uncertainty

Generator
𝜐 (Hz) ∆𝜐 (Hz) |𝑍| (kΩ) ∆|𝑍| (kΩ) |𝑍| + ∆|𝑍| (kΩ) |𝑍| − ∆|𝑍| (kΩ)
30.0 0.3 51.6 2.2 53.8 49.3
50.0 0.3 31.0 1.3 32.2 29.7
85.0 0.3 18.31 0.71 19.02 17.60
140.0 0.5 11.26 0.43 11.68 10.83
230.0 0.5 7.07 0.25 7.32 6.82
390.0 0.5 4.54 0.13 4.67 4.40
650.0 0.5 3.244 0.068 3.311 3.176
1100 2 2.616 0.029 2.646 2.587
1800 2 2.368 0.012 2.380 2.356
3000 3 2.2663 0.0047 2.2710 2.2617
NOTE: Please note that if there seems to be inaccuracies in the rounding (for example, 51.6 − 2.2 = 49.3), this
is due to the values of |𝑍| + ∆|𝑍| and |𝑍| − ∆|𝑍| being calculated using the complete values of |𝑍| and ∆|𝑍|
respectively, and rounding them afterwards. Hence, when presenting the results in the table to the correct number
of significant figures and decimals, there may be slight discrepancies. For the graphical interpolation, the full
values were used.

Table 4: Theoretical Results for the Impedance Phase of the RC circuit.

Frequency of Signal Impedance Phase Impedance Phase ±

Generator Uncertainty
𝜐 (Hz) ∆𝜐 (Hz) 𝜑 (°) ∆𝜑 (°) 𝜑 + ∆𝜑 (°) 𝜑 − ∆𝜑 (°)
30.0 0.3 87.546 0.048 87.594 87.499
50.0 0.3 85.915 0.079 85.994 85.836
85.0 0.3 83.08 0.13 83.21 82.94
140.0 0.5 78.69 0.21 78.91 78.48
230.0 0.5 71.81 0.33 72.14 71.48
390.0 0.5 60.88 0.47 61.35 60.41
650.0 0.5 47.13 0.55 47.68 46.57
1100 2 32.48 0.50 32.98 31.97
1800 2 21.25 0.38 21.623 20.88
3000 3 13.14 0.25 13.38 12.89

GRAPHS
Please see next page. Due to the proximity of the experimental datapoints to the theoretical values, the
images of the graphs included are deliberately larger to allow for easier comparison.

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 GRAPH 1: Impedance of the Circuit (𝛺 , logarithmic scale) vs
Frequency of the Signal Generator (Hz)
Impedance: Theoretical Impedance: Experimental
Theoretical + Uncertainty Theoretical - Uncertainty
100000
Impedence (logarithmic scale, 𝛺)

10000

1000

100

10

1
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Frequency (Hz)

GRAPH 2: Impedance of the Circuit (k𝛺) vs Frequency of the

Signal Generator (Hz)
Impedance: Experimental Impedance: Theoretical
Theoretical - Uncertainty Theoretical + Uncertainty
60,00

50,00

40,00
Impedence (k𝛺)

30,00

20,00

10,00

0,00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Frequency (Hz)

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 GRAPH 3: Phase difference between voltage signals (°) vs
Frequency of signal generator (Hz)
Phase Difference: Experimental Phase Difference: Theoretical
Theoretical + Uncertainty Theoretical - Uncertainty
100,0
90,0
80,0
Phase difference (𝜑,°)

70,0
60,0
50,0
40,0
30,0
20,0
10,0
0,0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Frequency (Hz)

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

COMPATIBILITY OF RESULTS
The main success of this experiment was obtaining results for the impedance that are compatible with
the theoretical ones. It can be seen in Graphs 1 and 2 that the error bars of the experimental data are
within the boundaries established by the functions representing the theoretical value plus its uncertainty
(the dashed green line) and the theoretical value minus its uncertainty (the dashed purple line).
Additionally, it can be observed that the results behave according to the theoretical predictions. As the
frequency of the signal generator increases (hence, as the angular frequency of the current tends to
infinity), the data for the impedance begins showing asymptomatic behavior, with the values tending to
the value of the resistance. Furthermore, as the frequency tends to zero, there is also asymptomatic
behavior (better observed in Graph 2), with the values of the impedance tending towards positive
infinity as the angular frequency nears zero. It is worthwhile to mention that the voltage put through by
the generator decreased as the frequency increased, as seen in Table 1. This should not have happened.
The decrease in voltage was most likely a consequence of the conditions of the signal generator: at
higher frequencies, the internal resistance of the generator dissipated more energy, causing a lower
voltage output. Although it had no effect on the results of the impedance, since Equation 3 makes use
of the ratio between voltages and not the value of each voltage independently, this could indicate there
were systematic issues with the generator (related to its accuracy), which might have affected the
experiment in other ways, as is analyzed further below.

Moving onto commenting the impedance phase, there are two values which are not compatible with the
theoretical predictions, those corresponding to a frequency of 140 Hz and 3000 Hz used in the signal
generator. Given that the rest of the results are compatible (with the error bars of the experimental data
being within the boundaries established by the dashed lines, as was the case with the impedance), the
disparity in these two values can be attributed to isolated issues when measuring the frequency. It has
been explained previously that the values of the frequency on the display of the signal generator
fluctuated a lot. Although care was taken to allow the value on the screen stabilize before freezing the
image on the oscilloscope, there were instances where, after the image on the oscilloscope was frozen,
the value of the frequency displayed changed. Hence, there is a possibility that the effective value of

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the frequency for the which the time difference was calculated was higher than expected. It can be seen
in Table 1 that, as the frequency increases, the time difference between signals decreases. This impacts
the value of the phase difference given that, a lower ∆𝑡 yields a lower impedance phase (this relationship
comes from Equation 4). Thus, this could prove to be an adequate explanation as to why the phase
difference for both 140 Hz and 3000 Hz fall are lower than the predicted values.

Lastly, it should be underlined that the impedance phase decreases as the frequency increases: the rate
of change can be compared to an exponential decay. This is aligned with the theoretical predictions.
Nevertheless, it isn’t clear that the phase difference tends to zero as the angular frequency tends to
infinity. In order to better visualize this asymptotic behavior, more measurements at higher frequencies
should be taken. This change should be implemented to the experiment in the future to allow for a better
comparison with the theoretical predictions. Moreover, it is clear that as the frequency tends to zero,
the phase difference tends to 90º: in this case, the theory and the experimental results describe the same
type of behavior.

ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION: VISUALIZATION OF THE LISSAJOUS FIGURES

The measurements were taken using the oscilloscope’s XT channel. Nonetheless, by using the XY
channel, it is possible to see the relationship between both voltage signals at the same time: both the
abscissa and ordinate axes measure voltage.

Figure 5: Diagram of various Lissajous figures (Physics

Lab, Universidad Complutense de Madrid 2023).

Figure 4: Example of a Lissajous figure

displayed on the oscilloscope.

One of the Lissajous figures produced can be seen in Figure 4, corresponding to a signal generator
frequency of around 650 Hz. The figure exhibits that there is a 1:1 ratio between the voltage from the
generator, and that passing through the resistor. The orientation of the ellipse also suggests that there is
a phase difference between both signals of around 45º, which is aligned with the results presented in
Table 2. Overall, what was observed when varying the frequency between 30 Hz and 3000 Hz was that
the figure initially resembled an oblique line, as the frequency increased began resembling an oblique
ellipse and finally, at 3000 Hz an oval appeared. These observations are in line with the predictive
model in Figure 5.

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Works Cited
Physics Lab, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. 2023. Experience 19B: Impedance of a RC circuit.
Madrid, March 28.
Physics Lab, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. 2023. Experiment 19A: The Oscilloscope. Madrid,
March 21.

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