Unit 1

Introduction and History of Psychology

Q. What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and mental processes.
According to H. D. Hamm "Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of humans
and animals."
According to Tom Bolling "Psychology is a science of description and application.
Psychology is the field of science dedicated to understanding the human mind and behavior.
Psychology is derived from 2 Greek and words - 'psyche' and 'logos' which mean 'the mind
or the soul' and 'study' respectively. Literally, psychology refers to the study of the soul.
This definition is one of the oldest and was proposed by Aristotle.
History
Study of the SOUL
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
I
Study of the MIND and BODY
Dualism - René Descartes
I
Study of CONSCIOUSNESS
Structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt +Edward. B. Titchener
I
Study of BEHAVIOR
Functionalism - William James
Behaviorism - John. B. Watson

The first use the term psychology is attributed to the German philosopher Rudolph Göckel,
who published the 'Psychologia hoc est de hominis perfecyione, Anima, ortu' in 1898. The
term seems to have been used that it earlier by Marko Marulic in his Latin treatise. The term
was popularised by Christian Wolff. The term psychology overtook mental philosophy in
the middle of 19 century.

Early Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle explored topics such as
pleasure, pain, knowledge, motivation, rationality - which continues to be topics of debate in
psychology today. They also considered the origins of mental illness.
In the 17th century, French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes theorized that
the body and mind are separate entities. This concept came to be known as Dualism.
According to dualism, the body is a physical entity with scientifically measurable behaviour
while the mind is a spiritual entity that cannot be measured because it transcends the
material world. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were English philosophers from the 17th
century who disagreed with the concept of Dualism. They argued saying that sensations,
images, thoughts and feelings are physical processes that occur within the brain. This
argument brought about a view that holds the mind and the body to be one and the same, later
came to be known as monism. Today more psychologists reject the concept of Dualism, as
many years of research has indicated that physical and mental aspects of human experience
are deeply intertwined.
Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when the first
laboratory dedicated to psychological experimentation was founded by German scientist
Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Wilhelm Wundt is often considered as the father of psychology
He was the first to refer to himself as a psychologist and wrote the first textbook on
psychology. Wilhelm Wundt believed that the study of consciousness thoughts would be the
key to understanding the mind. His approach to the study of mind wash based on systematic
and rigorous observation, laying the foundation for modern psychological experimentation.
His topics of study included attention span, reaction time, vision, emotion and time
perception. His primary method of research was introspection. He laid the groundwork for
what later came to be known as the theory of structuralism.
Edward B. Titchener, an English professor and a student of Wilhelm Wundt expanded upon
Wundt's ideas and used them to found the theory of structuralism. Structuralism attempted
to understand the mind as the sum of different underlying parts and focused on three
things - a) individual elements of consciousness b) how these elements are organised into
more complex experiences c) how these mental phenomena correlate with physical
events. Like Wundt, he used introspection to try to determine the different components of
consciousness, however he used a method bound by strict guidelines for the reporting. It was
criticized because its subject of interest - the conscious experience - was not easily studied
with controlled experimentation. Its reliance on introspection, despite Titchener's rigid
guidelines, was criticized for the lack of reliability.
An alternative to structuralism was founded by William James in the late 19th century and is
known as functionalism. Built on the anatomy of the mind, functionalism lead to greater
concern with the functions of the mind, laterto behaviourism. Functionalism considered
mental life in behaviour in terms of active adaptation to the person's environment. James's
approach was more concerned with examining the ways in which the mind adapts to change
in changing situations and environments. In functionalism, it is the brain's role to execute
functions similar to the way a computer does. Structuralism's reliance on introspection
eventually proved it unscientific. Functionalism's emphasis on the scientific study of the
adaptive functions of behaviours and mental processes advanced the study of
psychology as a science.
Milestones in Psychology
500 BC
Trephining, cutting a small circular hole in the skill to allow the evil spirits to escape

1690
John Locke introduced tabula rasa - blank slates

1879
Wilhelm Wundt founded the 1st psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany

1890
 William James published Principles of Psychology

1895
Functionalist model formulated

1900
Sigmund Frued developed psychodynamic perspective

1904
Ivan Pavlov won a Nobel prize for his work on digestion that led to the fundamental
principles of learning

Today's Perspectives
Neuroscience Perspective
Approach that views behaviour from the
perspective of the brain, the nervous system
and other biological functions. Includes the
study of heredity and evolution which
considered the influence of heredity on
behaviour and behavioral neuroscience which
examines how the brain and nervous system
affect behaviour. Neuroscience perspective
has a broader feel because every behaviour
can be broken down into which biological
components.

Approach based on the view that behaviour is

Psycho dynamic Perspective
motivated by unconscious inner forces over
which the individual has little control. In
1961, Freud introduces psychodynamic
perspective. The psychodynamic perspective
has helped understand everyday phenomena
such as aggression, prejudice and has helped
to understand and treat some psychological
disorders.

Approach that suggests that observable,

Behavioural Perspective
measurable behaviour should be the focus of
study. Behaviorism grew out of a rejection
on the emphasis of the inner workings of
the mind. In 1924, John B Watson
introduced Behaviorism. According to
Watson, it is possible to elicit or produce any
desired type of behaviour by controlling a
person's environment. The behavioural
perspective was championed by B. F.

Cognitive Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Schools of Thought
Structuralism
Skinner. This perspective has contributed to
the area of learning and has helped in treating
mental disorders, curbing aggression and
ending drug addiction.
Approach focuses on how people think,
understand and know about the world.
Formed as a response to Behaviorism.
Emphasis on learning how people understand
and represent the outside world within
themselves and how our worldly thought
processes affects our behaviour. Cognitive
perspective enables one to compare the
human thinking to the workings of a computer
which takes information and transforms,
stores and retrieves it. Thinking is information
processing.
Approach that suggest that all individuals
naturally strive to grow, develop and be in
control of their lives and behaviour. Formed
as a response to behaviourism in
psychodynamic. In 1951, Carl Rogers
introduced the humanistic perspective. In
1954, Abraham Maslow introduced the
concept of self actualization. The two of
them contributed to this prospective greatly. It
emphasizes on free will, the ability to make
decisions about one's own life freely.
● Wilhelm Wundt + Edward. B.
Titchener
● Widely regarded as the first school of
thought in psychology
● A. K. A structural psychology
● Goal? Breaking down mental
processes into the most basic
components
● Focuses on 'elements of
consciousness'
● Introspection (looking inward,
reflecting on, analyzing and trying to
make sense of our internal
experiences) is used as a scientific
tool to unveil the structure of the mind
● Played a significant role in shaping
 the field of psychology.
● Criticism - Subjectivity

● William James
● Formed as a reaction to the theories of
the structuralist school of thought
● A. K. A functional psychology
● Influenced by Charles Darwin's
survival of the fittest
● Goal? To understand the functions and
adaptations of the mind
● Focuses on 'purpose of
Functionalism consciousness'
● Belief - Mental processes serve vital
functions that engage us to adapt and
survive in the changing world
● Played a significant role in
contributing to the subject matter of
psychology and range of methods used
to acquire data.
● Criticism - Objectivity

● Sigmund Frued
● Only school of thought to have
received a larger amount of attention,
admiration and criticism as compared
to other schools of thought
● A. K. A Psycho dynamic
● Goal? Influence of the unconscious
mind on behavior
● Human mind consists of 3 elements a)
Psychoanalysis Id (primal urges) b) Ego (deals with
reality) c) Superego (holds values +
ideals we internalize)
● Sigmund Frued's opinion - The
interaction of these 3 elements leads
to all complex human behaviors and
the structure of the mind can be
depicted as an iceberg.
● Criticism - Not scientific, cannot be
tested

● John. B. Watson + Ivan Pavlov +

B. F Skinner
● Dominant school of thought in 1950s
● Goal? Behaviour explained by
environmental causes rather than by
internal forces - focused on overt or
Behaviorism observable behavior
● Classical conditioning + Operant
 conditioning came under this
● Significant role and influence on the
course of psychology + many ideas
and techniques emerged from this
● Criticism - One sided / dimensional
approach, did not look at internal
influences

● Carl Rogers + Abraham Maslow

● Formed as a response to
Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism
● Goal? Emphasis on individual free
will, personal growth and concept of
Humanism Self-actualization to understand
behavior
● Belief? Every person is destined to be
good, humans are free agents
● Remains quote popular and influenced
positive psychology
● Criticism - Too vague, simple
- Too subjective

● Max Wertheimer + Kurt Koffka

● Gestalt means 'form, pattern or
whole'
● Formed as a response to the molecular
approach of Structuralism
● Goal? Human behaviour should be
studied as a 'whole', not as separate
entities,
● Belief? the meaning is often lost when
Gestalt Psychology psychological events are broken down
● Research topics include various
aspects of Cognition including
thinking, perception, problem solving
and decision making
● Significant role in the emergence of a
form of psychotherapy and has
preserved psychology today
● Criticism - Too descriptive rather than
informative

● Fr. Ulric Neisser

● Formed as a response to Behaviorism
● The period in which cognitive
psychology came about is called
'cognitive revolution'
● Goal? To study mental processes
including how people think, perceive,
Cognitive Psychology remember and learn
 ● Belief? basic methods of operations of
the brain can explain behavior
● Related to other disciplines including
neuroscience, philosophy, linguistic
● Criticism - Reductionism
(oversimplification of human
behaviour) + Difficulty to measure
internal processes

● John Toby + Leda Cosmides

● Influenced by Charles Darwin's
theory of natural selection
● Goal? To study the human behavior
Evolutionary Psychology required for survival and that have
adapted over the course of evolution
● Blend of Cognitive psy +
Evolutionary bio
● Criticism - Vagueness coming from
assumptions

● William James
● Inspired by Structuralism and
Functionalism
● A. K. A Physiological Psychology
and Behavioral Neuroscience
● Goal? To measure biological,
physiological and genetic variables to
Biological Psychology relate them to psychological or
behavioral variables
● Belief? The effects of nervous system
on the mind and behavior shall unveil
answers.
● Criticism - Study is fragmented
- limited methods of testing

● Fr. Lev. S. Vygotsky

● Goal? To describe awareness of
circumstances surrounding individuals
and how their behaviors are affected
specifically by their surroundings ;
Sociocultural Psychology social and cultural factors
● Belief? Social and cultural factors
such as language, art, norms and social
structures play a significant role in the
development of our cognitive abilities
● Criticism - Disregards the role of the
individual

Unit 2
 Learning

Definition
Permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience.
Learning is a continuous and ongoing process throughout our lives. Learning shapes are
thinking believes attitude language development and lifestyle. The quality of earning depends
on the exposure to the physical, social and cultural environment.
Methods of learning are a) classical conditioning
b) operant conditioning
Principles of learning ( Thorndike’s Law of Learning )
1. Readiness
Resonance employees a degree of willingness and eagerness of an individual to learn
something new. Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and
emotionally ready to learn and they do not learn while if they see no reason for
learning Example - a student being taught topic in math much want to learn the new
topic for effective learning
2. Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things that are most often repeated are the
ones that are best remembered. Individuals will learn best retain information for
longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition it is true that practice makes
a man perfect. Every time practice occurs learning continues.
Example - writing multiple preparatory exams enable students to practice for the
finals.
3. Effect
The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant a satisfying feeling and that learning is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling. Positive reinforcement leads to success and motivates the learner,
where as negative reinforcement leads to failure and hinders the learner.
Example - when a student is rewarded with great marks or grade on a paper he or she
will associate that paper to a pleasant feeling of success.
4. Primacy
Primacy is the state of being first. Often creates a strong impression which may be
very difficult to change. Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind
and is difficult to erase.
Example - learning the alphabet
- learning one's mother tongue
- learning a faulty technique
5. Recency
Principle of recently states that things most recently landed best remember.
Conversely, the further a learner is removed time wise from a new fact or
understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.
Example - it is easier for a mother to recall what her children were fed this morning
than to remember what they were first three days ago.
6. Intensity
 Principle of intensity states that the more intense the material taught, the more likely it
will be retained. This principle implies that a learner will learn more from the real
thing then from a substitute. Similarly, a learner is likely to gain greater understanding
of tasks by performing them rather than merely reading about them.
Example - Analogies, personal experiences
7. Freedom
The principal of freedom state that things freely learnt are best learnt. Conversely, if a
group of students are forced to learn something, the more difficult it is for them to
learn. Compulsion and force are not favourable for learning.
Example - if a student is forced to submit an assignment, he or she may not want to do
it. if the student is motivated to do so, he or she shall do it.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
(Respondent conditioning and Pavlovian conditioning)
Classical conditioning was proposed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
According to the classical conditioning, behaviour is learnt by repetitive association between
the response and the stimulus.
This type of learning is based on the assumption that learning is developed through the
interactions with the environment and that environment shapes the behaviour and internal
mental state. Here an organism learns to transfer response from one stimulus to previous
neutral stimulus.
Classical conditioning comprises of 4 elements -
1. Unconditioned stimulus (US)
which causes to react in a way
2. Unconditioned response (UR)
takes place when the US is present
3. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
object that does not bring about the desired
response
4. Conditioned response (CR)
particular behavior that the organism learns to
produce in the presence of CS
Ivan Pavlov conducted his famous experiment that involved a dog, meat powder, bell and the
process of salivation. In this experiment, a neutral stimulus, a bell did not cause any
salivation. Meat powder was a natural stimulus that triggered salivation, a natural response.
He presented the Bell sound which was immediately followed by the meat powder. Here, he
termed the meat powder, a natural stimulus as unconditioned stimulus (US). the natural
response to meat powder is salivation; it did not depend on any learning. This natural
response was termed as unconditioned response (UR). The neutral stimulus was the bell and
was termed as conditioned stimulus (CS). This is because the dog had to learn to associate
food with the bell and salivate at the sound of the bell. He paired the Bell sound with powder
several times. So, the salivation is the response to the sound of the bell and was termed as
conditioned response (CR).
1. Before conditioning
 Meat powder (US)
Salivation (UR)
Bell sound (CS)
Salivation (CR)
2. During conditioning
Bell + Meat powder - > Salivation
(CS) (US) (UR)
3. After conditioning
Bell - > Salivation
(CS) (UR)

Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Extinction
This phenomenon occurs when a conditioned response decreases in frequency and
finally disappears. The speed with which extinction takes place depends on the
animal, the response, the nature of the stimulus and number and spacing of
conditioning trials. In Pavlov's experiment if the bell (CS) is presented with no meat
powder (US) repeatedly, the dog may salivate as usual for 2-3 trials when the
celebration stops the phenomenon is termed as extinction.
2. Spontaneous recovery
After the extinction of CR, the dog was brought back to the experimental table the
next day and the bell was rung again. The dog responded with a little salivation, this
happens because the old perception of relation between bell and food.
3. Higher order conditioning
Here, a neutral stimulus (US) can become a second condition stimulus (CS) by pairing
it within already established CS. Example a dog has been conditioned to salivate to
the sound of the bell, the dog can be further conditioned to salivate to a flash of light.
1. Before conditioning
Meat POWDER (US)
Salivation (UR)
BELL (CS1)
Light (CS2)
Salivation (CR)
2. During conditioning
Bell + Light + Meat powder - > Salivation
CS1 + CS2 + US - > UR
3. After conditioning
Light - > Salivation
(CS2) (CR)
4. Stimulus Generalization
Once the dog is conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bell, any sounds of similar
intensity can make the dog respond with salivation. Example - a buzzer sound.
5. Stimulus Discrimination
 Here the dog is initially condition to respond to a tone of 1000 hertz. If a tone of say
500 hertz is presented but not followed by food (US), after a few trials the dog learns
to salivate only for the 1000 hertz and not to the 500 hertz tone.
Types of Conditioning

Classical conditioning in humans

one of the well known examples of classical conditioning in human situation was conducted
by John B Watson on his son Albert. Watson took his 11 month old infant named Albert as
the subject. Albert initially was not afraid of white rabbits. Watson presented a white rabbit to
Albert, but whenever Albert reached out to the white rabbit Watson introduced a loud,
irritating noise. The loud noise and rabbit paired repeatedly which led to Albert showing fear
whenever he saw the rabbit, even in the absence of noise.
1. Before conditioning
Loud noise (US)
Fear (UR)
White rabbit (CS)
Fear (CR)
2. During conditioning
Loud noise + White rabbit - > Fear
(US) (CS) (UR)
3. After conditioning
White rabbit - > Fear
(CS) (CR)
Further tests showed that Albert's fear had generalized to other hairy and furry white objects
such as cotton wool, Santa Claus mask and even to Watson's white beard!
Classical conditioning is the basis for many learned fears and also explains how we acquire
aversion or dislike towards drinks and food.
 Criticisms
● Classical conditioning breaks down complex behavior into smaller parts so that it can
be easily studied or scientifically tested. This reductionist approach is considered to
lack validity and may lead to incomplete explanations.
● Supports nurture over nature and presents behavior solwg in terms of nurture or
nature. Human behavior is too cinokwc for such a direct approach and any effect on
behaviour is due to the interaction between both nature (biology) and nurture
(environment).
● Adopts the deterministic approach which restricts the free will of an individual.
Thus process does it allow any control of the individual over their own reactions.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning was proposed by B. F. Skinner. According to operant conditioning
learning occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant
conditioning an individual makes an association between a particular behaviour and a
consequence B. F. Skinner believed that the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the
cause of an action and its consequences. Skinner is the father of operant conditioning by
his work was based on Thorndike's law of effect.
Edward Thorndike
(Trial and Error theory)
He placed a hungry cat in a 'puzzle box' with a piece of fish kept right outside the box. In
order to reach the piece of fish, the cat engaged in trial and error behaviour by scratching,
biting was swatting at parts of the cage in an unorganised way. After a few minutes, the cat
by chance succeeded in losing a bolt which resulted in opening the door of the cage and
rushed out to get the reward, the piece of fish. When the cat was placed in the box again, it
took less time to escape. As the trials progressed, the animal learned to make lesser errors.
Eventually it learned the correct response and Thorndike termed this as Law of effect which
states that responses that lead to satisfying consequences get strengthened and he called this
as stamping in and those responses that are not awarded get weakened, he called this is
stamping out According to him behaviour is controlled by its consequences.

Skinner introduced a new term into the law of effect - reinforcement. Behaviour which is
reinforced tends to be repeated, that is, strengthened and behaviour which is not reinforced
tends to be extinguished, that is, weakened.
The word operant derives from the fact that the operant behaviour operates on the
environment to produce some effect. B. F. Skinner studied operant conditioning by
conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner's Box' which was
similar to Thorndike's 'puzzle box'
Three Types of responses that can follow behaviour were identified - a) neutral operants b)
reinforcers c) punishers
By introducing the term reinforcement Skinner showed the work a positive and negative
reinforcement through his operant experiment. His experiment consisted of a hungry rat and
the Skinner box having a lever on one side which when pressed would drop a food pellet in
the container next to the lever. This experiment showed that initially the rat driven by the
Hunger drive moved around the box restlessly and occasionally, mainly by chance, pressed
the lever and be rewarded with food. The rat quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a
few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food on pressing the lever
and show that it would repeat the action again and again making this the act of positive
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by providing a consequence
an individual finds rewarding.
B.F.Skinner showed the negative reinforcement by placing a rat in the Skinner box and
subjected it to an unpleasant electric current which cause some discomfort. As the rat moved
around the box it would accidentally press the lever and the electric current would be
switched off. The rat quickly learned to go straight to the level after a few times of being put
in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that it would repeat
the action again and again making this the act of negative reinforcement. The removal
of an unpleasant reinforce strengthens desired behaviour and is termed as negative
reinforcement.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Behaviourists discovered the different patterns or schedules of reinforcement had different
effects on the speed of learning in extinction. Ferster and Skinner devised different ways of
delivering reinforcement and found that this had an effect on- a) Response Rate
the rate at which the rat pressed the lever
(that is how hard the rat worked)
b) Extinction Rate
the rate at which the lever pressing dies out
(that is how soon the rat gave up)
Different ways of delivering reinforcement -
Reinforcement schedules
Continuous Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement
An animal or gumah positively reinforced Characterized by 4 types -
every time a specific behavior occurs. 1. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
Example - Every time a lever is pressed a A behavior is reinforced only after the
pellet us delivered and the electric current is behavior occurs a specified number of times.
shut off. Example - 1 reinforcement delivered after so
Response Rate - SLOW many correct responses
Extinction Rate - FAST Example - A child receives a star for every 5
words spelled right
Response Rate - FAST
Extinction Rate - MEDIUM
2. Fixed Interval Reinforcement
A behavior is given one reinforcement after a
fixed time interval, provided at least one
correct response has been made.
Example - Being paid by the hour
Example - A pellet is delivered every 15
minutes, provided the lever has been pressed
at least once
Response Rate - MEDIUM
 Extinction Rate - MEDIUM
3. Variable Ratio Reinforcement
A behavior is reinforced after an
unpredictable number of times.
Example - Gambling, Fishing
Response Rate - FAST
Extinction Rate - SLOW
4. Variable Interval Reinforcement
A behavior is reinforced after an
unpredictable amount of time has passed,
provided one correct response has been made.
Example - On average every 5 minutes
Example - Self employed person being paid at
unpredictable times
Response Rate - FAST
Extinction Rate - SLOW

Punishment
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather than increase it. It has an aversive event that decreases the
behaviour that it follows. Punishment can work either by directly applying to an unpleasant
stimulus like a shock after an undesired behaviour or by removing a rewarding stimulus like
reducing someone's pocket money to punish an undesired behaviour
Criticisms
● Punished behaviour is not forgotten, it is suppressed
● Behaviour returns when punishment is no longer present
● Causes an increase in aggression
● Creates fear
● Does not necessarily guide towards desired behaviour

Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment

Strengthens a behavior by Removal of an unpleasant Designed to weaken or

producing a consequence reinforcer strengthens desired eliminate a response
which is found rewarding behavior

Motivates you to do what is Tells you what to do Tells you what not to do
desired

Increasing a desired behavior Increasing a desired behavior Decreasing an undesired

behaviour

Positive reinforcement - Negative reinforcement - Positive punishment -

a pleasant stimulus is an unpleasant stimulus is an unpleasant stimulus is
removed to increase removed to increase presented to decrease
behavior. behavior. behavior
Negative punishment -
 a pleasant stimulus is
removed to decrease
behavior.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING

Basic principle Basic principle

Building associations between a Increasing the frequency of desired
conditioned stimulus and conditioned behavior through reinforcement and
response. decreasing the frequency of undesired
behavior through punishment.

Nature of behavior Nature of behavior

Based on involuntary, natural, I ante Based on the likelihood of the behavior
behavior. Behavior is caused by occurring again when increased or
unconditioned or conditioned stimulus. decreased by the behavior's consequences.

Order of events Order of events

Before conditioning, US leads to UR. Reinforcement leads to an increase in
After conditioning, CD leads to CR. behavior, Punishment leads to a decrease
in behavior.

Example Example
Doctor gives an injection to a child who A student studies very hard for a test and
cries. eatmd an A (positive reinforcement)
Injection (US) A student Gros out for a part the night
Emotional response (UR) before a test and fails the test
Doctor (CS) (punishment)
Emotional response (CR)
US + CS - > UR
CS - > CR

Behaviour Modification
It it refers to the techniques used to increase or decrease a particular behaviour or reaction.
Behaviour modification is based on the concept of conditioning. The 2 major forms of
conditioning - classical and operant conditioning. The purpose of behaviour modification is
to focus on changing the behavior.
Different methods used to accomplish behavior modification are -
1. Positive Reinforcement
Strengthening a behavior by pricing a consequence found rewarding.
2. Negative Reinforcement
Removal of an undesired reinforcement strengthens desired behavior.
3. Reinforcement Scheduling
A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a behaviour
will be reinforced. Behaviour might be reinforced every time it occurs or might not be
reinforced. Reinforcement schedules take place in both naturally occurring learning
 situation as well as more structured training situations. The 2 forms of reinforcement
schedules are -
a) continuous reinforcement
The desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs. This schedule is best
used during the initial stages of learning. Most effective when trying to teach new
behaviour.
Example - teaching a dog to fetch and shakehand
b) partial reinforcement
The desired behaviour is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviours are
required more slowly with this schedule but the response is more resistant to
extinction. 4 schedules of partial reinforcement -
● Fixed ratio schedule
● Variable ratio schedule
● Fixed interval schedule
● Variable interval schedule
4. Punishment
Designed to weaken or eliminate a response. Decrease an undesired behavior.
Opposite of reinforcement.
5. Shaping
Process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior. Any behavior is reinforced that is similar to
the desired behavior.
6. Generalization Training
Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses
after the response has been conditioned.
7. Discrimination Training
Discrimination is the ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli.
More advanced form of learning than generalization. A. K. A stimulus control
training.
8. Extinction
Behavioral phenomenon which involves the fading of a non-reinforced conditioned
response. In classical conditioning,when CS is preen her without US, the CR will
cease.
In operant conditioning, when response is no longer reinforced following a stimulus,
extinction occurs.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Edward Tolman contributed significantly to the cognitive learning theory.
According to him, individuals not only respond to stimuli, but also act on beliefs, thoughts,
attitudes, feelings and strive towards goals. Cognitive learning theory is based on the
cognitive model of human behaviour. Cognitive learning theory explains thinking
(cognition) and mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and external factors
in order to produce learning within individuals.
The 3 types of learning in which no prior reinforcement is present are -
a) Latent learning b) Observational learning c) Insight learning
 LATENT LEARNING
A type of learning in which learning is not apparent in the learner's behaviour at the time of
learning but which manifests later when suitable circumstances appear.
Edward Tolman says that every human engages in latent learning in their everyday lives and
only became aware of this learning when needed. He conducted experiments with rats and
mazes that led to the theory of latent learning. Tolman and Honzik came up with the famous
experiment that consisted of a maze that investigated latent learning in rate. The study shows
that rats actively process information rather than operate on a stimulus response relationship.
Tolman coined the term cognitive map which is an internal map of external environment.
By using this cognitive map of a physical space people are aware where which building or
path is located.
Experiment
3 groups of rats were placed in 3 identical complex mazes. The rats had to find their way out
and were either rewarded or not at all with food.
Group 1 got reinforced, that is, given food every time they got out. Group 2 got delayed
reward, that is, for fiery 10 days they were not given any food when they got out but for the
next or preceding 7 days, they were given food every time they got out. Group 3 did not get
rewarded even after getting out in those 17 days.The delayed reward group (Group 2) had
learned the route in the first 10 days and formed a cognitive map of the maze. They took
longer to reach the end of the maze due to the lack of motivation but when they started
receiving rewards (food), they reached the end even before the reward group (Group1).
This shows that between stimulus (maze) and response (reaching the end) a process of
actively processing information in rats' minds by mentally using their cognitive map.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
(Imitation Learning)
Method of learning that consists of observing and modelling other individual's behaviour,
attribute or emotional expressions. Itis commonly believed that the observer will copy the
model. Albert Bandura stressed that individuals simply learn from the behaviour rather than
imitate it. He was of the firm opinion that both classical and operant conditioning can take
place through observational learning. Bandura's theory of observational learning can help
explain why physical punishment tends to increase aggressive behaviour in children even
when it is intended to do the opposite. Bandura's findings in the Bobo doll experiment have
greatly influenced children's television programming.
Experiment
He filmed his students physically attacking the Bobo doll, an inflatable doll with a round
bottom that pops back up when knocked down. A student was placed in the room with the
Bobo doll and the student proceeded to punch, kick, hit and sit on the doll, along with yelling
at it. This was filmed and shown to young children. The children imitated the behaviour of
the student and at times became even more aggressive towards the doll then what they
observed. Another group of young children observed a student being nice to the doll.
Ironically, the group of children did not imitate this positive behaviour towards the doll. He
found similar results when he substituted the doll for a live clown.
These findings have prompted parents to monitor the TV shows that children watch and
friends with which associate.
Elements of observational learning
● Attention
● Retention
● Reproduction
● Motivation Reinforcement

INSIGHT LEARNING
Learning that appears to occur in a flash. This type of learning is synonymous to the 'aha
experience'. Theory of insight learning was proposed by Wolfgang Kohler
Insight learning refers to the sudden realisation of the solution of any problem without
repeated trials or continuous practices. In this type of learning, one draws from previous
experiences and involve a new way of perceiving logical and cause - effect relationship.
Experiment
Wolfgang Kohler placed a chimpanzee named Sultan inside a cage, along with two bamboo
sticks and a bunch of bananas outside the cage. There was a long and short bamboo sticks.
Neither of the sticks could reach the banana alone, the only possible way to reach the banana
was to join the two sticks. Initially, Sultan showed all the reactions that a chimpanzee would
show and gradually tried to draw the banana towards him with the individual sticks. After
countless fruitless attempts, he nearly gave up, but as he was playing with the sticks, he
managed to touch the banana by pushing a stick with another stick. He accidentally managed
to join the two sticks and pull the bananas inside the cage. Sultan immediately grabbed the
bananas when faced with the same problem the next day.
Characteristics of Insight learning
● Leads to change in perception
● Itis sudden
● Perception of a pattern
● Past experiences are important
● Age influences insight learning
● Insight learning is synonymous to Associative learning

Unit 3
Personality
What is Personality?
Personality is derived from the Latin word "PERSONA" which means "mask".
According to Gordon Allport " personality is the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical system that determine his unique adjustment to his/her own
environment"

There are four major perspectives under which personality is studied:

1. Psychoanalytical perspective
 2. Humanistic perspective
3. Trait perspective
4. Social cognitive perspective
1. Psychoanalytical approach
The most popular approach to study personality had been the psychoanalytic /
psychodynamic approach. This approach was put forward by the most influential thinker
Sigmund Freud, A.K.A father of psychoanalysis.
He was a neurologist,who developed an interest in psychology and went on to originate
psychoanalysis as both theory and therapy.
A. Level of consciousness:
Sigmund Freud visualized the mind in terms of three levels of consciousness in the form of
an iceberg.

1. Conscious
This is the level that is presented at the top and is observed by self and others.
The "here" and "now", this part of our mind represents what we are actually aware of
at the moment, it includes our sensation and perception.
2. Preconscious
Beneath the conscious realm lies the preconscious.
This contains memories that are not part of current thoughts but can be readily
brought to the mind. These are the memories that take time in recalling.
3. Unconscious
This represent the greatest part of the mind and contains all our instincts and drives
(Two major drives emphasized by Freud are : sex and aggression) that determine our
conscious thoughts and behavior.
This part of our mind contains memories from birth till death,All the early childhood
memories, traumatic events, which have been deliberately forgotten.

B. The structure of personality

Freud introduced the three structures of personality that are not seen physically existing in the
brain but represent hypothetical construct.
1. Id
The original and the oldest part of Personality. It includes all our bodily needs , sexual
desires and aggressive impulses. According to Freud the Id is totally unconscious. It
 works on the pleasure principle. The Id is not in touch with reality as it looks
forward for instant gratification and pleasure.
The instinctual life force that energies the Id is called Libido
2. Ego
Ego here means "self"
Freud proposed the ego developed out of Id. It is the executive part of the mind. The
ego is in touch with reality and operates on the reality principle. Ego delays the
instant gratification of Id through the ego defense mechanism. It takes into
consideration the external condition and consequences of various actions and directs
behavior so as to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The ego is always in conflict
with the Id and superego which is known as intrapsychic conflict.
3. Super ego
The superego contains the values and ideals of the family and culture into which a
person grows and develops.
It is concerned with morality and operates on the morality principle. Like the Id,
superego is also not in touch with reality and strives to ensure that a person is always
operating to the highest moral standards and perfection.
C. Ego defense mechanism
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a
person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.
● Projection
Projection is a psychological defense mechanism in which an individual attributes unwanted
thoughts, feelings and motives onto another person
● Displacement
Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute
target. The target can be a person or an object that can serve as a symbolic
substitute.Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do something of which the Super ego
does not permit. The Ego thus finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of the Id.
● Sublimation
Sublimation is similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to displace our
unacceptable emotions into behaviors which are constructive and socially acceptable, rather
than destructive activities.
● Regression
Regression is a defense mechanism whereby the ego reverts to an earlier stage of
development usually in response to stressful situations.
● Rationalization
Rationalization is a defense mechanism involving a cognitive distortion of "the facts" to
make an event or an impulse less threatening
There are two types :
- Sweet lemon attitude
Saying that what we have is the best or whatever has happened is for the good. Example - A
student who fractures her leg says that she got more time to sit and study for the exam.
- Sour grapes attitude
If we do not get what we want, we say that it was not good anyway. Example - if a person
does not get a promotion, he then says it would have been too much responsibility.
● Reaction Formation
Reaction formation is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person goes beyond
denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels.
● Repression
Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or
threatening thoughts from becoming conscious.
Thoughts that are often repressed are those that would result in feelings of guilt from the
superego.
D. Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development.
Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during five
psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
● Each stage has an erogenous zones, different zones is different stages. The main
purpose is to seek pleasure
● Each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or
instincts) on a different area of the body.
1. Stage 1 (Oral stage)
(Birth to 1 year)
In the first stage of personality development, the erogenous zone is the mouth. It gets much
satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id
demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting,
and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. Oral personalities all
around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities
engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.
2. Stage 2 ( Anal stage)
(01 to 03 years)
In this stage the child is toilet trained by parents. The child gains control over the bodily
functions of urination and excretion. They gain pleasure from retaining the bowel.
In this stage the erogenous zone is the anal area.
Fixation leads to:
- Anal retentive : excessively orderly and fussy
- Anal expulsion : excessively messy and careless.
3. Stage 3 (Phallic stage)
(4 to 6 years)
Erogenous zone is the Genital area. Children begin to understand about their gender. The
child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between
erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
Oedipus complex :occurs when the boy develop love for his mother and thinks father as his
rival and develops hostility towards the father.
Electra complex: the girl desires the father and tries to symbolically marry him and wish for a
baby.
 4. Stage 4 ( Latency stage)
(6 years to puberty)
No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden).
There is no erogenous zone in this stage.
Children and engaged in other activities like school, games , family and culture
5. Stage 5 ( Genital stage)
(Puberty to adult)
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again.
Erogenous zone is the Genital area . During the final stage of psychosexual development, the
individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during
puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point
E. NEO FREUDIAN VIEW.
Neo Freudian are those personality theorist who accepted basic portion of Freud's theory but
rejected major part of it and modified the same. They mostly gave importance to social
development in an individual.
1. Carl Jung
● Accepted Freud's concept of the unconscious , but modified it by adding his
concept of collective unconsciousness
● Collective unconsciousness refers to the collective experience of all human
beings mainly through biological heritage.
● Collective unconscious express themselves through Archetype,
the inherited manifestation of collective unconscious that express
themselves when our conscious mind is Distracted and inactive
● Two types of archetypes:
- Anima : feminine side of a male
- Animus : masculine side of a female
Other side of this theory
Divided people into introvert and extrovert.
Introvert : shy , quietness,prefer to be alone, withdrawal from social interaction. They turn
their psychic energy inward
Extrovert : happy,cheerful, talkative, friendly. They are socially very active. They turn their
psychic energy outward.

Karen Horney and Alfred Adler

Karen Horney :
● Disagreed that difference between male and female stemmed from innate factors.
She said that each sex have attributes that are admired by the other, and niether should
be viewed as inferior or superior.
 ● She also disagreed with Freud that psychological disorders are due to fixation and
psychic factors.
shr believed that disorders were due to bad childhood experiences and relationships of
an individual.
Alfred Adler:
● He emphasized more on the feeling of inferiority children face due to small in size
and physical weakness. And development of personality is to overcome these through
striving for superiority.
● He also emphasized on social interaction and birth order affect personality growth in
an individual
Only child: are spoiled by too much parental attention.
First born child : dethroned by the second child
Second born child : more competitive to catch up with the older siblings.
2. Trait Approach
● Psychologists have developed a model of personality known as trait theory. It is a
model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe
personality. It seeks to explain in a straightforward way the consistencies in
individuals’ behavior.
● Traits are consistent personality characteristics and behaviors displayed in different
situations.
It is a dimension of personality which determines constant behavior of an individual.

● Traits are the most important ways in which people differ. Personality traits are
specific dimensions along which individuals’ personalities differ in consistent, stable
ways.
● Trait theorists do not assume that some people have a trait and others do not; rather,
they propose that all people possess certain traits but the degree to which a particular
trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified.
● All people possess certain traits, but the degree varies and can be
quantified.Challenge is to identify primary traits necessary to describe personality
● Clusters are groups of traits that go together.
A. Gordon Allport
● Allport concluded that personality traits could be grouped in several major
categories.
● Allport noted that a few people are dominated by a single all-important
cardinal trait .According to Allport,it is a single trait that dominates an
individual’s entire personality. A cardinal trait is a single characteristic
that directs most of a person’s activities.
For example, a totally selfless woman may direct all her energy toward
humanitarian activities; an intensely power-hungry person may be driven by
an all-consuming need for control. A few examples of such persons and the
cardinal traits that seemed to drive their personalities: Napoleon (ambition),
 Florence Nightingale (empathy), Machiavelli (lust for power), and Don Juan
(just plain lust).
● More important are central traits—the five to ten traits that together best
account for the uniqueness of an individual’s personality. Central traits, such
as honesty and sociability, are an individual’s major characteristics.
● Of least importance are secondary traits, which exerts a relatively weak
effect on behavior. Finally, secondary traits are characteristics that affect
behavior in fewer situations and are less influential than central or cardinal
traits. For instance, a reluctance to eat meat and a love of modern art would be
considered secondary traits.
● Perhaps an even more important aspect of Allport’s theory of personality is his
concept of functional autonomy Functional Autonomy is the maintenance
of patterns of behavior by motives other than the ones originally
responsible for the behavior’s occurrence.
● It is the idea that patterns of behavior that are initially acquired under one set
of circumstances, and which satisfy one set of motives, may later be
performed for very different reasons.
For example, initially a child may learn to read because this pleases his
teachers and parents and because failure to do so is punished. Later in life,
however, the same person may read because he has come to enjoy reading.
Factor Analysis
● Later attempts to identify primary personality traits have centered on a statistical
technique known as factor analysis. Factor analysis is a statistical method of
identifying associations among a large number of variables to reveal more general
difference
● For example, a personality researcher might administer a questionnaire to many
participants that asks them to describe themselves by referring to an extensive list of
traits. By statistically combining responses and computing which traits are associated
with one another in the same person, a researcher can identify the most fundamental
patterns or combinations of traits—called factors —that underlie participants’
responses.
B. Raymond B. Cattell
● Using factor analysis, personality psychologist Raymond Cattell (1965) suggested that
16 pairs of source traits represent the basic dimensions of personality. Using those
source traits, he developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, or 16 PF, a
measure that provides scores for each of the source traits.
● Source Traits: According to Cattell, they are key dimensions of personality that
underlie many other traits.
● A few of the source traits identified by Cattell: cool Vs warm, easily upset Vs calm
and stable, not assertive Vs dominant, trusting Vs suspicious, and undisciplined Vs
self-disciplined.
 ● Surface Traits: aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the
outward actions of a person.They are the overt manifestations of behavior . Eg:
dependability, curiosity
C. Hans Eysenck’s Personality Theory
● Another trait theorist, psychologist Hans Eysenck (1995), also used factor analysis to
identify patterns of traits, but he came to a very different conclusion about the nature
of personality.
● He found that personality could best be described in terms of just three major
dimensions: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism .
● The extraversion dimension relates to the degree of sociability. Traits associated with
this dimension are sociable, lively, active, assertive, and sensation-seeking.
● The neurotic dimension encompasses emotional stability. Traits associated with this
dimension are anxious,depressed, guilt feelings, low self-esteem,tense.
● Finally, psychoticism refers to the degree to which reality is distorted. Traits
associated with this dimension are aggressive,cold,egocentric,impersonal,impulsive.
● By evaluating people along these three dimensions, Eysenck was able to predict
behavior accurately in a variety of situations.
D. THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS or FACTORS
● For the last two decades, the most influential trait approach contends that five traits or
factors—called the “Big Five”—lie at the core of personality.
● Using modern factor analytic statistical techniques, a host of researchers have
identified a similar set of five factors that underlie personality.
● The five factors are (OCEAN) Openness to experience, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (emotional stability).
● They can be described as follows:
➢ 1. Openness to experience: A dimension ranging from imaginative, sensitive,
intellectual, and polished at one end to down-to-earth, insensitive, crude, and simple
at the other.
➢ 2.Conscientiousness: A dimension ranging from well-organized, careful,
self-disciplined, responsible, and precise at one end to disorganized, careless,
weak-willed, and neglectful at the other.
➢ 3. Extraversion: A dimension ranging from sociable, talkative, fun-loving,
affectionate, and adventurous at one end to retiring, sober, reserved, silent, and
cautious at the other
➢ 4. Agreeableness: A dimension ranging from good-natured, gentle, cooperative,
trusting, and helpful at one end to irritable, ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative, and
headstrong at the other.
➢ 5. Neuroticism (Emotional Stability): A dimension ranging from poised, calm,
composed, and not hypochondriacal at one end to nervous, anxious, excitable, and
hypochondriacal at the other.
The Big Five Personality Factors and Dimensions of Sample Traits
1.Openness to experience
➢ Independent—Conforming
 ➢ Imaginative—Practical
➢ Preference for variety—Preference for routine
2.Conscientiousness
➢ Careful—Careless
➢ Disciplined—Impulsive
➢ Organized—Disorganized
3.Extraversion
➢ Talkative—Quiet
➢ Fun-loving—Sober
➢ Sociable—Retiring
4.Agreeableness
➢ Sympathetic—Fault-finding
➢ Kind—Cold
➢ Appreciative—Unfriendly
5.Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)
➢ Stable—Tense
➢ Calm—Anxious
➢ Secure—Insecure

● The Big Five emerge consistently across a number of domains. For example, factor
analyses of major personality inventories, self-report measures made by observers of
others’ personality traits, and checklists of self-descriptions yield similar factors.
● In addition, the Big Five emerge consistently in different populations of individuals,
including children, college students, older adults, and speakers of different languages.
● Cross-cultural research conducted in areas ranging from Europe to the Middle East to
Africa also has been supportive.
● Finally, studies of brain functioning show that Big Five personality traits are related to
the way the brain processes information .
EVALUATING TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY
Advantages
● They provide a clear, straightforward explanation of people’s behavioral
consistencies.
● Furthermore, traits allow us to readily compare one person with another.
● Because of these advantages, trait approaches to personality have had an important
influence on the development of several useful personality measures.
Disadvantages
● The trait approach is largely descriptive in nature. It seeks to describe the key
dimensions of personality but does not attempt to determine how various traits
develop or how they influence behavior.
● The difficulty in determining which of the theories is the most accurate has led some
personality psychologists to question the validity of trait conceptions of personality in
general.
 ● Actually, there is an even more fundamental difficulty with trait approaches. Even if
we are able to identify a set of primary traits, we are left with little more than a label
or description of personality—rather than an explanation of behavior.

3. Type Approach
A. Type A Type B Behaviour pattern (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974)
This type of personality concerns how people respond to stress. However, although its name
implies a personality typology, it is more appropriately conceptualized as a trait continuum,
with extremes Type-A and Type-B individuals on each end.

Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)

Typical patterns of TABP include:
➔ Competitiveness:Type A individuals tend to be very competitive and self-critical.
They strive toward goals without feeling a sense of joy in their efforts or accomplishments.
Interrelated with this is the presence of a significant life imbalance.This is characterized by a
high work involvement. Type A individuals are easily ‘wound up’ and tend to overreact. They
also tend to have high blood pressure (hypertension).
➔ Time Urgency:Type A personalities experience a constant sense of urgency: Type A
people seem to be in a constant struggle against the clock. Often, they quickly become
impatient with delays and unproductive time, schedule commitments too tightly, and
try to do more than one thing at a time, such as reading while eating or watching
television.
➔ Hostility: Type A individuals tend to be easily aroused to anger or hostility, which
they may or may not express overtly. Such individuals tend to see the worst in others,
displaying anger, envy and a lack of compassion.When this behavior is expressed
overtly (i.e., physical behavior) it generally involves aggression and possible bullying.
Hostility appears to be the main factor linked to heart disease and is a better predictor
than the TAPB as a whole.
➔ Impatience: inability to wait calmly.
➔ Restlessness: not feeling relaxed while working
➔ Achievement Orientation: need to achieve something worthwhile whenever there is
possibility
➔ Domineering: Sense of power over anything
➔ Workaholic: Tendency of doing something all the time
Type B Personalities
Typical patterns of Type B personalities include:
➔ They experience lower levels of anxiety and display a higher level of imagination
and creativity.
➔ People with Type B personality tend to be more tolerant of others.
➔ They are more reflective than Type A Personalities.
 ➔ They are relaxed and non-competitive.
➔ Complacent: habit of enjoying everything
➔ Easygoing: ability to work with relaxed mood
➔ Non- assertive : not bold enough to have attention of other persons
➔ Relaxed : does everything with comfort not in hurry
➔ Patience: the ability to wait and work with ease
➔ They are cooperative.
B. Ancient Perspectives on Personality
Ancient Greek Perspective
● Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) described the four temperaments as
part of the ancient medical concept of humorism, that four bodily fluids affect human
personality traits and behaviors.
● According to ancient Greek psychologists, an individual’s personality consists of the
four temperaments and their predominant humors:
➔ Sanguine: blood
➔ Phlegmatic: phlegm
➔ Choleric: yellow bile
➔ Melancholic: black bile
● The predominance of one humor is said to affect one’s appearance and behavior.
● Sanguine personality type is described primarily as being highly talkative,
enthusiastic, active, and social. Sanguines tend to be more extroverted and enjoy
being part of a crowd; they find that being social, outgoing, and charismatic is easy to
accomplish.Individuals with this personality have a hard time doing nothing and
engage in more risk seeking behaviour.
● Choleric individuals tend to be more extroverted. They are described as independent,
decisive, and goal-oriented, and ambitious. These combined with their dominant,
result-oriented outlook make them natural leaders. In Greek, Medieval and
Renaissance thought, they were also violent, vengeful, and short-tempered.
● Melancholic individuals tend to be analytical and detail-oriented, and they are deep
thinkers and feelers. They are introverted and try to avoid being singled out in a
crowd. A melancholic personality leads to self-reliant individuals who are thoughtful,
reserved, and often anxious.They often strive for perfection within themselves and
their surroundings, which leads to tidy and detail oriented behavior.
● Phlegmatic individuals tend to be relaxed, peaceful, quiet, and easy-going. They are
sympathetic and care about others, yet they try to hide their emotions. Phlegmatic
individuals also are good at generalizing ideas or problems to the world and making
compromises.

Ancient Indian Ayurvedic PERSPECTIVE

The Three Gunas/Trigunas
● Writing in the Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, Mukherjee says that three
qualities mentioned in Samkhya philosophy, known as the ‘gunas‘, are the basis of
psychological classification.
● These are then divided into subtypes, and there are whole treatises written about these
different personality types in the well known medical treatise of ancient India.
● The three mental attributes, Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas correspond to the three ‘doshas’,
Vata, Pitta, and Kapha, that make up the physical constitution.
● According to the Ayurvedic system of medicine, the three gunas provide the basis for
distinctions in temperament and psychological make-up, as well as moral disposition.
● These three gunas are tamas (darkness), rajas (activity), and sattva (beingness).
The basic attributes of Sattvik type of personality are purity, compassion, love,
clarity, harmony, understanding and essential goodness. Rajasik type of personality is
characterized by passion, action, confusion, extraversion, aggression, and sensuality,
while tamasik type of personality is described as inertia, laziness, ignorance,
heaviness and dullness.
● All three gunas are always present in all beings, and objects surrounding us, but vary
in their relative amounts. The gunas show our mental and spiritual state through
which we can measure our propensity for psychological problems.
The three Doshas/Tridoshas-Pancha Mahabhutas
These rishis, believed there are three principal energies governing the entire cosmos.
These energies are referred to as doshas and are present in every single living and
non-living beings.
Combination of Pancha Mahabhutas forms Tridoshas. Here, by elements is meant
the five mahabhutas—that is Akasa, Vayu, Tejas, Ap and Prithvi. (Sky or ether, air,
fire, water and earth proto-elements respectively).
The universe and man are made up of these five elements.So while we are all made up
of the same five elements: Earth, fire, air, water, and space,(five
Mahabhutas—that is, Akasa, Vayu, Tejas, Ap and Prithvi) we are each entirely
unique, due to the concentration of the energies we are made up of.
The five elements combine to form the Tridoshas in biodiversity
● Ayurveda believes that there are three energies operating in the universe or cosmos:
the binding energy – Kapha,
the energy of transformation – Pitta
and the energy of movement – Vata.
● Each dosha has a different quality, with an associated element, and each person has all
three doshas, but in varying proportions.
● The Vata Dosha is made up of space and air, the elements that are associated with
motion. Vata governs blood circulation, breathing, our heartbeat, the movement of our
thoughts from one direction to another; along with the movement of food in the body.
People with a predominance of Vata will be quick, vibrant, dynamic, creative and airy.
On the negative, all this movement could make a Vata person indecisive, stressed and
ungrounded.Woody Allen is a prime example of the tall, slim, fast-talking, impulsive,
creative Vata type.
● Kapha is the combination of earth and water elements. It is sticky, oily and heavy and
keeps things together. Kapha keeps our cells together and our body in shape. Kapha
personalities are languid, calm, and kind, but on the negative side, could be prone to
lethargy, heaviness, and dullness.
 ● The Pitta dosha is composed mainly of fire, with some water, and is transformative.
It makes up the digestive fire in our bodies, transforming food into nutrients. Pitta
people are fiery, focused, determined, confident, aggressive, and when out of balance
can be dictatorial, and easily angered.
Evaluating Type Approaches to Personality:
Advantages
● Much research has revealed that variation in human personality indeed occurs along
continuous dimensions and not as discrete categories, and viewing personality in this
way allows for more flexible categorization of individuals by eliminating the ‘boxes’
into which type theory tries to fit people.
● Type theory approach will always have some limit to the number of ways a person’s
personality could potentially be oriented, which makes research easier.
● Type theory is less complicated and much fair.
Disadvantages
● Unlike a type theory, a trait theory approach, there is an infinite number of places on
the sliding scales of traits individuals could fall.
● Type approach tends to oversimplify and not identify fully an individual's personality.
4. Learning Approaches to Personality
● Learning approaches to personality focus on the “outer” person.
● To a strict learning theorist, personality is simply the sum of learned responses to the
external environment.
● Internal events such as thoughts, motivation feelings are ignored.
● Although the existence of personality is not denied, learning theorists say that it is
best understood by looking at the features of a person’s environment.
A.SKINNER’S BEHAVIORIST APPROACH
● According to the most influential learning theorist, B. F. Skinner (who carried out
pioneering work on operant conditioning), personality is a collection of learned
behavior patterns.
● Similarities in responses across different situations are caused by similar patterns of
reinforcement that have been received in such situations in the past.
● If I am sociable both at parties and at meetings, it is because I have been reinforced
for displaying social behaviors—not because I am fulfilling an unconscious wish
based on experiences during my childhood or because I have an internal trait of
sociability.
● Their view is that humans are infinitely changeable through the process of learning
new behavior patterns.
● If we are able to control and modify the patterns of reinforcers in a situation, behavior
viewed as stable and unyielding can be changed and ultimately improved.
● Learning theorists are optimistic in their attitudes about the potential for resolving
personal and societal problems through treatment strategies based on learning theory.
B. SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH TO PERSONALITY
● In his social cognitive theory, Albert Bandura, a past president of the American
Psychological Association, notes that people do indeed acquire many forms of
behavior through basic processes of learning—operant conditioning and classical
 conditioning. He adds, however, that a third form , observational learning is of special
importance.In observational learning individuals acquire both information and new
forms of behavior through observing others (models).
● Bandura also calls attention to the fact that learning is far from the entire story where
human behavior and personality are concerned. In addition, many cognitive factors
play a role.
● Social cognitive approaches to personality are theories that emphasize the influence
of a person’s cognitions— thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values—as well as
observation of others’ behavior, in determining personality.
● Such learning plays a role in a very wide range of human activities—everything from
learning how to dress and groom in the style of one’s own society through learning
how to perform new and difficult tasks.
● According to social cognitive approaches, personality develops through repeated
observation of others’ behavior.

SELF-EFFICACY
● Another important concept in Bandura’s theory is self-efficacy—the belief in one’s
capacity to perform a specific task.
● Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s personal capabilities.
● Self-efficacy underlies people’s faith in their ability to carry out a particular behavior
or produce a desired outcome.
● The higher a person’s feelings of self-efficacy, the better that person tends to do at a
wide range of tasks. And such success, of course, can ultimately lead to more
generalized positive feelings about oneself— changes in the self-concept and in
evaluations of it.
● People with high self-efficacy have higher aspirations and greater persistence in
working to attain goals and ultimately achieve greater success than those with lower
self-efficacy.
● How do we develop self-efficacy?
➢ One way is by paying close attention to our prior successes and failures. If we
try snowboarding and experience little success, we’ll be less likely to try it
again.
➢ Direct reinforcement and encouragement from others also play a role in
developing self-efficacy.
HOW MUCH CONSISTENCY EXISTS IN PERSONALITY?
● Another social cognitive theorist, Walter Mischel, takes a different approach to
personality from that of Albert Bandura.
● He rejects the view that personality consists of broad traits that lead to substantial
consistencies in behavior across different situations.
● Instead, he sees personality as considerably more variable from one situation to
another.
● From this perspective, personality cannot be considered without taking the particular
context of the situation into account—a view known as situationism. In situationism-
Situation gives rise to particular kinds of behaviour.
 ● In his cognitive-affective processing system (CAPS) theory, Mischel argues that
people’s thoughts and emotions about themselves and the world determine how they
view, and then react, in particular situations.
● Personality is thus seen as a reflection of how people’s prior experiences in different
situations affect their behavior.
SELF-ESTEEM
● Our behavior also reflects the view we have of ourselves and the way we value the
various parts of our personalities.
● Self-esteem is the component of personality that encompasses our positive and
negative self-evaluations.
● Unlike self-efficacy, which focuses on our views of whether we are able to carry out
a task, self-esteem relates to how we feel about ourselves.
● Although people have a general level of self-esteem, it is not unidimensional. We
may see ourselves positively in one domain but negatively in others. For example, a
good student may have high self-esteem in academic domains but lower self esteem in
sports.
● Self-esteem has strong cultural components.
For example, having high relationship harmony —a sense of success in forming close
bonds with other people—is more important to self-esteem in Asian cultures than it is
in more individualistic Western societies.
● Although almost everyone goes through periods of low self-esteem (for instance, after
an undeniable failure), some people are chronically low in self-esteem. For them,
failure seems to be an inevitable part of life. In fact, low self-esteem may lead to a
cycle of failure in which past failure breeds future failure.
● For example, consider students with low self-esteem who are studying for a test.
Because of their low self-esteem, they expect to do poorly on the test. In turn, this
belief raises their anxiety level, which makes it increasingly difficult to study and
perhaps even leading them not to work as hard. Because of these attitudes, they do, in
fact, ultimately perform badly on the test. Ultimately, the failure reinforces their low
self-esteem, and the cycle is perpetuated as illustrated in Figure 3.

● In short, low self-esteem can lead to a self-destructive cycle of failure.

C.SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
● The social learning theory proposed by Julian Rotter (1954, 1982) suggests that the
likelihood that a given behavior will occur in a specific situation depends on
individuals’ expectancies concerning the outcomes the behavior will produce and the
 reinforcement value they attach to such outcomes—the degree to which they prefer
one reinforcer over another.
● According to Rotter, individuals form generalized expectancies concerning the
extent to which their own actions determine the outcomes they experience.
● Rotter terms persons who strongly believe that they can shape their own destinies
internals and those who believe their outcomes are largely the result of forces outside
their control externals.
● Note again how, in this theory, internal factors such as subjective estimates
concerning the likelihood of various outcomes, subjective reactions to these, and
generalized expectancies of personal control all combine to influence behavior.
Certainly, such suggestions contrast very sharply with the view, stated in early
learning approaches to personality, that only external reinforcement contingencies
should be taken into account.
EVALUATING LEARNING APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY
Advantages:-

● This approach has helped make personality psychology an objective, scientific

venture by focusing on observable behavior and the effects of their environments.
● This approach can be used in the treatment of personality disorders.The degree of
success of these treatments is a testimony to the merits of learning theory approaches
to personality.
● A key strength of the learning perspective is that it is based on widely accepted and
well-documented principles of psychology. Another positive feature of modern
learning approaches to personality is that they have been put to practical use in
efforts to modify maladaptive forms of behavior.
Disadvantages
● This approach excludes thoughts and feelings.
● It is deterministic in nature.
● Traditional learning theorists such as Skinner have been accused of oversimplifying
personality to such an extent that the concept becomes meaningless because they
ignore the internal processes that are uniquely human.

5.Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Are We Born with Personality?

● Biological and evolutionary approaches to personality theories suggest that important
components of personality are inherited.
● Biological and evolutionary approaches to personality seeks to explain the
consistency in personality that are found in some families.
● Building on the work of behavioral geneticists, researchers using biological and
evolutionary approaches argue that personality is determined at least in part by our
genes.

● The evolutionary perspective assumes that personality traits that led to our
ancestors’ survival and reproductive success are more likely to be preserved and
passed on to subsequent generations.
 ● For example, twin studies illustrate the importance of genetic factors in personality.
Personality psychologists Auke Tellegen and colleagues at the University of
Minnesota examined the personality traits of pairs of twins who were genetically
identical but were raised apart from each other.
● Results of the personality tests indicated that in major respects the twins were quite
similar in personality, despite having separated at an early age.
Certain traits were more heavily influenced by heredity than were others.Social
potency and traditionalism had strong genetic components.Achievement and social
closeness had weak genetic components.
● Furthermore, it is increasingly clear that the roots of adult personality emerge in the
earliest periods of life. Infants are born with a specific temperament, an innate
disposition. Temperament encompasses several dimensions, including general
activity level and mood. For instance, some individuals are quite active, while others
are relatively calm. Similarly, some are relatively easygoing, while others are
irritable,easily upset, and difficult to soothe. Temperament is quite consistent, with
significant stability from infancy well into adolescence.

● ARE THERE SPECIFIC GENES FOR PERSONALITY?

➢ Genes predispose us to have certain personality traits.
➢ Those personality traits are associated with behavioral, cognitive, or emotional
tendencies, referred to as dispositions.
➢ Initial studies found evidence that genes can be linked with some specificity to
personality traits.
➢ Example,people with a longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be
thrill-seekers than those without such a gene. These thrill-seekers tend to be
extroverted, impulsive, quick-tempered, and always in search of excitement
and novel situations. Furthermore, the structure of their brains may reflect
their thrill-seeking tendencies.
➢ More important, genes interact with the environment. As we see in discussions
of the heritability of intelligence and nature–nurture issue, it is impossible to
completely divorce genetic factors from environmental factors. Although
studies of identical twins raised in different environments are helpful, they are
not definitive because it is impossible to assess and control environmental
factors fully. Furthermore, estimates of the influence of genetics are just
that—estimates—and apply to groups, not individuals.
➢ Finally, even if more genes are found to be linked to specific personality
characteristics, genes still cannot be viewed as the sole cause of personality.
For one thing, genetically determined characteristics may not be expressed if
they are not “turned on” by particular environmental experiences.
Conclusion and Evaluation:-

Although an increasing number of personality theorists are taking biological and

evolutionary factors into account, no comprehensive, unified theory that considers
biological and evolutionary factors is widely accepted. Still, it is clear that certain
personality traits have substantial genetic components and that heredity and
environment interact to determine personality

6. Humanistic Perspective

● Humanistic perspective - the “third force” in psychology that focuses on those aspects
of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and
freedom of choice.
● Developed as a reaction against the negativity of psychoanalysis and the deterministic
nature of behaviorism.
● Theories that emphasize people’s innate goodness and desire to achieve higher
levels of functioning.
● According to humanistic theorists, all the approaches to personality share a
fundamental misperception in their views of human nature.
● Humanistic Theories of personality emphasize personal responsibility and innate
tendencies toward personal growth.
● Instead of seeing people as controlled by unconscious, unseen forces (psychodynamic
approaches), a set of stable traits (trait approaches), situational reinforcements and
punishments (learning theory), or inherited factors (biological and evolutionary
approaches), humanistic approaches to personality emphasize people’s inherent
goodness and their tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning.
● It is this conscious, self-motivated ability to change and improve, along with
people’s unique creative impulses, that humanistic theorists argue make up the core of
personality.
● Humanistic Theories differ widely in the concepts on which they focus, but share the
following characteristics.
➢ First, they emphasize personal responsibility. Each of us, is largely
responsible for what happens to us. Our fate is mostly in our own hands; we
are not mere chips driven here and there by dark forces within our
personalities.
➢ Second, while these theories don’t deny the importance of past experience,
they generally focus on the present. True, we may be influenced by traumatic
events early in life. Yet these do not have to shape our entire adult lives, and
the capacity to overcome early troubles and to go on from there is both real
and powerful.
➢ Third, humanistic theories stress the importance of personal growth. Such
theories argue that people are not content with merely meeting their current
needs. They wish to progress toward “bigger” goals such as becoming the best
they can be. Only when obstacles interfere is the process of personal growth
interrupted.
As examples of humanistic theories, we’ll now consider the views proposed by Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow.
A. CARL ROGERS
 ● The major proponent of the humanistic point of view is Carl Rogers (1971).
● One central assumption of Rogers’s theory was that left to their own devices, human
beings show many positive characteristics and move, over the course of their lives,
toward becoming fully functioning persons.
● Rogers suggested that they are people who strive to experience life to the fullest, who
live in the here and now, and who trust their own feelings. They are sensitive to the
needs and rights of others, but do not allow society’s standards to shape their feelings
or actions to an excessive degree.
● Rogers focuses on the concept of Fully Functioning individuals.
Fully functioning persons are psychologically healthy persons who enjoy life to
the fullest.
● Rogers also gives his insight about self concept.
Self-Concept is all the information and beliefs individuals have about their own
characteristics and themselves. If all human beings possess the capacity to become
fully functioning persons, why don’t they all succeed? The answer, Rogers contends,
lies in the anxiety generated when life experiences are inconsistent with our ideas
about ourselves—in short, when a gap develops between our self-concept (our beliefs
and knowledge about ourselves) and reality or our perceptions of it.
● Rogers suggests that one way of overcoming the discrepancy between
experience and self-concept is through the receipt of unconditional positive
regard from another person—a friend, a spouse, or a therapist. Unconditional
positive regard refers to an attitude of acceptance and respect on the
observer’s part, no matter what a person says or does. This acceptance,
says Rogers, gives people the opportunity to evolve and grow both cognitively
and emotionally and to develop a more realistic self concepts.
● In contrast, conditional positive regard depends on your behavior. In such
cases, others withdraw their love and acceptance if you do something of which
they don’t approve. The result is a discrepancy between your true self and
what others wish you would be, which leads to anxiety and frustration.

B. ABRAHAM MASLOW
 ● Another influential humanistic theory of personality was proposed by Abraham
Maslow (1970).
● His concept of needs hierarchy, suggests that human needs exist in a hierarchy
ranging from physiological needs on the bottom through self-actualization needs at
the top. According to Maslow, lower-order needs must be satisfied before we can turn
to more complex, higher-order needs.
● The needs hierarchy, however, is only part of Maslow’s theory of personality. Maslow
has also devoted much attention to the study of people who, in his terms, are
psychologically healthy. These are individuals who have attained high levels of
self-actualization—a state in which people reach their fullest true potential,much like
the fully functioning persons described by Rogers. Self-actualized people accept
themselves for what they are; they recognize their shortcomings as well as their
strengths.
● Finally, self-actualized persons sometimes have what Maslow described as peak
experiences— instances in which they have powerful feelings of unity with the
universe and feel tremendous waves of power and wonder. Such experiences appear
to be linked to personal growth, for after them, people report feeling more
spontaneous, more appreciative of life, and less concerned with the problems of
everyday life.
● Examples of people Maslow describes as fully self-actualized are Thomas Jefferson,
Albert Einstein, and Eleanor Roosevelt.
Criticisms
Humanistic theories have also been subject to strong criticism.
● First, many psychologists are uncomfortable with the strong emphasis, in these
theories, on personal responsibility or free will. Humanistic theories propose that
individuals are responsible for their own actions and can change these if they wish to
do so. To an extent, this is certainly true. Yet this emphasis on free will conflicts with
determinism, the idea that behavior is determined by numerous factors and can be
predicted from them. Such determinism is one of the cornerstones of modern
scientific psychology.
● Second, many key concepts of humanistic theories are loosely defined. Until terms
like self-actualization, peak experience, fully functioning person are clearly defined, it
is difficult to conduct systematic research on them.
● Despite such criticisms, the impact of humanistic theories has persisted, and does
indeed constitute a lasting contribution to our understanding of human personality.

A summary of the multiple perspectives of personality.

Assessment of personality
Personality assessment refers to the set of techniques used by clinicians to develop
impressions and images of an individual's personality.
In order to assess personality, psychological tests are employed. Psychological tests are
standard measures devised to assess behavior objectively. Results derived from them are
used by psychologists to
help people make decisions about their
lives and understand more about
themselves.
Psychological tests need to have
a) Reliability - refers to a test’s measurement consistency. If a test is reliable, it yields the
same result each time it is administered to a
specific person or group.
b) Validity - refers to a test’s measurement of what it is designed to measure to draw
meaningful conclusions. If a test is constructed to measure sociability, we need to know that
it actually measures sociability and not some other trait.
c) Norms - psychological tests are based on norms, standards of test performance that
permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test with the scores of others
who have taken the same test.
Methods of personality assessment
Self-report measures refers to the method
of gathering data about people by
asking them questions about a sample of
their behavior.
Example -
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) A widely used
self-report test that identifies people with
psychological difficulties and is
 employed to predict a variety of everyday
behaviors.
The test consists of a series of 567 items to
which a person responds “true,” “false,”
or “cannot say.” The questions cover a
Self - report measures variety of issues ranging from mood to
opinions to physical and psychological
health.
There are no right or wrong answers.
Instead, interpretation of the results rests
on the pattern of response.
To construct this personality test
test standardization - a technique used to
validate questions in personality tests by
studying the responses of people with
known diagnoses.
Criticisms
● Social desirability is very high
● Acquiescence is very high

Projective personality test is a projective

method of testing in which a person is
shown an ambiguous stimulus and
asked to describe it or tell a story about
it.
Example -
Rorschach test was proposed by
Hermann Rorschach. The test involves
showing a series of symmetrical stimuli
(inkblots) to people who are then asked
what the figures represent to them. Their
responses are recorded, and people are
classified by their
personality type through a complex set of
clinical judgments.
Projective methods Example -
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
consists of a series of pictures on which a
person is asked to write a story. The stories
are then used to draw inferences about the
writer’s personality characteristics.
Criticisms
● Time consuming
● Subjective
● Scoring is difficult Administration
is difficult
● Inadequate reliability
Inadequate validity
● Requires trained professionals to
 conduct and interpret

Behavioral assessment refers to direct

measures of an individual’s behavior
used to describe personality
characteristics.
Behavioral assessment is based on the
principles of learning theory. It employs
direct measurement of an individual’s
behavior to determine characteristics
related to personality.
Example -
Interview
Series of questions are posed to obtain
information about the interviewee by the
interviewer.
Ex - Structured interviews,
Unstructured interviews, Semi
structured interviews
Behavioural rating scales
Behavioural assessment Purpose of the rating scales is to know
what kind of impression the person has
made upon the people who are observing
or rating. Ex - Numerical rating scale,
Forced choice rating scale
Criticisms
● Time consuming
● Expensive
● Inadequate reliability
Inadequate validity

Unit 4
States of Consciousness

Consciousness
What is consciousness?
The word "conscious" originally derived from the Latin "conscius" (con- "together" and
scio "to know"),
Consciousness can be defined as the awareness of our environment and our mental
process.
It involves the awareness of sensations, thoughts and feelings experienced at the moment .
Consciousness describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli.
Biological Body Rhythms
Biological Body Rhythms are regular fluctuations in our bodily process over time.
Example - Sleeping, walking, as well as
 Ultradian rhythms
Biological Body cycles that
occur more than once a day.
Example - Sleep, alertness
and hormone levels
Circadian rhythms Infradian rhythms
Circadian rhythms is Biological Body cycles that
derived from the 2 Latin take longer than 24 hours.
words 'circa' and 'diem' Example - women's menstrual
which means 'about' and cycles, breeding behavior
'day' and refer to biological
body processes that occur
about every 24 hours.
Example - Sleep, body
temperature, hormone
production, and blood
pressure, also follow
circadian rhythms.

The relative amount of light and darkness, which varies with the seasons of the year, also
plays a role in regulating circadian rhythm.
Example - Seasonal Affective Disorder.
Primary difference in Circadian rhythms is whether an individual experiences peak levels of
energy and psychological activation relatively early in the day or late in the day.
According to this division, people are labeled as a morning person or a night person.
The first cause of difficulties with respect to Circadian rhythms is jet lag which refers to the
adjustment of an individual's internal clock to the new location.
The second cause of difficulties with respect to Circadian rhythms is shift work which refers
to individuals working at times they would be asleep.
Altered States of Consciousness
Definition -
● Various states in which the mind can be aware but is not in its usual wakeful condition
● Form of consciousness in which a persons’ sense of self or sense of the world changes
● Altered states of consciousness include naturally occurring sleep and dreaming, as
well as hypnotic and drug-induced states.
The altered states of consciousness can be internal or external.
Internal Altered States of Consciousness are
1. Sleep
2. Dream
 3. Meditation
External Altered States of Consciousness are
1. Drugs
2. Hypnosis
Internal Altered States of Consciousness
1.Sleep
What is sleep?
Sleep is a process in which important physiological changes (Ex: shifts in brain activity,
slowing of basic bodily functions) are accompanied by major shifts in consciousness.
The brain is active throughout the night, and sleep proceeds through a series of stages
identified by unique patterns of brain waves.
Sleep theories
Adaptive theory Conservation theory Restorative theory Clean-up theory

Suggests that periods The primary function Sleep is essential for The brain cleans itself
of activity and of sleep is to reduce restoring the while we are asleep.
inactivity evolved as an individual's energy physiological That means that we
a means of demand and processes that keep sleep so that the brain
conserving energy. expenditure during the body and mind can get rid of the waste
All species have part of the day or healthy and properly that includes toxins and
adapted to sleep night. functioning. other waste produced
during periods of during the day.
time when
wakefulness would
be the most
hazardous.

Sleep is follows an Ultradian rhythm and a Circadian rhythm that is defined by brain wave
patterns.
These brain patterns are measured by EEG (Electroencephalography)
Brain waves vary depending on the state of consciousness, that is, awake, relaxed or
sleeping
Types of brain wave patterns
Beta Short and quick (quick/alert)

Alpha Slower than Beta (relaxed/drowsy)

Theta Slower than Alpha (light sleep)

Delta Slowest pattern (deep sleep)

Stages of sleep
Alpha wave period
State characterized by drowsiness with closed eyes, but still in the awake state but relaxed.
 I
stage 1 sleep
(non-rem sleep or NREM)
The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid,
low-amplitude brain waves.
During stage 1, images sometimes appear, as if we were viewing still photos, although this is
not true dreaming.
I
stage 2 sleep
(non-rem sleep or NREM)
A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern,
along with momentary interruptions of “sleep
spindles.
It becomes increasingly difficult to awaken a person from sleep as stage 2 progresses.
I
stage 3 sleep
(non-rem sleep or NREM)
A sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern
than in stage 2 sleep.
I
stage 4 sleep
(non-rem sleep or NREM)
The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation.
I
REM sleep plays a critical role in everyday
human functioning. Also plays a role in learning and memory.

Although some dreaming occurs in non-REM stages of sleep, dreams are most likely to occur
in the REM period, where they are the most vivid and easily remembered.
Importance of sleep
● Learning and memory - Sleep helps the brain commit new information to memory.
● Metabolism and weight - sleep deprivation may cause weight gain by affecting the
way our bodies process and store carbohydrates, and by altering levels of hormones
that affect our appetite.
● Safety - Sleep debt contributes to a greater tendency to fall asleep during the daytime.
These lapses may cause falls and mistakes such as medical errors, air traffic mishaps,
and road accidents.
● Cardiovascular health - Serious sleep disorders have been linked to hypertension,
increased stress hormone levels, and irregular heartbeat.
● Disease - Sleep deprivation alters immune function, including the activity of the
body's killer cells.
● Mood - Sleep loss may result in irritability, impatience, inability to concentrate, and
moodiness, as well as contribute to fatigue.
Sleep disorders
● Insomnia
Most common, inability to fall asleep or maintain sleep once it is attained.
● REM sleep behaviour disorder
RBD is characterized by the acting out of dreams that are vivid, intense, and violent.
● Somnambulism
Dramatic sleep disorder in which individuals get up and move about while still asleep.
● Night terrors
Extremely frightful dream like experiences that occur during the non - REM sleep.
● Apnea
Disturbing type of sleep disorder in which sleepers stop breathing several times each
night and wake up.
● Hypersomnias
Disorder that involves excessive amounts of sleep or an overwhelming urge to fall
asleep.
● Narcolepsy
Disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a
person is awake.
Answer the following question (10 marks each)
1)How does sleep behaviour look like? How is it structured?
Sleep is a process where important physiological changes are accompanied by major shifts in
consciousness. Sleep comes under circadian rhythm of the body which also responsible for
how we function. There are various theories defining the possibility of our sleep ranging from
to get away from problems to replenish body functions and parts. Our sleep behaviour is
defined by brain wave patterns and these are determined by the state of consciousness we are
in, like awake, relaxed, sleeping. There are 4 different types of brain waves. They are
● Beta – these waves are short & quick. Represents awake or alert stage.
● Alpha – these waves are slower than beta and usually represent drowsy or relaxed
stage.
● Theta – these are slower than alpha waves and represents a stage where the person is
in light sleep. Usually it is after this waves that a person goes into deep sleep.
● Delta – these waves are slowest in pattern.

According to researchers our sleep behaviour takes place in five stages. It includes REM and
NREM stages. REM stands for rapid eye movement. It is structured in a way that includes 4
stages of NREM sleep and 1 stage of REM sleep.
Our sleep begins with alpha waves which appear when we are drowsy but awake, our eyes
are closed and relaxed. Then the NERM stage one starts, here there is a transition of
consciousness from wakefulness to sleep. In this stage theta waves appear indicating the light
sleep. Next comes NREM stage 2 where sleep spindles occur – chemicals are released
inducing relaxation of muscles. In the next NREM stage 3 delta waves appear and in stage
NREM stage 4 the person is in deep sleep. After the NREM stages there come REM stage
where the whole cycle takes place in a reverse order that means the person goes through stage
4 and then 3 and 2 but does not go to stage 1 rather comes back to REM stage. Delta waves
are a part of the stages 3,4 & 5. It should also be noted that each cycle lasts for 90minutes and
an individual is said to have 5 complete cycles in an 8-hour sleep.
2) Why do we sleep? And what happens if we don't?
3) Why do we dream? give reasons.
4) Can we extract any meaning from our dreams? Substantiate using a dream theory.
5) Explain the different theories of dreams .
2. Dreams
Daydreams are fantasies that people construct while awake.
Day dreams are more under people's control, unlike dreams that occur during sleep. The brain
is active during daydreaming and these dreams are a typical part of waking consciousness.
The content of daydreams is more closely related to the immediate events in the
environment.

Using psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud

Unconscious wish fulfillment theory
Psychoanalytic explanation
viewed dreams as a guide to the unconscious.
He proposed the unconscious wish
fulfillment theory in his book
'Interpretation of dreams' that stated that
dreams represent unconscious wishes that
dreamers desire to fulfill. Further, two types
of dream content were introduced - latent
content of dreams, which according to Freud
have 'disguised' meanings of dreams that
are hidden by more obvious subjects and
manifest content of dreams, which
according to Freud is the apparent story line
of dreams. Associating symbols in the
dreams with events in the past was the
technique employed by Frued.
Example - According to Freud, dreams in
which a person is flying symbolize a wish for
sexual intercourse, similarly apple, peaches,
grapefruit symbolized breasts and bullets,
knives, snakes and sticks symbolized male
sex organs.
The belief that dreams typically represent
unconscious wishes and that particular objects
and events in a dream are symbolic put by
Freud was rejected as it was believed that

Dreams for survival theory
(Information processing theory)
Evolutionary explanation
Activation synthesis theory of dreams
Neuroscience explanation
direct, overt action of a dream is the focal
point of its meaning.
The dreams-for-survival theory, grounded in
an evolutionary perspective, suggests that
information relevant to daily survival is
reconsidered and reprocessed in dreams.
According to this theory, dreams represent
concerns about our daily lives, illustrating our
uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires.
Rather than being disguised wishes, as Freud
suggested, they represent key concerns
growing out of our daily experiences.
Example - rats seem to dream about mazes
that they learned to run through during the
day,
J. Allan Hobson proposed the
activation-synthesis theory of dreams,
Taking a neuroscience approach, proposes
that dreams are a result of random electrical
energy during REM sleep that stimulates
different memories, which then are woven
into a coherent story line.
Activation-synthesis theory has been refined
by the activation information modulation
(AIM) theory. According to AIM, dreams are
initiated in the brain’s pons, which sends
random signals to the cortex.
Example - areas of the brain related to vision
are involved in the visual aspects of the
dream, while areas of the brain related to
movement are involved in aspects of the
dream related to motion.
Activation - synthesis theory and Aim theory
suggest that the particular scenario a dreamer
produces is not random but instead is a clue to
the dreamer’s fears, emotions, and concerns.
Crick and Mitchinson proposed the mental
garbage theory.
Suggests that we dream to get rid of
undesirable connections and associations that
build up in our brains throughout the day.
 Basically, dreams are garbage collection
Mental garbage theory mechanisms, clearing our minds of useless
(Housekeeping hypothesis) thoughts and making way for better ones.
Essentially, we dream in order to forget.

Psychologist R. Cartwright proposed the

Problem solving theory
problem solving theory.
Dreams reflect emotional preoccupations of
waking life—relationships, sex, work, health.
Images in a dream are sometimes symbols for
things in everyday life. This theory agrees
with Freud that dreams contain symbols, but
there is no “latent” (unconscious) meaning.

dreams as wish fulfillment The manifest content of dreams disguises the latent
Sigmund Frued content of the dreams.

dreams-for-survival theory Dreams permit important information to be

reprocessed during sleep.

activation-synthesis theory Electrical energy stimulates random memories,

J. Allan Hobson which are woven together to produce dreams.

3. Meditation
The word Meditation is derived from a Latin word 'meditatio' which means 'to think'
Meditation refers to a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered
state of consciousness.
Meditation can be in the form of
- repetition of a mantra (a sound ,word or a syllable).
- Sitting in a room with eyes closed , breathing deeply and rhythmically.
- Focus on a picture,flame or a specific part of the body.
During meditation, oxygen usage decreases, heart rate and blood pressure declines and brain
patterns change.
Two types of meditation:
● In non-directive types of meditation, people focus on their breathing or a sound, but
also allow their mind to wander where it will.
● In concentrative types of meditation, people try to focus closely on their breath, or
something else, in order to suppress other thoughts and feelings they experience.
Benefits of meditation:
● Feeling of thorough relaxation
● Gaining of new insights into the past problems
● Reduces Stress
● Controls Anxiety
● Promotes emotional health
 ● Enhances Self-Awareness
● Lengthens Attention Span
● Improves Sleep
External Altered States of Consciousness
1. Hypnosis
Hypnosis refers to a trance-like state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.
There are a wide variations in people's susceptibility to hypnosis. About 5% to 20% of the
population cannot be hypnotized at all, and around 15% are easily hypnotized.
How is someone hypnotized?
There are a series of four steps involved in the process of hypnosis.
1. The person is made comfortable in a quiet environment.
2. Hypnotist explains what is going to happen, such as telling the person about the
experience of a pleasant, relaxed state.
3. The person is asked to concentrate on a specific object or image. The person is then
asked to concentrate on their body parts
4. By now the person is in a highly relaxed state. He then listens to the instructions given
by the hypnotist and begins to experience the same.
Hypnosis, A different state of consciousness?
This question is controversial.
FOR! (Yes, it is a different state of consciousness)
● High suggestibility, increase the ability to recall and construct images, and acceptance
of suggestions that contradicts reality.
● Changes in the electric activities in the brain are associated with hypnosis.
● According to a famed hypnosis researcher Ernest Hilgard, hypnosis represents a
state of divided consciousness and brings about dissociation of consciousness into
two simultaneous component.
1. Hypnotized people follow the commands of the hypnotist.
2. They act as hidden observers, aware of what is happening to them.
AGAINST!
● Brain wave patterns are not sufficient to demonstrate a qualitative difference, as there
is no psychological changes occuring when people are in trance.
People who are hypnotized can not be made to perform self destructive acts.
Hypnosis used as an effective tool to solve various problems like:
● Controlling pain
● Reducing smoking
● Treating psychological disorders
● Assisting in law enforcement
● Improvement in athletic performance

2.Drugs
External stimuli may influence a person’s consciousness in many ways. The usage of drugs
causes a person to be in an altered state of consciousness falls in the category of external
influences.
● Drugs: Chemical compounds that change the functioning of biological systems.
 ● Physiological dependence, occurs when the need for the drug is based on organic
factors, such as changes in metabolism. This type of dependence is what is usually
meant by the term drug addiction.
● However, people can also develop psychological dependence, in which they
experience strong desires to continue using the drug even though, physiologically,
their bodies do not need it.
● Continued use of a drug over a prolonged period of time often leads to drug
tolerance—a physiological reaction in which the body requires larger and larger
doses in order to experience the same effects.
● Drugs of one sort or another are a part of almost everyone’s life. From infancy on,
most people take vitamins, aspirin, cold-relief medicine. However, these drugs rarely
produce an altered state of consciousness.
● When people consume consciousness-altering drugs on a regular basis, they often
develop dependence—they come to need the drug and cannot function without it.
Types of drugs
1.Hallucinogens
● A drug that is capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual
process.
● Alters the perceptions of reality & causes other perceptual distortions.
withdrawal symptoms- the unpleasant physical reaction that accompanies the process of
ceasing to take an addictive drug.
Name of Drug 1.Marijuana 2. MDMA 3.LSD

Also known as Cannabis, Hash Oil, Ecstasy Acid, microdot,

white lightning

Effects Euphoria, relaxed Heightened sense of Heightened aesthetic

inhibitions, oneself and insight, responses; vision
increased appetite, feelings of peace, and depth
disoriented behavior empathy, energy distortion;
Moderate arousal heightened
Increased intensity sensitivity to faces
of various stimuli and gestures;
Distortions in sense magnified feelings;
of time Diminished paranoia, panic,
ability to judge euphoria
distances For some Profound changes in
people, feelings of perceptions
increased sexual Blending of sensory
pleasure and experiences Sense of
relaxation menace in ordinary
situations Effects
that vary greatly
within and among
individuals
Withdrawal Hyperactivity, Depression, anxiety, - - -
Symptoms insomnia, decreased sleeplessness
appetite, anxiety

Overdose Reaction Severe reactions Increase in body Nausea and chills;

rare but include temperature, increased pulse,
panic, paranoia, memory difficulties temperature, and
fatigue, bizarre and blood pressure;
dangerous behavior, slow, deep
decreased breathing; loss of
testosterone over appetite; insomnia;
long-term; immune bizarre, dangerous
system effects behavior

2.Narcotics - Drugs that increase relaxation, relieve pain and anxiety and induce sleep.
Morphine is produced from opium, while heroin is obtained from morphine.

Name of Drug 1.Heroin 2. Morphine 3.Oxycodone

Also known as H,dope, hombre, Drugstore dope, Oxy, OC,

cube, first line,

Effects Anxiety and pain reduction, apathy, Pain reduction,

difficulty in concentration shallow breathing,
slowed speech, decreased physical activity, slow heartbeat,
drooling, itching, euphoria, nausea seizure
Intensified pleasurable sensations (convulsions); cold,
Powerful Addiction clammy skin;
confusion

Withdrawal Anxiety, vomiting, sneezing, diarrhea, Sweating, chills,

Symptoms lower back pain, watery eyes, abdominal cramps,
Runny nose, yawning, irritability, tremors, insomnia, vomiting,
panic, chills and sweating, cramps diarrhea

Overdose Reaction Depressed levels of consciousness, low Extreme drowsiness,

blood pressure, rapid heart rate, shallow muscle weakness,
breathing, convulsions, coma, possible confusion, cold and
death clammy skin,
pinpoint pupils,
shallow breathing,
slow heart rate,
fainting, or coma

3. Depressants
● Drugs that slow down the nervous system.
● Drugs that reduce both behavioral output and activity in the central
nervous system and therefore slow many bodily and cognitive
 processes.
● Also called “downers”

Name of Drug 1.Alcohol 2. Barbiturates 3.Rohynol

Also known as Booze Nembutal,Seconal, Roofies, rope,

Phenobarbital “date-rape drug”

Effects Anxiety reduction, Reduced mental Muscle relaxation,

impulsiveness, alertness; confusion; amnesia, sleep
dramatic mood euphoria; memory
swings, bizarre lapses; suppression
thoughts, suicidal of REM sleep
behavior, slurred
speech,
disorientation,
slowed mental and
physical
functioning, limited
attention span
Deadening of pain
Reduced
coordination
Interference with
normal functioning
of senses Reduced
social inhibitions

Withdrawal Weakness, restlessness, nausea and Seizures

Symptoms vomiting, headaches, nightmares,
irritability, depression, acute anxiety,
hallucinations, seizures, possible death

Overdose Reaction Confusion, decreased response to pain, Seizures, coma,

shallow respiration, dilated pupils, weak incapacitation,
and rapid pulse, coma, possible death inability to resist
sexual assault

4. Stimulants
● Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system,
causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.
● increases the functioning/activity of the central nervous system

Name of Drug 1.Amphetamines: 2. Cocaine and 3.Caffeine:

 derivatives:

Also known as Benzedrine Coke, blow, crack -----------

,Dexedrine,Speed

Effects Elevation of blood Feelings of Mild feelings of

pressure, heart rate, tremendous power increased alertness,
respiration Feelings and energy Intense Mild diuretic effect
of alertness and pleasure (increased
energy, followed by Psychological urination)
depression as effects dependence
wear off Powerful addiction

Increased confidence, mood elevation, ----------------

sense of energy and alertness, decreased
appetite, anxiety, irritability, insomnia,
transient drowsiness, delayed orgasm.

Withdrawal Apathy, general fatigue, prolonged sleep, Headaches,Sleepines

Symptoms depression, disorientation, suicidal s,Irritability,Lethar
thoughts, agitated motor activity, gy.Constipation,Dep
irritability, bizarre dreams ression,Muscle Pain,
Stiffness,
Cramping,Lack of
Concentration.

Overdose Reaction Elevated blood pressure, increase in body including irregular

temperature, face picking, suspiciousness, heartbeat and
bizarre and repetitive behavior, vivid seizures,hormonal
hallucinations, convulsions, possible death imbalances.

Unit 5
Motivation and Emotion
Motivation and its theories

What is motivation?
Motivation is derived from the Latin
word ‘movere’, referring to movement of
activity. It is the process of stimulating people to accomplish the goals.
"The factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms”
Psychologists define motivation as the "process by which activities are started, directed, and
sustained so that certain needs are met, either psychological or physical."
Three components of motivation -
Activation Persistence Intensity
1. Activation
Activation involves the decision to do a behavior or action
2. Persistence
Persistence is where we continue to strive for a goal even when there are obstacles or
challenges standing in our way to reach that goal. Persistence involves using a great deal of
our time, energy, and resources in order to overcome the obstacles and achieve the goal we
want to achieve.
3. Intensity
Intensity is where you put in the concentration and vigor to achieve your goals.
Motivational Cycle

Psychologists now use the concept of need to describe the motivational properties of
behaviour. A need is lack or deficit of some necessity. The condition of need leads to drive.
Drive is the motivational tension that energizes behavior to fulfi ll a need. It energises
random activity. When one of the random activities leads to a goal, it reduces the drive, and
the organism stops being active. The organism returns to a balanced state (Homeostasis) .
Thus, the motivational cycle takes place.

Motivation is influenced by -
a) Biological motives
Focuses on innate, biological causes for motivation.
Hunger
Thirst
Sex
b) Psychosocial motives
Focuses on psychological and social factors and how they interact with each other to produce
motivation.
Need for affiliation
Need for power
 Need for achievement
Curiosity and Exploration

Theories of motivation

Instinct Theory
Instinct refers to “inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather
than learned”
Instinct approach is primarily biologically based and gives emphasis on the statement -
Born to be motivated.
According to this theory, people and animals are born pre-programmed with sets of
behaviours essential for their survival. The instincts provides energy to channel behavior in
appropriate direction. It states that instincts drive all behaviors.
William McDougall was one of the first psychologists to write about Instinct Theory. He
outlined 18 different Instincts.
Sigmund Frued broadly classified Instincts into two categories - Life and death Instincts.
He says that sex and aggression motivates behaviour.
Criticisms :
● Instincts can't explain all behaviors
● Instincts are not something that can be readily observed and scientifically tested
 ● Many animal behaviors are instinctual, the same does not necessarily hold true for
humans.
Drive reduction Theory
Drive refers to "the motivational tension or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a
need."
This approach suggests that lack of a basic biological requirements produces a drive to
obtain that requirement.

Drive
Primary Secondary
Biological needs. Learned needs.
Hunger Academics
Sex Achievements
Thirst Careers
Sleep Professional
The Drive reduction Theory was developed by Clark Hull.
According to the theory, the reduction of drives is the primary force behind motivation.
This theory is based on the concept of 'Homeostasis', which refers to the body’s tendency to
maintain a steady internal state.A series of feedback loops is used to regulate body
functions.
Drive reduction approach is primarily biologically based and gives emphasis on the
statement - Satisfying one's needs.
In this theory, Hull used the term drive to refer to the biological needs that direct our
behaviors.
He suggested that humans and animals will repeat any behavior that reduces these drives.
How does it work?
Unsatisfied need - increases the drive, takes the body away from homeostatis
Satisfied need - reduces the drive and returns the body to homeostasis.
Drive reduction Theory explains 'Motivational Push'.
Criticisms :
● Failure to explain human motivation
● Overly complex
● Lacks generalizability
● Does not account for secondary drives
Arousal Theory
The arousal theory attempts to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase
excitement.
Arousal with drive-reduction theory share some commonalities, but arousal theory is beyond
drive reduction Theory as instead of focusing on reducing tension, it suggests that we are
motivated to maintain an ideal level of arousal.
As per the theory, too much excitement (high levels of arousal) or too little excitement ( low
levels of arousal), individuals try to reach a balance by seeking stimulation.
Optimal arousal levels vary from person to person.
Examples of people needing high level arousal
 - Daredevil sports participants
- High-skates gamblers
- Criminals
Criticisms :
● Fails to explain human motivation
● Does not account for complex social needs
Incentive Theory
Incentive theory instead suggests that we are pulled into action by outside incentives. In
other words, our behaviors are dictated by desires for external rewards.
Similar to operant conditioning, incentive theory states that actions are performed in order
to gain rewards.
Unlike biologically based theories and their internal needs, incentive theory is derived from
from the learning theory and is primarily based on external stimuli (incentives).
Incentive theory explains 'Motivational pull'
Criticisms :
● Fails to explain non incentive driven motivational behaviors
● Fails to explain motivational behaviors driven despite the lack of incentives
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Theory explains motivation as the product of people's cognitions, that is, their
thoughts, expectations, and goals.
Draws a distinction between two types of motivation -
Intrinsic Extrinsic

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the Extrinsic motivation comes from outside the
individual. individual.

The aim of intrinsic motivation is personal The aim of extrinsic motivation is validation.
gratification.

Drive reduction Theory is based on intrinsic Incentive Theory is based on extrinsic

motivation. motivation.

Ex Completing a task one finds challenging. Ex Receiving a good grade.

Cognitive approach is primarily based on the thoughts behind the motivation.
The cognitive Theory of motivation includes the (a) Expectancy Theory
(b) Goal-Setting Theory.
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains why and how an individual chooses one
behavioural option over others. On the other hand, the Goal-Setting Theory states the
importance of creating goals in motivating a person.
Criticisms :
● Fails to explain human motivation
● Not need-based
● Extreme emphasis on cognitive processes alone
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs is the best known need-based theory of motivation.
Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his paper "A Theory of
Human Motivation"
This hierarchy suggests that people fulfill the highest levels of
motivational needs starting with the basic needs before moving on to other, the higher-
order needs.
Importance of the theory :
● Highlight the complexity of basic needs
● Emphasizes the idea that until more basic needs are met ,people will be relatively
unconcerned with higher needs.
This hierarchy of needs can be illustrated with a pyramid.
1. Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, etc.
3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust and
acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love, affiliation to a group (family, friends,
work).
4. Esteem needs - classified into 2 categories (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement,
mastery, independence) (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status,
prestige).
5. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences.
Self-actualization is a state of
self-fulfi llment in which people realize their highest potentials in their own unique way.
E. Deci and R. Ryan (2008) have considered human needs in terms of psychological
well-being. They suggest in their self-determination theory that people have the three basic
needs -
- Competence - need to produce desired outcomes
- Autonomy - perception that we have control over our own lives
- Relatedness - need to be involved in close, warm relationships with others.
Characteristics of self-actualizers:
1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are
3. Spontaneous in thought and action
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered)
5. Unusual sense of humor
6. Able to look at life objectively
7. Highly creative
8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional
9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity
10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people
12. Peak experiences
13. Need for privacy
14. Democratic attitudes
15. Strong moral/ethical standards.
Criticisms :
● Needs from all levels can co-exist; the theory stresses much on the
upward movement only.
● Every individual has his own ordering of his need satisfaction.
● Lack of direct cause and effect relationship between need and behaviour.
● Need and satisfaction of needs are psychological feelings ; people might not be aware
of it.
● Scientific testing and measurement of the theory made difficult.
Motivation Theory Brief

People and animals are born with

Instinct Theory preprogrammed sets of behaviors
essential to their survival.

When some basic biological

Drive reduction Theory requirement is lacking, a drive is
produced.

People seek an optimal level of stimulation. If

the level of stimulation is too high, they act to
Arousal Theory reduce it; if it is too low, they act to increase
it.

Incentive Theory External stimuli direct and energize

behavior.

Thoughts, expectations, and understanding of

Cognitive Theory the world direct motivation.

Needs form a hierarchy; before higher-order

Hierarchy of needs needs are met, lower-
order needs must be fulfilled.
 Two types of motivation
Physiological motivation Psychosocial motivation

Also known as Biological motivation Also known as Psychosocial motivation

Also known as Primary motivation Also known as secondary motivation

Hunger Affiliation
Thirst Achievement
Sex Power
Sleep Career
Maternal drive Parenting

Hunger Motivation and Eating Disorders

Hunger
Hunger is the feeling of discomfort or weakness caused by lack of food, coupled with the
desire to eat.
Hunger is affected by a) Physiological factors b) Social factors
Psychosocial factors :
● Cannon and Washburn proposed the 'Contraction Theory' which states that
hunger is due to stomach contractions. This theory was opposed by individuals
having feelings of hunger despite the absence of stomach.
● Jean Mayer proposed the 'Glucose theory' which states that hunger is due to low
blood glucose level.
The Glucose Theory is based on the changes in the chemical composition of blood.
By focusing on the levels of glucose (a kind of sugar) and the hormone insulin ( that
regulates glucose levels), this theory explains the process of hunger.
Insulin - > reduces glucose level in bloodstream - > increases hunger
Glucagon - > increases glucose level in bloodstream - > decreases
● Role of Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus primarily monitors food intake by monitoring glucose levels.
Injury to the hypothalamus, depending on the site of injury, results in radical
consequences for eating behaviors.
Damage to Lateral Hypothalamus - > no appetite - > starvation - >
weight loss
(Anorexia Nervosa)
Damage to Ventromedial Hypothalamus - > no end to eating - > weight gain
(Bulimia Nervosa)
Injury to hypothalamus affects the weight set point which is the particular level of
weight that the body strives to Maintain .
● Weight set point
The particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain.
Factors that affect this set point -
 a) Metabolism
The rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by
the body.
b) Environmental changes
c) Activities
d) Emotional states

Eating disorders
ANOREXIA NERVOSA
The word Anorexia literally means "lack of appetite induced by nervousness".
ANOREXIA, an eating disorder causing people to obsess about weight and what they eat,
they refuse to eat a minimal amount of food fearing about the weight gain. It is characterised
by a distorted body image, with an unwarranted fear of being overweight.
Causes:
- Chemical imbalance in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, brought on by
genetic factors.
- Society's valuation of slenderness and the parallel notion that obesity is undesirable.
Characteristics:
● They must have lost around 80-85% of their original weight inorder to be diagnosed
as an Anorexic.
● Despite looking skeleton-like to others, they see themselves as overweight.
● Avoidance of occasions that are associated with eating (party, wedding,etc)
● Being evasive about their eating habits.
● Obsessed with physical exercises, they tend to over do it.
● Obsessed with drinking water. They live on water.
● In women , menstrual cycles become highly irregular due to lack of nutrition.
● High risk of cardiac arrest.
● Psychological effect: anxiety,guilt, mood swings and low self esteem.
Treatments:
● Intense psychotherapy
● Well planned nutrition diet.
● Medications : Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) and Antipsychotic.
BULIMIA NERVOSA
BULIMIA nervosa, a disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed
by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means by using laxatives and
medicines.
BINGE EATING + PURGING.
In other words, Individuals with bulimia fear weight gain and typically believe they have to
undo or compensate for the binge episode, so they purge what they consumed by inducing
vomiting.
Causes:
- Chemical imbalance in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, brought on by
genetic factors.
- Society's valuation of slenderness and the parallel notion that obesity is undesirable.
 Characteristics:
● episodes of binge eating with a sense of lack of control occurring at least twice per
week for at least three months.
● self-evaluation that is unduly influenced by body shape and weight.
● Feeling of dehydration, fatigue, food aversion, hunger, or water-electrolyte imbalance.
● Suffer from bad breath, dental cavities, or dryness.
● In women , menstrual cycles become highly irregular due to lack of nutrition.
● Psychological effect: anxiety,guilt, mood swings and low self esteem.
Treatments:
● Intense psychotherapy
● Well planned nutrition diet.
Medications : Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) and Antipsychotic.
OBESITY
Obesity, A disorder involving excessive body fat that increases the risk of health problems.
The body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a particular
height.
The most common and widely used measure of obesity is the body mass index (BMI), it is
based on the ratio of weight to height.
symptoms:
● breathlessness
● increased sweating
● snoring
● inability to cope with sudden physical activity
● feeling very tired every day
● back and joint pains
● low confidence and self esteem
● feeling isolated
Causes:
● Genetics. Your genes may affect the amount of body fat you store, and where that fat
is distributed.
● Family lifestyle.
● Quitting smoking.
● Pregnancy
● Inactivity.
● Unhealthy diet.
● Medical problems.
● Certain medications.
● Social and economic
● Lack of sleep and stress
● Liquid calories,People can drink many calories without feeling full, especially
calories from alcohol.
Risks:
● Heart disease and strokes
 ● Type 2 diabetes
● Certain cancers.
● Sleep apnea
● Digestive problems
● Gynecological and sexual problems.

Sexual Motivation
Disclaimer: All points under this topic might not be necessary. Study whatever
you think is important under your own risk/ ask your friends from other
psychology classes what is actually coming from this topic. The syllabus is not
clear about the subtopics and no one remembers this topic being taught in class.
● Sexual Motivation is the most intimate motive. Any individual’s sexual motivation
results from a combination of physiological and social influences. It is defined as the
motivation to engage in various forms of sexual activity.
● In the basics of biology we learn about the primary sex glands or Gonads. The onset
of puberty involves rapid increases in the activity of these sex glands. The hormones
produced by these glands have many effects on the body and in many species they
strongly affect sexual motivation.
● In males, the testes begin to secrete androgens, male sex hormones, at puberty. Not
only do androgens produce secondary sex characteristics, such as the growth of body
hair and a deepening of the voice, they also increase the sex drive. Because the level
of androgen production by the testes is fairly constant, men are capable of sexual
activities without any regard to biological cycles. Given the proper stimuli leading to
arousal, male sexual behavior can occur at any time (Goldstein, 2000).
● Women show a different pattern. When they reach maturity at puberty, the two ovaries
begin to produce estrogens and progesterone, female sex hormones. However, those
hormones are not produced consistently; instead, their production follows a cyclical
pattern. The greatest output occurs during ovulation, when an egg is released from the
ovaries, making the chances of fertilization by a sperm cell highest.
● Areas of the body, called erogenous zones, that have an unusually rich array of nerve
receptors are particularly sensitive not just to sexual touch but to any kind of touch.
● Genitals -The male and female sex organs.
Androgens- Male sex hormones secreted by the testes.
Estrogens- Class of female sex hormones.
Progesterone- A female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries. Ovulation- The point
at which an egg is released from the ovaries.
Erogenous zones- Areas of the body that are particularly sensitive because of the
presence of an unusually rich array of nerve receptors.
● Sex hormones exert what are usualy termed as activation effects . In their presence
sexual behaviour occurs, while in their absence sexual behaviour does not occur or
takes place with very low frequency. For example, in rats, females show receptivity
 to males only at times during their menstrual cycle when concentrations of certain sex
hormones are high. Once these levels drop—regardless of whether mating has
resulted in fertilization—females are no longer receptive.
● The cognitive processes accompanying sexual motivation has been described as
sexual scripts, mental representations of ways in which sexual behaviours should be
enacted.

● SEXUAL ORIENTATION
➢ Gender- The perception of being male or female.It is the sense of maleness or
femaleness related to our membership in a given society.
➢ Sex -Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior.
➢ Homosexual (Sexual Orientation): A sexual orientation in which individuals
prefer sexual relations with members of their own sex.
➢ Bisexual (Sexual Orientation): A sexual orientation in which individuals seek
and enjoy sexual contact with members of both sexes.
➢ Heterosexual (Sexual Orientation): A sexual orientation in which individuals
prefer sexual relations with members of the opposite sex.

● Research about sexuality and sexual behaviour

Until the 1960s the only source of scientific information about human sexual motivation was
that provided by surveys: Large samples of individuals were simply asked to report on their
sexual behavior and experiences .
● Starting in the 1960s, however, another source of information about human sexual
motivation became available: direct and systematic observation of actual sexual
activities. The first and still the most famous project of this kind was conducted by
Masters and Johnson in the mid-1960s (Masters & Johnson, 1966).
● These researchers observed and recorded the reactions of several hundred volunteers
of both sexes as they engaged in sexual intercourse or masturbation. More than ten
thousand cycles of arousal and satisfaction were studied. The results yielded
important insights into the nature of human sexuality. Perhaps the clearest finding was
the fact that both males and females move through four distinct phases during sexual
behavior.

● What are the major phases of sexual activity?

The four phases of sexual response are
1. Excitement Phase: The period in which an arousing stimulus begins a
sequence that prepares the genitals for sexual intercourse. During this phase,
many physiological changes indicative of growing sexual excitement occur.
Muscle tension, respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure all rise to high
levels. If sexual stimulation persists, both women and men enter the plateau
phase.
 2. Plateau Phase :The period in which the maximum level of arousal is attained,
the penis and clitoris swell with blood, and the body prepares for orgasm.
3. Orgasmic Phase: The peak of sexual excitement, during which rhythmic
muscular contractions occur in the genitals.
4. Resolution Phase:The interval after orgasm in which the body returns to its
unaroused state, reversing the changes brought about by arousal.
Refractory Period A temporary period that follows the resolution stage and
during which the male cannot develop an erection again.

Emotion and its theories

EMOTIONS
The word 'emotion' Is derived from a Latin word 'emovere' which means 'to set in motion.'
Emotions refers to feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements
and that influence behavior.
Important functions of emotions -
a) Preparing us for action
Emotions act as a link between events in our environment and our responses.
Ex - 'Fight or Flight response' when encountered with danger.
b) Shaping our future behavior
Promote learning that will help us make appropriate responses in the future.
Ex - Avoidance of unpleasant events.
c) Effective interaction with others
Emotions are communicated through verbal and non-verbal behaviours. Emotions
when expressed can be understood by observers and help in predicting upcoming
behaviors.

THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
 Common sense view Stimulus > Emotion > Arousal
Perception of the angry bull → Feeling of fear →
Physiological reactions

James - Lang theory Stimulus > Arousal > Emotion

Perception of the angry bull → Physiological
reactions → Feeling of fear

Cannon - Bard Theory Stimulus > Emotion & Arousal

Schachter - Singer Stimulus > Arousal > Cognition > Emotion

Two Factor Theory
1. JAMES LANG THEORY OF EMOTION
American psychologist William James and Danish physiologist Carl Lange
independently proposed the oldest theories of emotion at approximately the same
time. Their two theories were later combined into what is presently known as the
James Lange Theory of Emotion.
The James Lange theory of emotion states that emotion is equivalent to the range of
physiological arousal caused by external events.
In other words, this theory proposes that people have a physiological response to
environmental stimuli and that their interpretation of that physical response then
results in an emotional experience.
James and Lang were of the firm opinion that physical reactions that include bodily
responses such as increased respiration, increased heart rate, or sweaty hands
needs to be present in order to actually experience the real emotions. Further, they
suggested that every major emotion is accompanied by physiological or gut reaction
of internal organs and called it Visceral experience.
(Activation of Visceral bodily changes - > Brain
interprets Visceral changes as emotional experience)
Example
Sarah is being followed late at night and her heart begins to race. According to James
- Lang theory, Sarah interpreted her physical responses to the stimulus as fear.
Criticisms
● Arousal or physiological reaction does not guarantee emotion.
Ex - Jogging
● Arousal or physiological reaction may not precede emotion.
● Arousal or physiological reaction is not necessarily for emotion.
● The stimulus and emotion occur simultaneously.
● Identical or similar responses are associated with several different emotions.
● Limited range of physiological reactions cannot explain complex emotions.

1. CANNON-BARD THEORY OF EMOTION

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion was developed by Walter Cannon and Philip
Bard as a response to the James-Lange theory of emotion. According to Cannon -
 Bard Theory which is also known as Thalamic theory of emotion, the thalamus is
responsible for responding to emotional events.
More specifically, it is suggested that emotions result when the thalamus sends a
message to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological reaction.
According to this theory, we react to a stimulus and experience the associated
emotion at the same time.
Cannon and Bard suggested that the experience of emotion was not dependent upon
interpreting the body's physiological reactions, instead they believed that the emotion
and the physical response occur simultaneously and that one was not dependent upon
the other.
(Activation of thalamus - > Activation of bodily changes in response to brain)
(Activation of thalamus - > Message to cortex regarding emotional experience)
Example
John sees a snake. He is afraid and begins to tremble.
Sarah is being followed late at night. According to Cannon - Bard Theory, she will
experience feelings of fear and physical reactions, such as increased heart rate, at the
same time.
Criticisms
● Extreme emphasis on the assumption that physical reactions don't influence the
emotions.
● Over emphasis on the role of thalamus in emotional process and under emphasis on
the role of other brain structures such as the limbic system and the hypothalamus.
● Ambiguity in the simultaneous occurrence of emotion and physiological reactions.

1. SCHACHTER - SINGER TWO FACTOR THEORY

Schachter - Singer incorporated elements of both the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard
theories in their Two Factor Theory of emotion.
Schachter and Singer felt that physical arousal played a primary role in emotions but
believed that physical arousal alone could not be responsible for emotional responses.
The two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interaction between physical
arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal.
(Activation of physiological arousal - > Observation of environmental cues - >
Determination of label to place on arousal, identifying emotional experience)
Example
According to the two-factor theory, the sequence that would follow would be like the
following -
● I see a strange man walking towards me.
● My heart is racing and I am trembling.
● My rapid heart rate and trembling are caused by fear.
● I am frightened!
EXPERIMENT
Schachter and Singer’s classic experiment found evidence for their hypothesis - emotions are
jointly determined by a nonspecific kind of
physiological arousal and its interpretation based on environmental cues.
In the study, participants were told that they would receive an injection of a vita-
min. In reality, they were given epinephrine, a drug that causes an increase in physiological
arousal, including higher heart and respiration rates and a reddening of the face. The
members of both groups were then placed individually in a situation where a confederate of
the experimenter acted in one of two ways. In one condition he acted angry and hostile; in
the other condition he behaved as if he were euphoric. The purpose of the experiment was to
determine how the participants would
react emotionally to the confederate’s behavior. When they were asked to describe their
own emotional state at the end of the experiment, the participants exposed to the angry
confederate reported that they felt angry, while those exposed to the euphoric confederate
reported feeling euphoric.
In conclusion, the results suggest that participants turned to the environment and the
behavior of others for an explanation of the physiological arousal they were
experiencing.
Criticisms
● Sometimes emotions are experienced before we think about them.
● Other researchers have supported James-Lange's initial suggestion that there are
actual physiological differences between emotions.
● Several experiments conducted later on brought about new results, questioning this
theory's validity.

Q. How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of emotions?

A person’s facial expressions can reveal emotions. In fact, members of different cultures
understand others’ emotional expressions in similar ways. One explanation for this similarity
is that an innate facial-affect program activates a set of muscle movements representing the
emotion being experienced.
The facial-feedback hypothesis suggests that facial expressions not only reflect, but also
produce, emotional
experience.
Q. What are the six primary emotions that can be identified
from facial expressions?
Happiness, Sadness, Anger, Disgust, Fear, Surprise.