RES ED 2

Research in Education B

1
College of Education
 COURSE STUDY GUIDE CONTENTS
Week Module Topic Page
No.

Data Collection
5

Ethics in Research 26

2 Data Analysis 38

3 Presentation of Data 59

Guidelines in Crafting the Summary of Findings,

Conclusion and Recommendation 73

Citation and Referencing 76

Editorial Office

Course
Developer/s Juliena M. Diaz, LPT

Felix M. Diano, Jr., LPT, PhD

Content Expert/s
Language Ian V. Rojas, LPT, EdD
Editor/s
Carodina R. Ginolos, LPT, MAT
Design/Media
Specialist/s Xandro R. Regudo, LPT, MAEd

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 Flexible Learning Course Syllabus
Flexible Learning Course Syllabus
College of Education
Professional Education

Second Semester, Academic Year 2020-2021

I. Course Information
Course Code RES ED 2 Course The purpose of this course is to provide education
Description
students with empirical research knowledge and to
Course Title Research in Education B equip skills needed to engage in research endeavors.
Prerequisite(s) RES ED 1 Course Upon completing the course, education students will be
Learning
acquainted with the data collection process in research,
Outcomes
Credit Unit 3 Units be aware of the ethical procedures, be able to analyze
data, be familiar with the guidelines in constructing the
last chapter of research and be able to use these skills to
produce a quality research output.
II. Instructor's Information

Instructor Name Ms. Juliena M. Diaz Corporate Email jdiaz@uv.edu.ph

Title: Full-time Instructor Phone +63 932-115-0084

III. Course Syllabus

Week No. of Hours Module Topic Intended Learning Learning Materials and Resources Mode of Assessment
No. Outcomes Instruction/ Task/
Delivery Graded
Required Suggested Tools Output

13.5 total Data Collection a) Describe qualitative and Unit 1. Course Clemente, R., Julaton, ➢ Course *Multiple Choice
hours quantitative research Module on A.B. & Villas, J.Research in Packet Test
Sub-topic 1: designs, sample, data Research in Daily Life 1. Sibs ▪ Printed *True or False Test
12 hours self- Understanding Data and collection, and analysis Education B Publishing House, 2016 ▪ Digital *Survey
directed Ways to Systematically procedure; ➢ Microsoft *Research Proposal
learning Collect Data b) Develop a data collection Teams Survey
1 & instrument;
Sub-topic 2:
1.5 hours Finding Answers c) Gather relevant
of information with
through Data Collection
assessment intellectual honesty;
tasks d) Analyze and draw out
Ethics in Research
patterns and themes with
intellectual honesty; and
e) Appreciate the
importance of ethics in
research.
13.5 total Data Analysis a) Define data analysis; Unit 2. Course Clemente, R., Julaton, ➢ Course Packet *True or False
hours b) Enumerate the process in Module on A.B. & Villas, J.Research in ▪ Printed *Problem Solving
Sub-topic 1: analyzing Quantitative and Research in Daily Life 1. Sibs ▪ Digital *Data Coding
12 hours self- Analyzing Quantitative Qualitative Data; Education B Publishing House, 2016 ➢ Microsoft
2 directed Data c) Differentiate Descriptive Teams
learning and Inferential Statistics;
& d) Enumerate and perform
Sub-topic 2:
1.5 hours the commonly used
Analyzing Qualitative statistical tools.
of Data
assessment
tasks

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 13.5 total Presentation of Data a) Define data processing; Unit 3. Course Clemente, R., Julaton, ➢ Course Packet *Multiple Choice
hours b) Determine when to Module on A.B. & Villas, J.Research in ▪ Printed Test
present data in textual, Research in Daily Life 1. Sibs ▪ Digital * Short Essay
3 12 hours self- tabular and graphical Education B Publishing House, 2016 ➢ Microsoft *Data
directed form; Teams Interpretation
learning c) Interpret data; and *Data Analysis
& d) Analyze data.
1.5 hours
of
assessment
tasks
13.5 total Guidelines in Crafting a) Demonstrate an Unit 4. Course Clemente, R., Julaton, ➢ Course Packet *Multiple Choice
hours the Summary of understanding of Module on A.B. & Villas, J.Research in ▪ Printed Test
Findings, Conclusion guidelines in making Research in Daily Life 1. Sibs ▪ Digital *Short Essay
4 12 hours self- and Recommendation conclusions and Education B Publishing House, 2016 ➢ Microsoft *Research Poster
directed recommendations; Teams Making
learning b) Formulate logical
Citation and
& conclusions;
Referencing
1.5 hours c) Make recommendations
based on conclusions; and
of
d) Demonstrate accuracy in
assessment listing references.
tasks

IV-A. Points for Graded Output IV-B. Grade Equivalent Based on Points Earned
Course Week Module Topic Output Points Earned Grade
97%-100% 1.00
1 Major Task 94%-96% 1.25

90%-93% 1.50
2 Major Task
86%-89% 1.75

82%-85% 2.00
3 Major Task
78%-81% 2.25

74%-77% 2.50

71%-73% 2.75
4 Major Task
70% 3.00
69% below 5.00
INC is given if the final grade is 2.5 or better but missing any two of the course requirements listed above. INC should be complied within 365 days immediately after
the close of the Semester.

V. Approval
Prepared by Reviewed by Approved by

MS. JULIENA M. DIAZ, LPT MRS. CARODINA GINOLOS, LPT, MAT DR. AILEEN B. CATACUTAN MR. FELIX M. DIANO JR., LPT, MAED, PhDc
Instructor Program Chair Librarian Dean

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 Learning Outcomes:

a. Describe qualitative and quantitative research designs, sample, data collection, and
analysis procedure;
b. Develop a data collection instrument;
c. Gather relevant information with intellectual honesty;
d. Analyze and draw out patterns and themes with intellectual honesty; and
e. Appreciate the importance of ethics in research.

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 COURSE STUDY GUIDE
College of EDUCATION

Program BEED and BSED

Course Code RES ED 2

Course Title Research in Education B

University of the Visayas Credit Unit 3

Unit 1 WEEK NO. 1

Data Collection
Module Topic
Ethics in Research
a. Describe qualitative and quantitative research designs, sample, data collection, and analysis procedure;
b. Develop a data collection instrument;
Intended Learning Outcomes c. Gather relevant information with intellectual honesty;
d. Analyze and draw out patterns and themes with intellectual honesty; and
e. Appreciate the importance of ethics in research.

No. of Hours
13.5 hours (12 hours self-directed learning and 1.5 hours of assessment tasks)
a. What is a research design?
b. What are the approaches to qualitative and quantitative inquiry?
c. What is sampling?
Study Questions d. What are the different sampling techniques in qualitative research?
e. What are the classifications of data according to source?
f. What are the characteristics of a good data collection instrument?
g. What are the common data collection instruments?

Learning Resources Required Suggested

Print Clemente, R., Julaton, A.B. & Villas, J.Research in

Daily Life 1. Sibs Publishing House, 2016

a. With the given course study guide (module), the students are required to read Module 1: Data Collection
and Research in Ethics. In addition, they can utilize the given learning resources as a reference to
counterpart the lesson/ topic.
Learning Activity
b. Every lesson begins with an identification of the learning outcomes which serve as the bases for a focused
lesson development.
c. After every unit in the module, students are expected to answer the exercises found at the end of the unit.
Simple Interview Sheet or Questionnaire
Required Output
Research Proposal
1. Objective Tests
1.1Multiple Choice
Assessment Task
1.2True or False
2.Short Essay

Assessment Tool Scoring Rubric

Creative and innovative individuals, critical & analytical thinkers, and confident & self-directed lifelong
Target Competency
learners
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:
Juliena M. Diaz, LPT Carodina R. Ginolos, MAT Felix M. Diano Jr., LPT, MAED, PhDc
Faculty Program Coordinator Dean
Date: Date: Date:

Revision #001

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RESEARCH DESIGN

What is a research design?

Research design is the process of structuring techniques and strategies that help
researchers solve their problems or answer their inquiry. This may entail detailed data gathering
procedures that lead to the fulfillment of the research goals. To do this, researchers need to
carefully design research methods, data collection, and other pertinent processes to minimize
the cost of conducting the investigation. Most importantly, they need to plan the data gathering
procedures to ensure that the data used in the study is valid. This is especially true for
quantitative research where procedures need to be strictly followed. In qualitative research,
more relaxed processes in carrying out procedures are implemented. This is because
refinement of procedures in the middle of the process can be done depending on the kind of
data collected. Nevertheless, the research procedures must still be planned and placed in the
proposal in both research approaches.

Approaches to Qualitative Inquiry

There are a number of approaches or strategies that can be used in qualitative research
but the most commonly used qualitative approaches to research are the following:

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1. Ethnography involves studying a particular group or population in the natural setting or in
their habitat. It aims to describe, analyze, and interpret behavior patterns, belief systems,
and unique language of people in a particular culture and ethnicity. Observational
techniques are used to gather data from the subjects as they are naturally observed. There
are no alterations done in the environment of the research subjects. Studies that involve
ethnography usually takes a long period of time to be finished. It is best used in studying
culture-sharing groups in their natural environment. The culture-sharing group may be a
school, a family, or a community. It can also be a representative of a large activity or event
(e.g., students participating in a religious retreat). Examples of this approach may be a study
of the life of indigenous people in a particular locality or a study of school practices and
challenges to deliver relevant and meaningful education to students.
2. Grounded theory is commonly used to elicit different ideas, opinions, or beliefs from the
respondents when a unified theoretical explanation is needed about an event, an action, or
a process that fits the situation or actual work in practice. Tie grounded theory or explanation
is a better alternative than its equivalent theory taken "off the shelf" because it is generated
from the persons concerned in their actual habitat, academic setting, or work environment. It
usually involves a series of data gathering procedures to validate the information gathered
from the participants. This approach may be taken if one is interested to study how high-
performing senior high school students develop interest in pursuing a career in research.
3. Case study is done when a researcher would want to know the deeper details about a
certain situation, event, activity, process, and even a group of individuals. The analysis unit
in this approach may be a single case or multicases, resulting to a within-site research or a
multisite study, respectively. A series of thorough and in-depth data Collection procedures
from multiple sources of information is done. Over a consistent period of time, researchers
employ a variety of data gathering techniques such as observations, interviews, and
anecdotal documentations to address the research objectives. Examples of case studies
include a study on the role of the school in assimilation of immigrant orphans or a study that
deals with finding out the reason why it is difficult for some people to withdraw from their
vices.
4. Phenomenology describes the common meaning of several individuals' lived experiences
about a phenomenon. Primarily, the purpose of this approach is to generate a universal
description of a phenomenon from its several individual contexts. Drawing out relationships

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 and patterns of gathered data are done to gain deeper understanding about the experiences
of the research respondents. When the general context of students' experience about grief,
bullying, and discrimination is desired, this approach may be appropriate.
5. Historical approach is a systematic collection and evaluation of information, which may
include documents, stories, and artifacts to describe, explain, and eventually understand
events and actions that happened in the past. Evaluation of documents involves external
and internal criticisms. External criticism refers to the examination of the authenticity of the
materials. Questions like "Who wrote the document and for what purpose the document was
written?," "When, where, and under what circumstances the document was written?," and
"Do other forms of the document exist?" are asked, Internal criticism means examination of
the accuracy of the information in the document and the truthfulness of the author. Presence
at and participation in the event, and competence of the author are important factors in this
evaluation. Researchers use this information to critically analyze the cause for the current
situation and to be able to recommend possible solution that could resolve the issues and
problems. This approach is best used to gather information about a particular historical
event (e.g., the 1986 EDSA revolution, martial law period).

Approaches to Quantitative Inquiry

There are multiple types of primary quantitative research. They can be distinguished
into the four following distinctive methods, which are:

1. Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome research
methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask questions to a sample of respondents, using
various types such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept
surveys, etc. Every small and big organization intends to understand what their customers
think about their products and services, how well are new features faring in the market and
other such details.

By conducting survey research, an organization can ask multiple survey questions, collect
data from a pool of customers, and analyze this collected data to produce numerical results.
It is the first step towards collecting data for any research.

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 This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group and also can be
conducted across multiple groups along with comparative analysis. A prerequisite for this
type of research is that the sample of respondents must have randomly selected members.
This way, a researcher can easily maintain the accuracy of the obtained results as a huge
variety of respondents will be addressed using random selection. Traditionally, survey
research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the progress made by online
mediums such as email or social media, survey research has spread to online mediums as
well.

There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on the time in-hand
and the kind of data required:

Cross-sectional surveys:

Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys conducted in situations where the

researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the target population at a given point in time.
Researchers can evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data gathered using this type of
survey is from people who depict similarity in all variables except the variables which are
considered for research. Throughout the survey, this one variable will stay constant.

• Cross-sectional surveys are popular with retail, SMEs, healthcare industries. Information
is garnered without modifying any parameters in the variable ecosystem.

• Using a cross-sectional survey research method, multiple samples can be analyzed and
compared.

• Multiple variables can be evaluated using this type of survey research.

• The only disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the cause-effect relationship of

variables cannot be established as it usually evaluates variables at a particular time and
not across a continuous time frame.

Longitudinal surveys:

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 Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-sectional surveys,
longitudinal surveys are conducted across various time durations to observe a change in
respondent behavior and thought-processes. This time can be days, months, years, or even
decades. For instance, a researcher planning to analyze the change in buying habits of
teenagers over 5 years will conduct longitudinal surveys.

• In cross-sectional surveys, the same variables were evaluated at a given point in time,
and in longitudinal surveys, different variables can be analyzed at different intervals of
time.

• Longitudinal surveys are extensively used in the field of medicine and applied sciences.
Apart from these two fields, they are also used to observe a change in the market trend,
analyze customer satisfaction, or gain feedback on products/services.

• In situations where the sequence of events is highly essential, longitudinal surveys are
used.

• Researchers say that when there are research subjects that need to be thoroughly
inspected before concluding, they rely on longitudinal surveys.

2. Correlational research: A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation

research is conducted to establish a relationship between two closely-knit entities and how
one impacts the other and what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research
method is carried out to give value to naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two
different groups are required to conduct this quantitative research method successfully.
Without assuming various aspects, a relationship between two groups or entities must be
established.

Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or more variables using
mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are
concluded as they exist in their original set up. The impact of one of these variables on the
other is observed along with how it changes the relationship between the two variables.
Researchers tend to manipulate one of the variables to attain the desired results.

Ideally, it is advised not to make conclusions merely based on correlational research. This is
because it is not mandatory that if two variables are in sync that they are interrelated.
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 Example of Correlational Research Questions:

The relationship between stress and depression.

The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.

3. Causal-comparative research: This research method mainly depends on the factor of

comparison. Also called quasi-experimental research, this quantitative research method is
used by researchers to conclude the cause-effect equation between two or more variables,
where one variable is dependent on the other independent variable. The independent variable
is established but not manipulated, and its impact on the dependent variable is observed.
These variables or groups must be formed as they exist in the natural set up. As the
dependent and independent variables will always exist in a group, it is advised that the
conclusions are carefully established by keeping all the factors in mind.
Causal-comparative research is not restricted to the statistical analysis of two variables but
extends to analyzing how various variables or groups change under the influence of the same
changes. This research is conducted irrespective of the type of relation that exists between
two or more variables. Statistical analysis is used to distinctly present the outcome obtained
using this quantitative research method.

Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:

The impact of drugs on a teenager.

The effect of good education on a freshman.
The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.

4. Experimental research: Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant
on a theory. Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more
theories. This theory has not been proven in the past and is merely a supposition. In
experimental research, an analysis is done around proving or disproving the statement. This
research method is used in natural sciences. Traditional research methods are more
effective than modern techniques.
There can be multiple theories in experimental research. A theory is a statement that can be
verified or refuted.
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After establishing the statement, efforts are made to understand whether it is valid or invalid.
This type of quantitative research method is mainly used in natural or social sciences as
there are various statements which need to be proved right or wrong.

• Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.

• Systematic teaching schedules help children who find it hard to cope up with the
course.
• It is a boon to have responsible nursing staff for ailing parents.

SAMPLING

After deciding which approach to use in a research study, it is now time to decide where
or from whom to collect the needed data. To do this, some important terminologies must be
first defined. What is a population? How about a sample?

A population is the complete group of persons, animals, or objects that possess the
same characteristics that are of the researcher's interest. There are two kinds of
population—target and accessible. The target population is made up of all research
elements that the researcher would want his/her findings to be generalized to, while the
accessible population is a group of research elements within which the research
respondents will be taken from. For instance, in a study that seeks to find out the opinion of
Filipino high school students regarding the K to 12 basic education program, the target
population are high school students in the Philippines, while the accessible population may
be those from the locality of the researcher.

Most of the time, data are collected from some members of a population called samples.
A sample is a group of individuals that represents the characteristics of a population. In a
population of Filipino high school students, the members are all high school students in the
country. High school students from two schools in each region would be members of the
sample. The process of choosing samples from a population is called sampling.

In quantitative research, the purpose of sampling is to generalize its findings in the

population; while in qualitative research, the sampling focuses on an in-depth understanding
of a phenomenon or situation.

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Advantages of Sampling

The following are the advantages of sampling in qualitative research:

1. It saves time, effort, and resources. Dealing with a smaller number of participants is
easier than taking the whole population.

2. It minimizes casualties. In some studies, the respondents are needed to be examined

thoroughly, thus, resulting to withdrawal of some respondents from the roster. The
withdrawal of considerable number of respondents is crucial, especially when only few of
them are selected. Therefore, sampling of the correct number of respondents needed for the
study prevents undesirable casualties.

3. It paves the way for thorough investigation. Since the research respondents are only
small in number, the researcher could focus on each respondent and do a thorough
examination on them. More time of observation could be spent if there is a manageable
number of respondents.

4. It allows easy data handling collection, and analysis. A small number of research
respondents allows the researcher to manage his/her data collection and analysis
procedures rather than doing it with a large number.

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Qualitative sampling is a purposeful sampling technique in which the researcher sets a

criteria in selecting individuals and sites. The major criterion used in selecting respondents
or sites is the richness of information that can be drawn out from them. There are several
strategies under this sampling technique.

1. Extreme or deviant case sampling focuses at highly unusual manifestations of the

phenomenon of interest. This strategy tries to select particular cases that would gather the
most information about a given research topic. For example, in a group of patients in a
psychiatric ward, a researcher might choose to include in his/her samples those who have
extreme cases of schizophrenia or those who have suicidal tendencies other than those who
have common problems of depression or anxiety.

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2. Intensity sampling involves information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon
intensely, but not extremely (e.g., good students and poor students, above average and
below average). The strategy is also similar to extreme or deviant case sampling because it
uses the same logic. The difference is that the cases selected are not as extreme. This type
of sampling requires prior information on the variation of the phenomena under study so that
intense, although not extreme, examples are chosen. If one were studying a particular
emotion, say envy, the respondent to be selected should have had an intense experience
with this particular emotion; a mild or extreme experience would not likely explain the
phenomena in the same way as an intense experience would.

3. Maximum variation sampling selects a wide range of variation on dimensions of interest.

The purpose is to discover or uncover central themes, core elements, and/or shared
dimensions that cut across a diverse sample. It also provides an opportunity to document
unique or diverse variations. For example, to implement this sampling, a matrix (of
communities, people, etc.) is created where each item on the matrix is as different (on
relevant dimensions) as possible from all other items.

4. Homogeneous sampling brings together people of similar backgrounds and

experiences. It reduces variation, simplifies analysis, and facilitates group interview. This
strategy is used most often when conducting focus groups. For example, in a study about a
parenting program, all single-parent, female head of households are selected.

5. Typical case sampling focuses on what is typical, normal, and/or average. This strategy
may be adopted when one needs to present a qualitative profile of one or more typical cases.
In this sampling, a broad consensus is required about what is "average." For example, in a
study that involves development projects in the Third World countries, a typical case
sampling of "average" villages may be conducted. Such study would uncover critical issues
to be addressed for most villages by looking at the samples.

6. Critical case sampling looks at cases that will produce critical information. In order to
use this method, what constitutes a critical case must be known. This method permits logical
generalization and maximum application of information to other cases because what is true
to one case should also be true to all other cases. For example, if people's understanding of
a particular set of federal regulations is desired, the regulations may be presented to a group
of highly educated people ("If they cannot understand them, then most people probably
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cannot") and/or to a group of undereducated people ("If they can understand them, then
most people probably can").

7. Snowball or chain sampling is done by asking relevant people if they know someone or
somebody fitted or is willing to participate in a study. For instance, a researcher will use the
social media to ask people if they can refer persons who meet the criteria to become the
respondents for the research study. From these nominations, the researcher would select
participants to be included as members of the sample.

8. Criterion sampling selects all cases that meet some predetermined criterion. This is
strategy is typicaIIy applied when considering quality assurance issues. In essence, cases
which are information-rich and which might reveal a major system weakness that could be
improved may be chosen. For example, the average length of stay of a patient who have
undergone a certain surgical procedure is three days. Any patient who have undergone the
same surgical procedure and whose stay exceeded three days may be set as a criterion of
becoming a sample in the study. Interviewing these cases may offer information related to
aspects of the process/system that could be improved.

9. Operational construct or theoretical sampling identifies manifestations of a theoretical

construct of interest to elaborate and examine the construct. This strategy is used in
grounded theory studies in which people or incidents are sampled based on whether or not
they manifest an important theoretical or operational construct. For example, if the theory of
resiliency in adults who were physically abused as children is studied, people who meet the
theory-driven criteria for resiliency are selected.

10. Confirming and disconfirming sampling seeks cases that are both "expected" and
the "exception" to what is expected. This strategy deepens initial analysis, seeks exceptions,
and tests variation. Both confirming cases (those that add depth, richness, and credibility) as
well as disconfirming cases (those that do not fit and are the Source of rival interpretations)
must be found. This strategy is typically adopted after an initial fieldwork has established
what a confirming case would be. For example, in a study about factors affecting academic
performance, the researcher must present cases of positive and negative factors that affect
students' achievement. In this case, good school facilities and low teacher-to-student ratios
may be positive factors while low parental involvement and low economic status may be
negative factors affecting academic performance.
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11. Stratified purposeful sampling focuses on characteristics and comparisons of
particular subgroups of interest. This strategy is similar to stratified random sampling
(samples taken within samples), except that the sample size in the former is typically much
smaller. In stratified sampling, samples based on a characteristic are stratified. Thus, in
conducting a study about academic performance, the samples are clustered into below
average, average, and above average learners. The main goal of this sampling is to capture
major variations (although common themes may emerge).

12. Opportunistic or emergent sampling follows new leads during fieldwork, takes the
advantage of the unexpected, and is flexible. This strategy takes advantage of whatever is
readily available for the researcher and considers other samples that may be useful for the
researcher as they come. For example, in studying sixth grade pupils' awareness of a topic,
it may be advisable to include fifth grade pupils as well to gain additional understanding.

13. Purposeful random sampling looks at a random sample and adds credibility to a
sample when the potential purposeful sample is larger than one can handle. While this is a
of random sampling that uses small sample sizes, its goal is to increase credibility, not to
encourage representativeness or the ability to generalize. For example, if clients at a drug
rehabilitation program is studied, 10 out of 300 current cases may be selected. This reduces
judgment within a purposeful category because the cases are picked randomly and without
regard to the program outcome.

14. Convenience sampling selects cases based on ease of accessibility. This strategy
saves time, money, and effort, however, it has the weakest rationale and the lowest
credibility. This strategy may yield information-poor cases because they are picked simply
because they are accessible, rather than based on a specific strategy/rationale. Sampling
co-workers, family members, or neighbors simply because they are easily accessed by the
researcher is an example of convenience sampling.

15. Combination or mixed purposeful sampling combines two or more sampling

techniques. Basically, using more than one strategy is considered combination or mixed
purposeful sampling. This type of sampling meets multiple interests and needs. For example,
snowball or chain sampling may be used to identify extreme or deviant cases. That is,
people may be asked to identify cases that would be considered extreme/deviant and do
this until a consensus on a set of cases needed is attained.
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Sampling in Quantitative Research

There are two main sampling methods for quantitative research: Probability and Non-
probability sampling.

1. Probability sampling: A theory of probability is used to filter individuals from a population

and create samples in probability sampling. Participants of a sample are chosen random
selection processes. Each member of the target audience has an equal opportunity to be
selected in the sample.

There are four main types of probability sampling:

• Simple random sampling: As the name indicates, simple random sampling is

nothing but a random selection of elements for a sample. This sampling technique is
implemented where the target population is considerably large.
• Stratified random sampling: In the stratified random sampling method, a large
population is divided into groups (strata), and members of a sample are chosen
randomly from these strata. The various segregated strata should ideally not overlap
one another.
• Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method using which
the main segment is divided into clusters, usually using geographic and demographic
segmentation parameters.
• Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique where the starting point
of the sample is chosen randomly, and all the other elements are chosen using a
fixed interval. This interval is calculated by dividing the population size by the target
sample size.
•

2. Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is where the researcher‘s

knowledge and experience are used to create samples. Because of the involvement of the
researcher, not all the members of a target population have an equal probability of being
selected to be a part of a sample.

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 • Consecutive sampling: Consecutive sampling is quite similar to convenience
sampling, except for the fact that researchers can choose a single element or a group
of samples and conduct research consecutively over a significant period and then
perform the same process with other samples.
• Quota sampling: Using quota sampling, researchers can select elements using
their knowledge of target traits and personalities to form strata. Members of various
strata can then be chosen to be a part of the sample as per the researcher‘s
understanding.
• Judgmental sampling: Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling method
where samples are created only based on the researcher‘s experience and skill.

Sample Sizes: Considerations

How do we determine the number of samples needed in the study?

When determining the sample size for qualitative research, it is important to remember
that there are no hard and fast rules. There are, however, at least two considerations on sample
size in a qualitative investigation:

1. What sample size will reach saturation or redundancy? That is, how large does the sample
need to be allowed for the identification of consistent patterns? Some researchers say the size
of the sample should be large enough to leave the researcher with "nothing left to learn?' In
other words, one might conduct interviews, and after the tenth one, realize that there are no
new concepts emerging. That is, the concepts, themes, etc. begin to be redundant.

2. How large a sample is needed to represent the variation within target population? That is,
how large must a sample be in order to assess an appropriate amount of diversity or variation
represented in the population of interest?

The sample size is estimated based on the approach used in the study or the data
collection method employed. However, experts prescribe numbers for sample sizes in some
qualitative research studies. Cited from Creswell (2013), one to ten subjects are recommended

19
for phenomenology (Dukes, 1984), 20 to 30 individuals for grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006),
four to five respondents for case study, and single culture-sharing groups for ethnography.

Classification of Data According to Source

In research, data gathering strategies involve large amounts of information from a small,
purposive sample using strategies such as focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, and
subject observations. There are two general classifications of data according to its source.

1. Primary data refer to data sets that include first-hand information and experiences about an
event. Usually collected from primary sources, primary data are also those gathered for a
particular research problem collected using the best procedure possible for the said problem.
Examples of primary data are those collected by university-based researchers that are stored in
data archives intended for future use and dissemination of the general research community.

2. Secondary data are mostly data consisting of studied objects that are coded according to
their characteristics. They are also composed of transcripts of audio and video recordings and
data that stem from previous research studies. The advantage of collecting these data over the
primary ones is that it is more economical and more accessible.

Data Collection Instruments

Developing a research instrument to gather data from respondents is a critical task for a
researcher. A good research instrument may elicit an organized data that would help him/her in
finding answers to the research problems.

Characteristics of a Good Data Collection Instrument

The following are pointers in developing or selecting good data collection instruments.

✓ A good data collection instrument should be brief but effective. It should be short enough
to be completed by the respondents but should elicit information-rich data that the
researcher needs.

20
 ✓ The data collection instrument must be able to gather information other than what is
available. Otherwise, there is no need for developing the instrument since the data that
the researcher needs can be found somewhere else.
✓ The arrangement of questions in the instrument must be sequenced in increasing
difficulty. Easy questions must be placed first than the harder ones. Less sensitive
questions must be placed first than the more complex or controversial ones.
✓ Research instruments must be validated and evaluated for its reliability. A valid and
reliable instrument provides valid and reliable data.
✓ The data to be collected from the instrument should easily be tabulated, analyzed, and
interpreted. The instrument should serve as a tool for the researcher to help him/her in
the study.

COMMON DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Below are common data collection instruments in qualitative research.

1. Documentary analysis. This instrument may require the researcher to examine available
resources or documents. Inspecting the primary and secondary sources is important when
using this type of data collection.

2. Interview. Interviews happen when the researcher personally asks the key informants about
things or information he/she needs from the subjects. The interviewer must be trained to
conduct an effective interview. There are different types of interview:

➢ Structured interview happens when the researcher prepared and organized questions
that the respondents will answer. The researcher does not ask beyond what is written in
the interview sheet but could ask the interviewee for the purpose of clarifying his/ her
answers.
➢ Unstructured interview occurs when the researcher prepares an outline of the topics
that he/she needs to personally ask from the interviewee in spontaneous and
conversation-like manner. In this kind of interview, the researcher should be
knowledgeable about the topic and skilled in asking probing questions.
➢ Semi-structured interview is when the researcher prepares a specific set of questions
but could ask follow-up questions to the respondents for them to elaborate their answers.

21
 It is easy for the researcher to gather additional information and to have an in-depth
perspective on the responses of the interviewee when this type of interview is used.

3. Observation. In this technique, the researcher tracks the subjects' behavioral change over a
specific period of time. Observations may happen in the following manner:

➢ Naturalistic observation. In this type of observation, the researcher observes the

subjects in the natural setting or in their actual environment. The observation is done
from outside of the environment.
➢ Participative observation. The observer in this type of observation requires the
researcher to be involved in the usual activities of the subjects. This gives the researcher
direct and first-hand experience of what the respondents are experiencing.
➢ Non-naturalistic observation. This is also called the "ideal-situation" observation.
Subjects are taken away from their actual environment and are subjected to ideal
conditions determined by the researcher.

4. Questionnaire. This is one of the most commonly used data collection instruments.
Questionnaires are easier to administer and could gather larger turnout on a single time It
requires respondents to answer a prepared set of questions regarding the information that the
researcher wants to elicit from them. The following are some types of questions used:

➢ Yes or No. Items in the questionnaire are answerable by yes or no. (e.g., Do you have a
car? _Yes _No)
➢ Recognition. Respondents are made to choose from the choices given in the
questionnaire.
➢ Completion. Respondents are requested to supply the necessary information in the
blanks placed after each statement or question. This is also called open-ended
questionnaire.
➢ Coding. The respondents are asked to rank or give numerical rating for the information
required of them.
➢ Subjective. The respondents are free to give their opinions and answers to the
questions posed by the researcher.
➢ Combination. This makes use of one or more type of questions in a single
questionnaire.

22
5. Focus Group Discussion (FGD). It is a good way to gather people from similar
backgrounds or experiences together to discuss a specific topic of interest. They are guided by
a moderator (or group facilitator) who introduces the topics for discussion and motivates the
group to participate actively.

The strength of FGD relies on allowing the participants to agree or disagree with each other. In
this case, it provides an insight of how the group thinks about issues inconsistencies, and
variations that exist in their community.

FGDs can be used to explore the meanings of survey findings that cannot be explained
statistically, determine the range of opinions and views about a topic of interest, and collect a
wide variety of local terms. In bridging research and policy, FGD can be useful in providing an
insight about opinions among parties involved in the change process' thus enabling the process
to be managed more smoothly. It is also a good method to employ prior to designing
questionnaires.

COMMON DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Once the sample is determined, then either surveys or polls can be distributed to collect
the data for quantitative research.

Using surveys for primary quantitative research

A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined
group of respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest. The ease of
survey distribution and the wide number of people it can be reached depending on the research
time and research objective make it one of the most important aspects of conducting quantitative
outcome research.

Fundamental levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales

There are four measurement scales that are fundamental to creating a multiple-choice
question in a survey. They are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio measurement scales without

23
the fundamentals of which, no multiple-choice questions can be created. Hence, it is crucial to
understand these levels of measurement to be able to develop a robust survey.

Use of different question types

To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions have to be used in a survey.

They can be a mix of multiple question types including multiple-choice questions like semantic
differential scale questions, rating scale questions, etc.

Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection

There are different ways of survey distribution. Some of the most commonly used
methods are:

• Email: Sending a survey via email is the most widely used and most effective method
of survey distribution. The response rate is high in this method because the
respondents are aware of your brand. You can use the QuestionPro email
management feature to send out and collect survey responses.
• Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and conduct primary
quantitative research is to use a sample. Since the respondents are knowledgeable
and are on the panel by their own will, responses are much higher.
• Embed survey on a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases a high
number of responses as the respondent is already in close proximity to the brand
when the survey pops up.
• Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in collecting a
higher number of responses from the people that are aware of the brand.
• QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can print/publish
this code in magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just about any object/medium.
• SMS survey: A quick and time-effective way of conducting a survey to collect a high
number of responses is the SMS survey.
• QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows users to circulate surveys quickly,
and the responses can be collected both online and offline.

24
Survey example

An example of a survey is short customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey template that can
quickly be built and deployed to collect feedback about what the customer thinks about a brand
and how satisfied and referenceable the brand is.

Using polls for primary quantitative research

Polls are a method to collect feedback with the use of close-ended questions from a
sample. The most commonly used types of polls are election polls and exit polls. Both of these
are used to collect data from a large sample size but using basic question types like a multiple-
choice question.

25
ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific researchers. It is

important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and welfare of
research participants. As such, all research involving human beings should be reviewed by an
ethics committee to ensure that the appropriate ethical standards are being upheld. Discussion
of the ethical principles of beneficence, justice and autonomy are central to ethical review.

Written below is the observed for Ethical Consideration in the University of the Visayas.

(Ethical Consideration must be part of your Chapter III right after statistical Treatment or Data
analysis discussions) Refer to Polit and beck for your guide (Chapter 7)

Ethical Considerations

Introductory statement.

Protection of Human Rights

26
Beneficence. Beneficence imposes a duty on researchers to minimize harm and maximize
benefits. Human research should be intended to produce benefits for participants or—a
situation that is more common—for others.

Respect. Respect for Human Dignity Respect for human dignity is the second ethical principle
in the Belmont Report. This principle includes the right to self-determination and the right to full
disclosure.

Justice. The third broad principle articulated in the Belmont Report concerns justice, which
includes participants‘ right to fair treatment and their right to privacy.

Note: (The Belmont Report articulated three broad principles on which standards of ethical
conduct in research are based: beneficence, respect for human dignity, and justice. Please
briefly discuss these principles and then describe procedures researchers adopt to comply with
them.)

Transparency.

Risk-Benefit Ratio Determination.

Risks. Physical harm, including unanticipated side effects • Physical discomfort, fatigue, or
boredom • Psychological or emotional distress resulting from self-disclosure, introspection, fear
of the unknown, discomfort with strangers, fear of eventual repercussions, anger or
embarrassment at the type of questions being asked • Social risks, such as the risk of stigma,
adverse effects on personal relationships, loss of status • Loss of privacy • Loss of time •
Monetary costs (e.g., for transportation, child care, time lost from work).

Benefits. Access to a potentially beneficial intervention that might otherwise be unavailable to

them • Comfort in being able to discuss their situation or problem with a friendly, objective
person • Increased knowledge about themselves or their conditions, either through opportunity
for introspection and self-reflection or through direct interaction with researchers • Escape from
normal routine, excitement of being part of a study • Satisfaction that information they provide
may help others with similar problems or conditions • Direct monetary or material gains through
stipends or other incentives.

A. Content, Comprehension and Documentation of Informed Consent

27
Participants Status. Prospective participants need to understand the distinction between
research and treatment. They should be told which healthcare activities are routine and which
are implemented specifically for the study. They also should be informed that data they provide
will be used for research purposes.

Study Goals. The overall goals of the research should be stated, in lay rather than technical
terms. The use to which the data will be put should be described.

Type of Data. Prospective participants should be told what type of data will be collected.
Specify it is quantitative or qualitative.

Procedures. Prospective participants should be given a description of the data collection

procedures and of procedures to be used in any innovative treatment.

Nature of Commitment. Participants should be told the expected time commitment at each
point of contact and the number of contacts within a given timeframe.

Sponsorship. Information on who is sponsoring or funding the study should be noted; if the
research is part of an academic requirement, this information should be shared.

Participant’s Selection. Prospective participants should be told how they were selected for
recruitment and how many people will be participating.

Potential Risk. Prospective participants should be informed of any foreseeable risks (physical,
psychological, social, or economic) or discomforts and efforts that will be taken to minimize
risks. The possibility of unforeseeable risks should also be discussed, if appropriate. If injury or
damage is possible, treatments that will be made available to participants should be described.
When risks are more than minimal prospective participants should be encouraged to seek
advice before consenting.

Potential Benefits. Other possible benefits

Alternatives. If appropriate, participants should be told about alternative procedures or

treatments that might be advantageous to them.

28
Incentives and Compensation. If stipends or reimbursements are to be paid (or if treatments
are offered without fee), these arrangements should be discussed. Declare if its monetary or
not and if it‘s not what are your other options in giving back to the respondents

Confidentiality Pledge. Prospective participants should be assured that their privacy will at all
times be protected. If anonymity can be guaranteed, this should be stated.

Confidentiality Procedures. •Study participants have the right to expect that data they
provide will be kept in strict confidence. Participants ‗right to privacy is protected through
various confidentiality procedures. Anonymity, the most secure means of protecting
confidentiality, occurs when the researcher cannot link participants to their data.

• When anonymity is impossible, confidentiality procedures need to be implemented. A promise

of confidentiality is a pledge that any information participants provide will not be publicly
reported in a manner that identifies them, and will not be accessible to others. This means that
research information should not be shared with strangers nor with people known to participants
(e.g., relatives, others), unless participants give explicit permission to do so. Researchers can
take a number of steps to ensure that a breach of confidentiality does not occur, including the
following: • Obtain identifying information (e.g., name, address) from participants only when
essential. • Assign an identification (ID) number to each participant and attach the ID number
rather than other identifiers to the actual data. • Maintain identifying information in a locked file. •
Restrict access to identifying information to only a few people on a need-to-know basis. • Enter
no identifying information onto computer files. • Destroy identifying information as quickly as
practical. • Make research personnel sign confidentiality pledges if they have access to data or
identifying information. • Report research information in the aggregate; if information for an
individual is reported, disguise the person‘s identity, such as through the use of a fictitious
name.

Authorization to Access Private Information. •Discuss whether obtained separately or as

part of the consent form. •Include who will receive the information.

Voluntary Consent. Researchers should indicate that participation is strictly voluntary and that
failure to volunteer will not result in any penalty or loss of benefits.

Right to Withdraw and withhold Information. Prospective participants should be told that,
after consenting, they have the right to withdraw from the study or to withhold any specific piece
29
of information. Researchers may need to describe circumstances under which researchers
would terminate the study.

Contact Information. The researcher should tell participants whom they could contact in the
event of further questions, comments, or complaints. UV-IRB Ethics Review pAnel (specify) has
approved the study, and may be reached through the following contact information regarding
rights of study participants, including grievances and complaints:

University of the Visayas- Institutional Review Board

5th Floor, Inday Pining Building

Colon Street, Cebu City

253-7401 local 116 or email at uvirb2017@gmail.com

Please also include researchers‘ contact information.

B. Debriefing, Communications and Referrals

• Researchers can often show their respect for participants—and proactively minimize
emotional risks—by carefully attending to the nature of the interactions they have with them.
For example, researchers should always be gracious and polite, should phrase questions
tactfully, and should be sensitive to cultural and linguistic diversity.

• Researchers can also use more formal strategies to communicate respect and concern
for participants ‗well-being. For example, it is sometimes useful to offer debriefing sessions
after data collection is completed to permit participants to ask questions or air complaints.
Debriefing is especially important when the data collection has been stressful or when
ethical guidelines had to be ―bent‖ (e.g., if any deception was used in explaining the study).

• It is also thoughtful to communicate with participants after the study is completed to let
them know that their participation was appreciated.

• Finally, in some situations, researchers may need to assist study participants by making
referrals to appropriate health, social, or psychological services

30
C. Conflict of Interest

• Discuss the conflict of interest and ask the statement of agreement to IRB for the
template

• A conflict of interest is a situation in which financial or other personal considerations

have the potential to compromise or bias professional judgment and objectivity. An
apparent conflict of interest is one in which a reasonable person would think that the
professionals judgment is likely to be compromised. A potential conflict of interest involves
a situation that may develop into an actual conflict of interest. It is important to note that a
conflict of interest exists whether or not decisions are affected by a personal interest; a
conflict of interest implies only the potential for bias, not likelihood. It is also important to
note that a conflict of interest is not considered misconduct in research, since the definition
for misconduct is currently limited to fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism.

D. Recruitment

• Is there a discussion on a manner of recruitment including appropriateness of identified

recruiting parties?

• Was any type of coercion, intimidation or undue influence used to recruit participants?
Did they have the right to refuse to participate or to withdraw without penalty?

E. Treatment of Vulnerability Groups (Provide discussion in this section if it is applicable in

your study)

• Vulnerable populations may be incapable of giving fully informed consent (e.g., mentally
retarded people) or may be at risk of unintended side effects because of their
circumstances (e.g.,pregnant women). Researchers interested in studying high-risk
groups should understand guidelines governing informed consent, risk/benefit
assessments, and acceptable research procedures for such groups. In general, research
with vulnerable groups should be undertaken only when the risk/benefit ratio is low or
when there is no alternative (e.g., studies of childhood development require child
participants).

31
 • Children. Legally and ethically, children do not have competence to give informed
consent, so the informed consent of children‘s parents or legal guardians must be
obtained. It is appropriate, however—especially if the child is at least 7 years old—to
obtain the child‘s assent as well. Assent refers to the child‘s affirmative agreement to
participate. If the child is mature enough (e.g., a 12year-old) to understand basic informed
consent information, it is advisable to obtain written assent from the child as well, as
evidence of respect for the child‘s right to self-determination. Lindeke and colleagues
(2000) and Kanner and colleagues (2004) provided guidance on children‘s assent and
consent to participate in research. The U.S. government has issued special regulations
(Subpart D of the Code of Federal Regulations, 2005) for the additional protection of
children as study participants.

(READ THE GUIDELINE S STATED ABOVE AND DISCUSS ON HOW YOU CAN MINIMIZE
THE RISK AND PROTECT THE CHILD)

F. Collaborative Study Terms of Reference

Is there any agreement including intellectual property rights, publication rights, information and
responsibility sharing, transparency and capacity building?

What is your agreement between researchers and research adviser for any research
presentation or research publication purposes? (Provide statement of agreement as part of
your appendices)

32
 CONCEPT MASTERY

A. Multiple Choice
Direction: Read the following carefully questions and encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. It refers to any procedure done to select samples.

A. experimentation C. sampling
B. replication D. treatment
2. It is a subset of the population under investigation that a researcher selected to be part
of the study.
A. sample C. replicate
B. population D. variable
3. These refer to data sets that are first-hand information and experiences on the event.
A. primary author C. secondary data
B. primary data D. tertiary data
4. It involves collection of facts regarding past events that might have a significant effect
on current issues and problems.
What type of performance task did she let her students do?
A. case study C. historical
B. grounded theory D. phenomenological approach
5. It is a type of sampling that involves selecting cases based on ease of accessibility.
A. convenience C. homogenous
B. critical case D. stratified purposeful

B. True or False. Write True if the statement is correct or False if the statement is wrong.

1. Convenience sampling seeks cases that are popular at the moment.

2. Ethnography involves studying a particular group or population in the natural setting.

3. Participative observation requires the researcher to set ideal conditions for the respondents.

33
4. The aim of case study is to find out what happened in the past, which might have significant
effect on current situations.

5. Secondary source has more weight of validity than primary source especially in historical
research since the information gathered is directly experienced by the source.

 APPLY WHAT YOU KNOW

Direction: Design a simple interview sheet or questionnaire that will solicit people‘s opinion on the
state of cleanliness and orderliness of your community or barangay.

 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Direction: Implement the survey using the instrument you made in APPLY WHAT YOU KNOW.
Make sure to provide a criteria in the selection of your samples. Make a short report about this and
present it by recording yourself in a video and send the recorded video to your instructor.

 RESEARCH IN ACTION

Direction: Solve the following problem.

Darryl wants to study how a particular ethnic tribe in the Mountain Province maintains their
culture and their cultural heritage.

a. Develop a sampling criterion that Darryl might be able to use in getting his samples.
b. Decide on a particular sampling technique and explain why the technique is the most appropriate
for the study.
c. Cite ways on how to establish rapport with the interviewee.

 TRANSFER OR PERFORMANCE TASK

Direction: Engaging Scenario

Your team's proposal was partially accepted by the research-granting agency. The next
step is to design and present the methodology of your research proposal.

The panel provided guidelines for the presentation as follows:

• The presentation should not be more than five minutes. In excess of five minutes,
the presentation will be stopped.
• All co-researchers must, be present and must take turns to present a section of
the presentation.

34
 • A visual presentation, either a PowerPoint or other forms of media, is required to
aid: the presentation.
• The sequence of the presentation, as well as the number of slides allocated per
component are as follows:
Slide 1 — Title of the study and the proponents Statement of the problem and
hypothesis
Slide 2 — Methodology Discussion of the research design
Slide 3 — Sample of the study
Slide 4 — Instrumentation
Slide 5 — Data gathering procedure
• Presenters are advised to refrain from reading the slides and use it as a visual aid :
only, not as an idiot board of what one is saying. Use at least font size 28. Do not
use animations. Use texts sparingly.
• The format of Chapter Ill required for the presentation follows the standard
academic format.

There will be two types of rubrics in this performance task.

A. Oral Presentation (Individual Rating)

ORAL PRESENTATION RUBRIC: FOR CHAPTER III OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Teacher‘s Name:
Student‘s Name:

Criteria Advanced (4) Proficient (3) Developing (2) Beginning (1)

Shows a full Shows a good Shows a full Does not seem to
understanding of understanding of understanding of understand the
Content
the topic. the topic. some parts of the topic very well.
topic.
The student is The student seems The student is The student does
completely pretty prepared somewhat not seem prepared
Preparedness prepared and has but might have prepared, but to present at all.
obviously needed a couple rehearsal was
rehearsed. of rehearsals. clearly lacking.
Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and Often mumbles or
distinctly all distinctly all distinctly most cannot be
(95-100%) the (95-100%) the (85-94%) of the understood or
Clarity of voice time, and time, but time; mispronounces
mispronounces no mispronounces mispronounces no more words.
words. one word. less than one
word.
Volume is loud Volume is loud Volume is loud Volume is often
enough to be enough to be enough to be too soft to be
heard by the heard by the heard by the heard by the
Volume
audience audience at least audience at least audience.
throughout the 90% of the time. 80% of the time.
presentation.
Stays on topic all Stays on topic Stays on topic It was hard to tell
Focus (100%) of the most (90-99%) of some (75-89%) of what the topic
time. the time. the. was.
Enthusiasm Facial expressions Facial expressions Facial expressions Very little use of

35
 and body language and body language and body language facial expressions
generate sometimes are used to try to or body language;
audience’s strong generate generate did not generate
interest and audience’s strong audience’s much interest in
enthusiasm about interest and enthusiasm, but the topic being
the topic. enthusiasm about somewhat seems presented.
the topic. faked.
Business attire, Casual business Casual business General attire not
very professional attire. attire, but wore appropriate for
Attire look. sneakers or attire audience (jeans,
seemed somewhat t-shirt, shorts)
wrinkled.
Total

B. Chapter III (Written Output)

RESEARCH REPORT: CHAPTER III

Teacher‘s Name:
Student‘s Name:

Criteria Advanced (4) Proficient (3) Developing (2) Beginning (1)

Information is very Information is Information is The information
organized with organized with organized but appears to be
Organization well-constructed well-constructed paragraphs are not disorganized.
paragraphs and paragraphs. well-constructed
subheadings. paragraphs
At most 80% of the At most 70% of the At most 60% of the At most 50% of
content adheres to content adheres to content adheres to the content
the guidelines of the guidelines of the guidelines of adheres to the
Consonance to what is necessary what is necessary what is necessary guidelines of
the guidelines of to be incorporated to be incorporated to be incorporated what is necessary
constructing in each of the in each of the in each of the to be
Chapter III section of Chapter section of Chapter section of Chapter incorporated in
III. III. III. each of the
section of Chapter
III.
All sections are All sections are All sections are All sections are
presented with presented with presented with few presented with no
Amount of
subsections some subsections subsections subsections
information
described and described and described and described and
justified. justified. justified. justified.
Information clearly Information clearly Information clearly Information has
relates to the main relates to the main relates to the main little or nothing to
topic. It includes topic. It provides topic. No details do with the main
Quality of
several supporting one to two and/or topic.
information
details and/or supporting details justifications are
justifications. and/or given.
justifications.
All sources All sources All sources Some sources are
Sources
(information and (information and (information and not accurately
36
 graphics) are graphics) are graphics) are documented.
accurately accurately accurately
documented in the documented, but a documented, but
desired format. few are not in the many are not in
desired format. the desired format.
No grammatical, Almost no A few grammatical, Many
spelling, or grammatical, spelling or grammatical,
Mechanics punctuation errors. spelling or punctuation errors. spelling or
punctuation errors. punctuation
errors.
Notes are recorded Notes are recorded Notes are Notes are
and organized in legibly and are recorded. recorded only
Notes an extremely neat somewhat with peer/teacher
and orderly organized. assistance and
fashion. reminders.
Detailed draft is Draft includes all Draft includes Draft is missing
nearly presented required most required required
First Draft and includes all information and is information and is information and is
required legible. legible. difficult to read.
information.
All paragraphs Most paragraphs Paragraphs include Paragraphs’
include include related structures were
introductory introductory information but not clear and
Paragraph sentence, sentence, were typically not sentences were
construction explanations or explanations or constructed well. not typically
details, and details, and related within the
concluding concluding paragraphs.
sentence. sentence.
Total

37
 Learning Outcomes:

a. Define data analysis;

b. Enumerate the process in analyzing Quantitative and Qualitative Data;
c. Differentiate Descriptive and Inferential Statistics;
d. Enumerate and perform the commonly used statistical tools.

38
 COURSE STUDY GUIDE
College of EDUCATION

Program BEED and BSED

Course Code RES ED 2

Course Title Research in Education B

University of the Visayas Credit Unit 3

Unit 2 WEEK NO. 2

Module Topic Data Analysis
a) Define data analysis;
e) Enumerate the process in analyzing Quantitative and Qualitative Data;
Intended Learning Outcomes f) Differentiate Descriptive and Inferential Statistics;
g) Enumerate and perform the commonly used statistical tools.

No. of Hours 13.5 hours (12 hours self-directed learning and 1.5 hours of assessment tasks)
a) What is data analysis?
b) What are the processes in analyzing Quantitative and Qualitative Data?
Study Questions c) What is the difference of descriptive and inferential statistics?
d) What are the commonly used statistical tools?

Learning Resources Required Suggested

Print Clemente, R., Julaton, A.B. & Villas, J.Research in

Daily Life 1. Sibs Publishing House, 2016

Learning Activity
a) With the given course study guide (module), the students are required to read Module 2: Data Analysis.
In addition, they can utilize the given learning resources as a reference to counterpart the lesson/ topic.
b) Every lesson begins with an identification of the learning outcomes which serve as the bases for a
focused lesson development.
c) After every unit in the module, students are expected to answer the exercises found at the end of the
unit.

Required Output Coded Data

True or False
Assessment Task Problem Solving
Data Coding

Assessment Tool Problem Solving

Creative and innovative individuals, critical & analytical thinkers, and confident & self-directed lifelong
Target Competency
learners
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:
Juliena M. Diaz, LPT Carodina R. Ginolos, MAT Felix M. Diano Jr., LPT, MAED, PhDc
Faculty Program Coordinator Dean
Date: Date: Date:

Revision #001

39
 What is the first thing that comes to mind when we see data? The first instinct is to find
patterns, connections, and relationships. We look at the data to find meaning in it.

Similarly, in research, once data is collected, the next step is to get insights from it. For
example, if a clothing brand is trying to identify the latest trends among young women, the
brand will first reach out to young women and ask them questions relevant to the research
objective. After collecting this information, the brand will analyze that data to identify patterns
— for example, it may discover that most young women would like to see more variety of jeans.

Data analysis is how researchers go from a mass of data to meaningful insights. There are
many different data analysis methods, depending on the type of research. Here are a few
methods you can use to analyze quantitative and qualitative data.

40
DATA ANALYSIS

What Is Data Analysis?

Data analysis is a process that relies on methods and techniques to taking raw data,
mining for insights that are relevant to the business‘s primary goals, and drilling down into this
information to transform metrics, facts, and figures into initiatives for improvement.

There are various methods for data analysis, largely based on two core
areas: quantitative data analysis methods and data analysis methods in qualitative research.

ANALYZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

Data Preparation

The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert raw data into
something meaningful and readable. It includes four steps:

Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as possible, whether the data collection was
done as per the pre-set standards and without any bias. It is a four-step process, which
includes:

41
 To do this, researchers would need to pick a random sample of completed surveys and
validate the collected data. (Note that this can be time-consuming for surveys with lots of
responses.) For example, imagine a survey with 200 respondents split into 2 cities. The
researcher can pick a sample of 20 random respondents from each city. After this, the
researcher can reach out to them through email or phone and check their responses to a
certain set of questions.

Step 2: Data Editing

Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents may fill fields incorrectly or
skip them accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors, the researcher should
conduct basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw research data to identify and
clear out any data points that may hamper the accuracy of the results.

For example, an error could be fields that were left empty by respondents. While editing the
data, it is important to make sure to remove or fill all the empty fields.

Step 3: Data Coding

This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers to grouping and assigning
values to responses from the survey.

For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to find the average
age of the respondents, the researcher will create age buckets and categorize the age of each
of the respondent as per these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-15 years old
would have their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.)

Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with simplified age brackets, rather than a
massive range of individual ages.

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most commonly used quantitative
data analysis methods are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

42
Descriptive Statistics

In a nutshell, descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive analysis) intend

to describe a big hunk of data with summary charts and tables, but do not attempt to draw
conclusions about the population from which the sample was taken. You are simply
summarizing the data you have with pretty charts and graphs–kind of like telling someone the
key points of a book (executive summary) as opposed to just handing them a thick book (raw
data).

Univariate Analysis

Univariate analysis involves the examination across cases of one variable at a time.
There are three major characteristics of a single variable that we tend to look at:

1. The distribution
2. The central tendency
3. The dispersion

In most situations, we would describe all three of these characteristics for each of the
variables in our study.

1. The Distribution

The distribution is a summary of the frequency of individual values or ranges of values

for a variable. The simplest distribution would list every value of a variable and the number of
persons who had each value. For instance, a typical way to describe the distribution of
college students is by year in college, listing the number or percent of students at each of the
four years. Or, we describe gender by listing the number or percent of males and females. In
these cases, the variable has few enough values that we can list each one and summarize
how many sample cases had the value. But what do we do for a variable like income or
GPA? With these variables there can be a large number of possible values, with relatively
few people having each one. In this case, we group the raw scores into categories according
to ranges of values. For instance, we might look at GPA according to the letter grade ranges.
Or, we might group income into four or five ranges of income values.

43
 Category Percent
Under 35 years old 9%
36–45 21%
46–55 45%
56–65 19%
66+ 6%

One of the most common ways to describe a single variable is with a frequency
distribution. Depending on the particular variable, all of the data values may be
represented, or you may group the values into categories first (e.g., with age, price, or
temperature variables, it would usually not be sensible to determine the frequencies for each
value. Rather, the value are grouped into ranges and the frequencies determined.).
Frequency distributions can be depicted in two ways, as a table or as a graph. The table
above shows an age frequency distribution with five categories of age ranges defined. The
same frequency distribution can be depicted in a graph as shown in Figure 1. This type of
graph is often referred to as a histogram or bar chart.

Figure 1. Frequency distribution bar chart.

Distributions may also be displayed using percentages. For example, you could use
percentages to describe the:

• percentage of people in different income levels

• percentage of people in different age ranges
• percentage of people in different ranges of standardized test scores

44
2. Central Tendency

The central tendency of a distribution is an estimate of the ―center‖ of a distribution of

values. There are three major types of estimates of central tendency:

• Mean
• Median
• Mode

The Mean or average is probably the most commonly used method of describing
central tendency. To compute the mean all you do is add up all the values and divide by the
number of values. For example, the mean or average quiz score is determined by summing
all the scores and dividing by the number of students taking the exam. For example, consider
the test score values:

15, 20, 21, 20, 36, 15, 25, 15

The sum of these 8 values is 167, so the mean is 167/8 = 20.875.

The Median is the score found at the exact middle of the set of values. One way to
compute the median is to list all scores in numerical order, and then locate the score in the
center of the sample. For example, if there are 500 scores in the list, score #250 would be
the median. If we order the 8 scores shown above, we would get:

15, 15, 15, 20, 20, 21, 25, 36

There are 8 scores and score #4 and #5 represent the halfway point. Since both of
these scores are 20, the median is 20. If the two middle scores had different values, you
would have to interpolate to determine the median.

The Mode is the most frequently occurring value in the set of scores. To determine the
mode, you might again order the scores as shown above, and then count each one. The
most frequently occurring value is the mode. In our example, the value 15 occurs three times
and is the model. In some distributions there is more than one modal value. For instance, in a
bimodal distribution there are two values that occur most frequently.

45
 Notice that for the same set of 8 scores we got three different values ( 20.875, 20, and
15) for the mean, median and mode respectively. If the distribution is truly normal (i.e., bell-
shaped), the mean, median and mode are all equal to each other.

3. Dispersion

Dispersion refers to the spread of the values around the central tendency. There are
two common measures of dispersion, the range and the standard deviation. The range is
simply the highest value minus the lowest value. In our example distribution, the high value is
36 and the low is 15, so the range is 36 - 15 = 21.

The Standard Deviation is a more accurate and detailed estimate of dispersion

because an outlier can greatly exaggerate the range (as was true in this example where the
single outlier value of 36 stands apart from the rest of the values. The Standard Deviation
shows the relation that set of scores has to the mean of the sample. Again let ‘s take the set
of scores:

15, 20, 21, 20, 36, 15, 25, 15

to compute the standard deviation, we first find the distance between each value
and the mean. We know from above that the mean is 20.875. So, the differences from the
mean are:

15 - 20.875 = -5.875

20 - 20.875 = -0.875

21 - 20.875 = +0.125

20 - 20.875 = -0.875

36 - 20.875 = 15.125

15 - 20.875 = -5.875

25 - 20.875 = +4.125

15 - 20.875 = -5.875

46
 Notice that values that are below the mean have negative discrepancies and values
above it have positive ones. Next, we square each discrepancy:

-5.875 * -5.875 = 34.515625

-0.875 * -0.875 = 0.765625

+0.125 * +0.125 = 0.015625

-0.875 * -0.875 = 0.765625

15.125 * 15.125 = 228.765625

-5.875 * -5.875 = 34.515625

+4.125 * +4.125 = 17.015625

-5.875 * -5.875 = 34.515625

Now, we take these ―squares‖ and sum them to get the Sum of Squares (SS) value.
Here, the sum is 350.875. Next, we divide this sum by the number of scores minus 1. Here,
the result is 350.875 / 7 = 50.125. This value is known as the variance. To get the standard
deviation, we take the square root of the variance (remember that we squared the
deviations earlier). This would be SQRT(50.125) = 7.079901129253.

Although this computation may seem convoluted, it‘s actually quite simple. To see
this, consider the formula for the standard deviation:

where:

X is each score,

is the mean (or average),

47
 n is the number of values,

Σ means we sum across the values.

In the top part of the ratio, the numerator, we see that each score has the the mean
subtracted from it, the difference is squared, and the squares are summed. In the bottom
part, we take the number of scores minus 1. The ratio is the variance and the square root is
the standard deviation. In English, we can describe the standard deviation as:

―The square root of the sum of the squared deviations from the mean divided by the
number of scores minus one.‖

Although we can calculate these univariate statistics by hand, it gets quite tedious
when you have more than a few values and variables. Every statistics program is capable
of calculating them easily for you. For instance, by putting the eight scores into SPSS and
we got the following table as a result:

Metric Value
N 8
Mean 20.8750
Median 20.0000
Mode 15.00
Standard Deviation 7.0799
Variance 50.1250
Range 21.00

The standard deviation allows us to reach some conclusions about specific scores in our
distribution. Assuming that the distribution of scores is normal or bell-shaped (or close to it!),
the following conclusions can be reached:

• approximately 68% of the scores in the sample fall within one standard
deviation of the mean

• approximately 95% of the scores in the sample fall within two standard
deviations of the mean

• approximately 99% of the scores in the sample fall within three standard
deviations of the mean

48
 For instance, since the mean in our example is 20.875 and the standard deviation
is 7.0799, we can from the above statement estimate that approximately 95% of the scores
will fall in the range of 20.875-(2*7.0799) to 20.875+(2*7.0799) or
between 6.7152 and 35.0348. This kind of information is a critical stepping stone to
enabling us to compare the performance of an individual on one variable with their
performance on another, even when the variables are measured on entirely different
scales.

Descriptive statistics provide absolute numbers. However, they do not explain the
rationale or reasoning behind those numbers. Before applying descriptive statistics, it‘s
important to think about which one is best suited for your research question and what you
want to show. For example, a percentage is a good way to show the gender distribution of
respondents.

Descriptive statistics are most helpful when the research is limited to the sample and
does not need to be generalized to a larger population. For example, if you are comparing the
percentage of children vaccinated in two different villages, then descriptive statistics is
enough.

Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for analyzing single variable, it is often called
univariate analysis.

Inferential Statistics

With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the
immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the
sample data what the population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make
judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable
one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential
statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive
statistics simply to describe what‘s going on in our data.

1. Chi-squared test (x2-test) for Goodness of Fit

49
 The x2 -test can be used to determine whether a difference between 2 categorical
variables in a sample is likely to reflect a real difference between these 2 variables in the
population.

Note: in the case of 2 variables being compared, the test can also be interpreted as
determining if there is an association (or relationship) between the two variables.

The sample data is used to calculate a single number (or test statistic), the size of
which reflects the probability (p-value) that the observed difference between the 2 variables
has occurred by chance, ie due to sampling error.

2. Chi-squared test (x2-test) of Independence

The x2 -test is used to determine whether an association (or relationship) between 2

categorical variables in a sample is likely to reflect a real association between these 2
variables in the population.

Note: In the case of 2 variables being compared, the test can also be interpreted as
determining if there is a difference between the two variables.

The sample data is used to calculate a single number (or test statistic), the size of
which reflects the probability (p-value) that the observed association between the 2 variables
has occurred by chance, ie due to sampling error.

3. Spearman's Coefficient of Rank Correlation

When data are measured on, at least, an ordinal scale, the ordered categories can be
replaced by their ranks and Pearson‘s correlation coefficient calculated on these ranks. This
is called Spearman‘s rank correlation coefficient (rs) and provides a measure of how closely
two sets of rankings agree with each other.

Note: This is not a measure of linear association.

50
4. Pearson's Correlation Coefficient

Correlation is a technique for investigating the relationship between two quantitative,

continuous variables, for example, age and blood pressure. Pearson's correlation coefficient
(r) is a measure of the strength of the association between the two variables.

The first step in studying the relationship between two continuous variables is to draw a
scatter plot of the variables to check for linearity. The correlation coefficient should not be
calculated if the relationship is not linear. For correlation only purposes, it does not really
matter on which axis the variables are plotted. However, conventionally, the independent (or
explanatory) variable is plotted on the x-axis (horizontally) and the dependent (or response)
variable is plotted on the y-axis (vertically).

The nearer the scatter of points is to a straight line, the higher the strength of
association between the variables. Also, it does not matter what measurement units are used.

5. Paired t-tests

The paired t-test is used to compare the values of means from two related samples, for
example in a 'before and after' scenario.

The difference between the means of the samples is unlikely to be equal to zero (due
to sampling variation) and the hypothesis test is designed to answer the question "Is the
observed difference sufficiently large enough to indicate that the alternative hypothesis is
true?". The answer comes in the form of a probability - the p-value.

6. Independent Samples t-test

The t-test is used to compare the values of the means from two samples and test
whether it is likely that the samples are from populations having different mean values.

When two samples are taken from the same population it is very unlikely that the
means of the two samples will be identical. When two samples are taken from two populations
with very different means values, it is likely that the means of the two samples will differ. Our
problem is how to differentiate between these two situations using only the data from the two
samples.

51
ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA

Qualitative data analysis works a little differently from quantitative data, primarily because
qualitative data is made up of words, observations, images, and even symbols. Deriving
absolute meaning from such data is nearly impossible; hence, it is mostly used for exploratory
research. While in quantitative research there is a clear distinction between the data
preparation and data analysis stage, analysis for qualitative research often begins as soon as
the data is available.

Data Preparation and Basic Data Analysis

Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and include the following steps:

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly used data
analysis methods are:

52
 • Content analysis: This is one of the most common methods to analyze qualitative
data. It is used to analyze documented information in the form of texts, media, or
even physical items. When to use this method depends on the research questions.
Content analysis is usually used to analyze responses from interviewees.

• Narrative analysis: This method is used to analyze content from various sources,
such as interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or surveys. It
focuses on using the stories and experiences shared by people to answer the
research questions.

• Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze

interactions with people. However, it focuses on analyzing the social context in
which the communication between the researcher and the respondent occurred.
Discourse analysis also looks at the respondent‘s day-to-day environment and
uses that information during analysis.

• Grounded theory: This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain
phenomenon happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in
different settings and using the data to derive causal explanations. Researchers
may alter the explanations or create new ones as they study more cases until they
arrive at an explanation that fits all cases.

These methods are the ones used most commonly. However, other data analysis
methods, such as conversational analysis, are also available.

Data analysis is perhaps the most important component of research. Weak analysis
produces inaccurate results that not only hamper the authenticity of the research but also
make the findings unusable. It‘s imperative to choose your data analysis methods carefully to
ensure that your findings are insightful and actionable.

53
 CONCEPT MASTERY

True or False. Write True if the statement is correct or False if the statement is wrong.

1. Data analysis is how researchers go from a mass of data to meaningful insights.

2. The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert
raw data into something meaningful and readable.

3. Data editing refers to grouping and assigning values to responses from the
survey.

4. The mode is the score found at the exact middle of the set of values.
5. Correlation is a technique for investigating the relationship between two
quantitative, continuous variables, for example, age and blood pressure.
6. The paired z-test is used to compare the values of means from two related
samples, for example in a 'before and after' scenario.
7. Weak analysis produces inaccurate results that not only hamper the authenticity
of the research but also make the findings unusable.
8. Narrative analysis is used to analyze content from various sources, such as
interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or surveys.
9. Content Analysis is one of the methods used to analyze quantitative data.
10. If you are comparing the percentage of children vaccinated in two different
villages, we use inferential statistics.

54
 APPLY WHAT YOU KNOW

Follow the instructions given below:

I. A survey was taken on Mango Avenue. In each of 20 homes, people were asked how
many cars were registered to their households. The results were recorded as follows:

3, 1, 4, 0, 2, 1, 5, 2, 1, 5, 4, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 1, 0, 3, 2.

(a) Present this data in Frequency Distribution Table.

(b) Also, find the maximum number of cars registered by household.

Frequency Distribution Table

Number of Cars Frequency Percent (%)
0
1
2
3
4
5
n=

II. In a survey of 10 households, the number of children was found to be 4, 1, 5, 4, 3, 7, 2,

3, 4, 1

(a) State the mode.

(b) Calculate

(i) the mean number of children per household

(ii) the median number of children per household.

(c) A researcher says: "The mode seems to be the best average to represent the data in
this survey." Give ONE reason to support this statement.

55
III. Determine the range and standard deviation of the set of data, round to the nearest
hundredth when applicable. You may use your calculator to calculate standard deviation.

1) 10, 10, 14, 16, 8, 8

2) 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15

3) 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200

4) 1, 3, 71, 8, 92, 63

5) 5, 10, 20, 200, 300, 400

56
 TRANSFER OR PERFORMANCE TASK
Data Coding: Code the raw data given below.

Gender:
Male = 0
Female = 1
Socio Economic Status:
Lower Class = 0
Middle Class = 1
Upper Class = 2
Grade level:
11 = 0
12 = 1

Socio Economic
Age Gender Status Grade Level
20 Female Middle Class 12
18 Female Middle Class 11
18 Male Lower Class 11
18 Female Middle Class 11
17 Female Middle Class 12
18 Male Middle Class 11
19 Male Lower Class 12
18 Female Lower Class 12
21 Male Middle Class 12
18 Female Middle Class 11
20 Female Middle Class 12
19 Male Middle Class 12
25 Female Middle Class 11
19 Female Lower Class 12
18 Female Middle Class 11
17 Male Middle Class 11
18 Male Upper Class 12
19 Male Middle Class 12
18 Female Upper Class 11
18 Female Lower Class 11

Write your coded data in the table below.

Socio Economic
Age Gender Status Grade Level
20
18
18
18
17
18
19
18

57
21
18
20
19
25
19
18
17
18
19
18
18

58
Learning Outcomes:

a. Define data processing;

b. Determine when to present data in textual, tabular and graphical form;
c. Interpret data; and
d. Analyze data.

59
 COURSE STUDY GUIDE
College of EDUCATION

Program BEED and BSED

Course Code RES ED 2

Course Title Research in Education B

University of the Visayas Credit Unit 3

Unit 3 WEEK NO. 3

Module Topic
Intended Learning Outcomes
Presentation of Data
a) Define data processing;
b) Determine when to present data in textual, tabular and graphical form;
c) Interpret data; and
d) Analyze data.

No. of Hours 13.5 hours (12 hours self-directed learning and 1.5 hours of assessment tasks)
a) What is data processing?
b) How do we present data?
c) When do we present data in textual, tabular and graphical form?
Study Questions
d) How do we interpret data?
e) How do we analyze data?

Learning Resources Required Suggested

Print Clemente, R., Julaton, A.B. & Villas, J.Research in

Daily Life 1. Sibs Publishing House, 2016

Learning Activity
a. With the given course study guide (module), the students are required to read Module 3: Presentation of
Data. In addition, they can utilize the given learning resources as a reference to counterpart the lesson/ topic.
b. Every lesson begins with an identification of the learning outcomes which serve as the bases for a focused
lesson development.
c. After every unit in the module, students are expected to answer the exercises found at the end of the unit.

Required Output Interpreted and Analyzed Data

Multiple Choice
Short Essay
Assessment Task
Data Interpretation
Data Analysis
Short Essay
Assessment Tool
Problem Solving
Creative and innovative individuals, critical & analytical thinkers, and confident & self-directed lifelong
Target Competency
learners
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:
Juliena M. Diaz, LPT Carodina R. Ginolos, MAT Felix M. Diano Jr., LPT, MAED, PhDc
Faculty Program Coordinator Dean
Date: Date: Date:

Revision #001

60
 Once data has been collected, it has to be classified and organized in such a way that
it becomes easily readable and interpretable that is, converted to information. Before the
calculation of descriptive statistics, it is sometimes a good idea to present data as tables,
charts, diagrams or graphs. Most people find ‗pictures‘ much more helpful than ‗numbers‘ in
the sense that, in their opinion, they present data more meaningfully. In this course, we will
consider the various possible types of presentation of data and justification for their use in
given situations.

WAYS TO PRESENT DATA

How are gathered data processed and presented?

Data processing is any operation done on the data such as gathering and managing
it. Data gathered may be processed using computer programs and presented in textual,
tabular, and graphical formats.

In the context of research, data presentation refers to the process of arranging data
into logical, sequential, and meaningful manner to make them acceptable for analysis and
interpretation.

61
Textual Presentation

In textual presentation, most cases use statements with numerals or numbers to

describe data. This also includes reporting key findings under each main theme or category
and by using applicable verbatim quotes to describe those findings.

Qualitative researchers often use figures and pictures to display their findings and
augment the textual discussion. Below are some suggestions to report qualitative findings.

1. Construct a hierarchical tree diagram. From broad themes, interconnections of

subthemes can be represented visually using a tree diagram. An example of this
diagram is given below.

62
 2. Capture ideas in figures. Illustrations with boxed themes showing connections best
describes a figure. Hierarchy of themes may not be obvious in this illustration.

3. Draw a map. Maps can depict location of the research setting easily and clearly.
They can also provide visuals for the readers of the locations of various activities or
events.

Tabular Presentation

By definition, a table is a systematic arrangement of related data in which a row is

designated to each group of numerical data and a column for each subgroup. This procedure
is suggested to present relationships of a given set or numerical information, if they exist, in a
definite and understandable forms.

The purpose of a table is to facilitate the analysis and interpretation, and the making of
inferences and implications of the relationships of the grouped data. Some researchers
would prefer the use of tables rather than texts for some reasons. The following are some
advantages of tabular over textual presentation of data:

✓ Tables are concise representations of vast information because data are

arranged and grouped systematically. It is also a good way to explain data
briefly but comprehensively.
✓ Tables enable easy interpretation of data because information can be more
easily read, understood, and compared.

63
 ✓ Tables give the whole information even without combining numerical data with
the textual content.
For reference purposes, each table should have a number. In most cases, Hindu-
Arabic numbers are used. It is necessary because only the table numbers are cited in the
discussion. Usually, the number is written above or before the title of the table. The style of
the table number and title depends on the format adopted (e.g., APA format). The title of the
table should include the subject matter where it is situated, to what object or person it
belongs, or from whom the data about the subject matter were gathered. Two types of tables
are commonly used in qualitative research. are demographic and comparison tables.
A demographic table provides information about personal or demographic
information of the research subjects or settings.

A comparison table compares groups under one theme.

Graphical Presentation

In qualitative research, graphs may represent individual categories and descriptive

statistics, if needed. The commonly used descriptive statistics in qualitative research are
percentage, frequency, measures of centrality (mean, median, and mode), and measures of

64
variation (range and standard deviation). Qualitative data does not come with a
pre-established ordering necessary for some statistical measures.

There are many ways on how qualitative data can be graphically shown. A pie chart or
a bar graph can be used.

In a pie chart, categories are represented by slices of the pie. The area of this slice
should be proportional to the percentage of responses or answers in a given category, which
is the relative frequency multiplied by 100. A pie chart is effective for showing the relative
frequencies of a small number of categories.

In a bar graph, frequencies of different categories are displayed. Frequencies are

shown on the y-axis and the category on the x-axis. In most cases, the y-axis shows the
number of observations instead of percentages.

65
In constructing a graph, the following must be considered:

➢ Number. Graphs are numbered for reference purposes.

➢ Title. The title is commonly written above the graph.
➢ Scale. It shows the length or height unit that describes a given quantity of the variable,
which is the content of the graph.
➢ Classification and arrangement. The principles are the same with those of the table.
➢ x- and y-axes labels. Classes, categories, or time series are indicated at the x-axis
while the scale units are indicated at the y-axis.
➢ Symmetry of the graph. The chart is usually placed at the center of the page, or in
some instance, the left margin is wider.
➢ Footnote. If there is footnote, it should be placed immediately below the graph aligned
with the left side of the graph.
➢ Source. If there is source of data, it should be written just below the chart at the lower
left immediately below the footnote, if there is any, but it should be above the graph
number.

66
What is Data Interpretation?

Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data through some predefined

processes which will help assign some meaning to the data and arrive at a relevant
conclusion. It involves taking the result of data analysis, making inferences on the relations
studied, and using them to conclude.

The importance of data interpretation is evident and this is why it needs to be done
properly. Data is very likely to arrive from multiple sources and has a tendency to enter the
analysis process with haphazard ordering. Data analysis tends to be extremely subjective.
That is to say, the nature and goal of interpretation will vary from business to business, likely
correlating to the type of data being analyzed. While there are several different types of
processes that are implemented based on individual data nature, the two broadest and most
common categories are ―quantitative analysis‖ and ―qualitative analysis‖.

Yet, before any serious data interpretation inquiry can begin, it should be understood
that visual presentations of data findings are irrelevant unless a sound decision is made
regarding scales of measurement. Before any serious data analysis can begin, the scale of

67
measurement must be decided for the data as this will have a long-term impact on data
interpretation ROI. The varying scales include:

• Nominal Scale: non-numeric categories that cannot be ranked or compared

quantitatively. Variables are exclusive and exhaustive.

• Ordinal Scale: exclusive categories that are exclusive and exhaustive but with
a logical order. Quality ratings and agreement ratings are examples of ordinal scales
(i.e., good, very good, fair, etc., OR agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.).

• Interval: a measurement scale where data is grouped into categories with

orderly and equal distances between the categories. There is always an arbitrary zero
point.

• Ratio: contains features of all three.

How to Interpret Data?

When interpreting data, an analyst must try to discern the differences between
correlation, causation and coincidences, as well as many other bias – but he also has to
consider all the factors involved that may have led to a result. There are various data
interpretation methods one can use.

The interpretation of data is designed to help people make sense of numerical data that
has been collected, analyzed and presented. Having a baseline method (or methods) for
interpreting data will provide your analyst teams a structure and consistent foundation.
Indeed, if several departments have different approaches to interpret the same data, while
sharing the same goals, some mismatched objectives can result. Disparate methods will lead
to duplicated efforts, inconsistent solutions, wasted energy and inevitably – time and money.
In this part, we will look at the two main methods of interpretation of data: with a qualitative
and a quantitative analysis.

Qualitative Data Interpretation

Qualitative data analysis can be summed up in one word – categorical. With qualitative
analysis, data is not described through numerical values or patterns, but through the use of

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descriptive context (i.e., text). Typically, narrative data is gathered by employing a wide
variety of person-to-person techniques. These techniques include:

• Observations: detailing behavioral patterns that occur within an observation

group. These patterns could be the amount of time spent in an activity, the type of
activity and the method of communication employed.

• Documents: much like how patterns of behavior can be observed, different

types of documentation resources can be coded and divided based on the type of
material they contain.

• Interviews: one of the best collection methods for narrative data. Enquiry
responses can be grouped by theme, topic or category. The interview approach
allows for highly-focused data segmentation.

A key difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis is clearly noticeable in

the interpretation stage. Qualitative data, as it is widely open to interpretation, must be
―coded‖ so as to facilitate the grouping and labeling of data into identifiable themes. As
person-to-person data collection techniques can often result in disputes pertaining to proper
analysis, qualitative data analysis is often summarized through three basic principles: notice
things, collect things, think about things.

Quantitative Data Interpretation

If quantitative data interpretation could be summed up in one word (and it really can‘t) that
word would be ―numerical.‖

Typically, quantitative data is measured by visually presenting correlation tests between two
or more variables of significance. Different processes can be used together or separately, and
comparisons can be made to ultimately arrive at a conclusion. Other signature interpretation
processes of quantitative data include:

• Regression analysis

• Cohort analysis

• Predictive and prescriptive analysis

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 CONCEPT MASTERY

A. Multiple Choice
Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which statement pertains to thematic analysis of data?
A. It involves looking at each case narratively.
B. It shows the main themes that summarize all the views collected.
C. It is used in conjunction with other methods like ethnography and historical
research.
D. It enables one focus on human behavior in an indirect way by analyzing their
communications.
2. Which is NOT a function of data analysis softwares?
A. Coding
B. Organization
C. Self-instruction
D. Retrieval of information
3. It involves looking into types and relationships that exist in a given situation.
A. causes
B. frequencies
C. processes
D. structures
4. Which is the purpose of a table?
A. to show data erroneously
B. to confuse the researcher
C. to facilitate the study and interpretation
D. to make conclusions using statistical data
5. Which is NOT an advantage of tabular over textual presentation of data?
A. Data are more easily read, understood, and compared.
B. The reader can understand and interpret a great bulk of data rapidly.

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 C. Statistical tables are concise; data are systematically grouped and arranged.
D. Tables give the whole information even with combining numerals with textual
matter.
6. What are the common ways on how qualitative data can be graphically shown?
A. using figures and symbol C. using a line graph and pictograph
B. using a pie chart or a bar graph D. using textual and tabular presentation
7. Which is/are not essential(s) of a graph?
A. headers and tables C. number, title, and scale
B. symmetry of the graph D. classification and arrangement
8. Data cannot be interpreted by .
A. asking for device from colleagues C. contextualizing findings in the literature
B. linking results to personal experiences D. limiting the analysis in the context of the
present study
9. What step should NOT be followed in data interpretation?
A. Think beyond the data. C. Disregard outlying data or data that
B. Consider the data from various seems to be the exception.
perspectives. D. Make visible the assumptions and
beliefs that influence your interpretation.
10. In relating your findings with pertinent literature, what should be considered?
A. comparability C. dissimilarity
B. disagreement D. readability

 APPLY WHAT YOU KNOW

Infer. When are you going to present data using of the following?
I. Textual Presentation
II. Tabular Presentation
III. Graphical Presentation

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 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Data Interpretation. Interpret and analyze the data based on the tips you have learned in class.

Table 1. Demographic Information for the Respondents

Variable Frequency Percent (%)
Female 122 69.32
Gender Male 54 30.68
Non-White 86 48.86
Race
White 90 51.14
English 116 65.91
Home Languange
Non-English 60 34.09

Interpretation:

 RESEARCH IN ACTION

Is it a myth or a fact? There are many beliefs and practices and practices like
eating chocolates will cause acne or pimples, or taking memory enhancers
would improve your grades. With many claims and testimonies regarding
these issues, make your own data analysis procedure to solve your inquiry

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Learning Outcomes:

a) Demonstrate an understanding of guidelines in making conclusions and

recommendations;
b) Formulate logical conclusions;
c) Make recommendations based on conclusions; and
d) Demonstrate accuracy in listing references.
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 COURSE STUDY GUIDE
College of EDUCATION

Program BEED and BSED

Course Code RES ED 2

Course Title Research in Education B

University of the Visayas Credit Unit 3

Unit 4 WEEK NO. 4

Module Topic
Intended Learning Outcomes
Guidelines on Crafting the Summary of Findings, Conclusion & Recommendation
Citation and Referencing
a. Demonstrate an understanding of guidelines in making conclusions and recommendations;
b. Formulate logical conclusions;
c. Make recommendations based on conclusions; and
d. Demonstrate accuracy in listing references.

No. of Hours
13.5 hours (12 hours self-directed learning and 1.5 hours of assessment tasks)
a. What are the guidelines in making conclusions and recommendations?
b. How to summarize findings?
Study Questions
c. What are the techniques in listing references?

Learning Resources Required Suggested

Print Clemente, R., Julaton, A.B. & Villas, J.Research in

Daily Life 1. Sibs Publishing House, 2016

a. With the given course study guide (module), the students are required to read Module 4: Guidelines on
Crafting the Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation; Citation and Referencing. In addition,
they can utilize the given learning resources as a reference to counterpart the lesson/ topic.
Learning Activity b. Every lesson begins with an identification of the learning outcomes which serve as the bases for a focused
lesson development.
c. After every unit in the module, students are expected to answer the exercises found at the end of the unit.

Required Output Research Poster

Multiple Choice Test

Assessment Task Short Essay
Research Poster Making
Assessment Tool Rubrics
Creative and innovative individuals, critical & analytical thinkers, and confident & self-directed lifelong
Target Competency
learners
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:
Juliena M. Diaz, LPT Carodina R. Ginolos, MAT Felix M. Diano Jr., LPT, MAED, PhDc
Faculty Program Coordinator Dean
Date: Date: Date:

Revision #001

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

What are the guidelines in making conclusions and recommendations?

Most research studies end with conclusions and recommendations. Conclusions are
abstractions generated from the findings that answer the specific questions. Recommendations,
on the other hand, are suggestive statements that put the research findings into practical utility
of the stakeholders. They may also be suggestions for further investigation to improve the use
of the present research findings by all interested parties.

Guidelines in Writing the Conclusions

In writing the conclusions, the following ideas may be considered:

1. Conclusions are inferences, implications, interpretations, general statements, and/or

generalizations based upon the results or findings of the study.

2. Conclusions should properly answer the specific questions presented at the start of
the investigation.

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 3. Conclusions should be expressed in a concise statement that conveys all the
important information.

4. Conclusions should be stated in a strong, clear, and definite manner.

5. Conclusions should pertain only to the subject or topic of the study.

6. Conclusions should not include repetitions of the statements in the study.

Guidelines in Writing the Recommendations

In writing recommendations, the following pointers may be taken into account:

1. Recommendations should aim to problems discovered in the study.

2. Recommendations should be based only within the context of the research problem. If
it is not within the scope of the study, it irrelevant.

3. Recommendations can be statements signifying continuance of a good practice and

for its improvement.

4. Recommendations should be doable, attainable, and practical. It must also be logical

rational, and valid.

5. Recommendations can be addressed to individuals, agencies, institutions, or offices to

whom or which in a proper position to implement them.

6. Recommendations should be for further research On the same topic. It can cover
other places to and validate the study.

Techniques in Listing References

What are the techniques in listing references?

The list of references or bibliography is the accounting of all document citations used
in the research report to enable readers to retrieve the cited sources for further information of
verification of some related ideas. Because of this, the list of references must provide complete

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information about all the cited sources. Elements of these bibliographical entries had been
discussed in Chapter 5.

Listing references refer to creating a page for references made in the study.

The following are techniques on how to list references using the APA style.

1. Organization

✓ Ensure that the reference list is strictly alphabetical in terms of the author's name,
regardless of whether the source is a book, a printed or electronic journal, or any
other source type.
✓ If more than one source of the same author appears in the same year are used,
the sources are differentiated by using letters a, b, c, etc. The letter should appear
after the date of publication. Example: Creswell, J. (2016a) Creswell, J. (2016b) .
✓ The bibliography should contain the complete sources of related literature and
studies used in the study.
✓ All in-text citations should be listed in the list of references.

2. Language and style

✓ The use of the ampersand (&), instead of "and" is used in the reference list.
✓ Punctuation marks like periods must be used correctly.

3. Quotations

✓ When lifting textual segments, those consisting of 40 words or less should appear
in quotation marks. If the quotation is made up of more than 40 words, it should be
indented from the body of the text. The indented quote should not contain any
quotation marks.
✓ All quotes should include the year of publication as well as the page number.

4. General Reference

✓ Valuable information on additional resources may be available in the school's

library service. Some electronic referencing resources are also available online.
Databases are also of great value.

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 ✓ Some publications can have revised or later edition of an earlier publication; in
this case, it should be denoted by the terms "Revised edition" or "nth edition"
(whatever edition it is) in the reference list after the title of the source.
✓ Some journals are different to small degrees (a space, a comma, etc.) from the
standard forms of referencing. The number one rule in referencing is consistency.
For example, if you started placing a comma in a certain position, you must
continue doing it throughout the research report.

Table 8-1 summarizes the format in APA style for each type of reference.

Table 8-1
Reference APA Style
Types of References Format
Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. E. (2009). How to design and evaluate research in education
Book
(7th ed.). San Francisco: McGraw-Hill.
Jacoby, R., & Glauberman, N. (Eds.). (1995). The bell curve debate: History, documents,
Edited book
opinions. NY: Random House.
Gould, S. J. (1995). Mismeasure by any measure. In R. Jacoby & N. Glauberman (Eds.),
Chapter in a book
The bell curve debate: History, documents, opinions. NY: Random House.
Clarke, A. T., & Kurts-Costes, B. (May/June, 1997). Television viewing, educational quality
Journal article of the hom environment, and school readiness. The Journal of Educational Research,
90(5),279-285.
Spitzer, S. L. (2001). No words necessary: An ethnography of daily activities with the
Dissertation
young children who don’t talk. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern
(unpublished)
California.
Liss, A. (2004). Whose America? Culture wars in the public schools [Review of the book
Book review
Whose America? Culture wars in the public schools.] Social Education, 68, 238.
Learnframe. (2000, August). Facts, figures, and forces behind e-learning. Retrieved
Electronic source
October 15, 2002, from http://www.learnframe.com/aboutlearning/

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 CONCEPT MASTERY

A. Multiple Choice
Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which is a characteristic of a conclusion?
A. Conclusions should be stated in indefinite manner.
B. Conclusions should pertain to various subjects of the study.
C. Conclusions should include repetitions of the statements in the study.
D. Conclusions should be expressed in a concise, brief, short statement that conveys
all the important information.
2. Which is not a characteristic of a recommendation?
A. No recommendations should be made for a problem.
B. Recommendations should be doable, attainable, and practical.
C. Recommendations should aim to solve problems discovered in the study.
D. Recommendations can be statements signifying continuity and/or improvement of
a good practice.
3. When you use quotations directly for your research study, you must consider that
.
A. All quotes may ignore the year of publication.
B. Indented quotes should have any quotation marks.
C. Forty words or less should appear in quotation marks.
D. If more than 40 words, the quotation should not be indented.
4. In the process of report writing, you must first .
A. Cite references accurately.
B. Write clearly and concisely.
C. Edit your paper several times.
D. Decide on what sections to include.
5. In writing your report, all should be followed except
A. Cite references carefully.

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 B. Paraphrasing is not a must.
C. Always acknowledge your source.
D. Refer to diagrams in the paragraphs that can help you.
6. What integral part of a research report discusses its purpose
A. conclusion C. literature review
B. introduction D. recommendation
7. This is a part of the research report where the research procedure is presented,
A. conclusion C. literature review
B. introduction D. methodology
8. This part discusses the relevance of the results and how the findings are related with
other research studies in a particular area.
A. discussion C. related literature
B. introduction D. results
9. This part includes suggestions for what needs to be done as a result of the findings.
A. conclusion C. literature review
B. introduction D. recommendation
10. All are considered for selecting a research design except .
A. audience C. research proposal
B. research problem D. personal experiences of the researcher

 APPLY WHAT YOU KNOW

Explain: How does a conclusion differ from recommendation?

Then provide an example of a conclusion based on your research study.

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 RESEARCH IN ACTION

Complete your research paper.

1. Formulate a recommendation for your research study.
2. List the references you utilized in your research according to the APA style format.

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 TRANSFER OR PERFORMANCE TASK

Engaging Scenario
After writing the Chapter III of your research proposal, your final goal is to create and
present a research poster to the research-granting agency. Your research poster should:
✓ Include the essential parts of a research poster
✓ Attract viewers in spite of being simple, with less use of color but an interesting one
✓ Include evidence of the number of viewers
Rubric for Research Poster
Criteria Exceeds Standards Meet Standards (3) Approaches Below Standard (1)
(4) Standards (2)
Details on the poster Details on the poster Details on the poster Details on the poster
capture the include important relate to the topic have little or
important information but the but are too general nothing to do with
Coverage of the information about audience may need or incomplete. The main topic.
topic the topic and more information to audience needs
increase the understand fully. more information to
audience’s understand.
understanding.
All graphics are All graphics are All graphics relate to Graphics do not
related to the topic related to the topic the topic. relate to the topic.
Use of graphics and make the poster and most make the
easier to poster easier to
understand. understand.
Information is very Information is Information is The information
organized with organized with organized but appears to be
Organization well-constructed well-constructed paragraphs are not disorganized.
paragraphs and paragraphs. well-constructed
subheadings. paragraphs
All information on Most of the Most of the Much of the
the poster is in focus information on the information on the information on the
and the content can poster is in focus poster is in focus poster is unclear or
Layout and Design be easily viewed and and the content can and the content can too small.
identified from six be easily viewed and be easily viewed and
feet away. identified from six identified from four
feet away. feet away.
All sources All sources All sources Some sources are
(information and (information and (information and not accurately
graphics) are graphics) are graphics) are documented.
Sources accurately accurately accurately
documented in the documented, but a documented, but
desired format. few are not in the many are not in the
desired format. desired format.
No grammatical, Almost no A few grammatical, Many grammatical,
spelling, or grammatical, spelling or spelling or
Mechanics
punctuation errors. spelling or punctuation errors. punctuation errors.
punctuation errors.
Total

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