1

FUNCTION: CONTROLLING THE OPERATION OF THE SHIP AND CARE FOR

PERSONS ON BOARD (MANAGEMENT LEVEL)
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE- STABILITY
FIRST MATE OF A FOREIGN GOING SHIP (PHASE- II)

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER-1 Moments of Inertia

CHAPTER-2 Stability at Moderate and Large angles of Heel, Rolling Period,

CHAPTER-3 Inclining Experiment

CHAPTER-4 Recommendations on Intact Stability Code for Passenger and Cargo ships.

CHAPTER-5 Rolling of Ships

CHAPTER-6 Thrust due to liquid pressure / Centre of Pressure

CHAPTER-7 Shearing Force and Bending Moments

CHAPTER-8 Effect of Bilging on Transverse and Longitudinal Stability

CHAPTER-1 Moments of Inertia

Inertia of a body ,is its property to resist or oppose change when at rest or if in motion.
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The moment of inertia is also called the ‘ second moment of area’

The second moment of an area about an axis is equal to the product of the mass/area and the square of its distance
from the axis of rotation.

I = Mr2 , where M is the mass and r is the distance from the axis of rotation.

Wheel A Wheel B
In the above figures, A is a disc, while figure B is a spoked wheel. Both are of the same outer radius and
mass. However the centroid of the mass A will be closer to the centre, than the centroid in case of wheel B,
where the centroid of the mass is further away from the centre of rotation.
‘I’ for Wheel A will be lesser than’ I ‘for wheel B, since the resultant centre of gravity of A is closer to its
centre than in the case of wheel B.
Hence, if both are rolled on the ground, wheel A will roll a shorter distance ,before its moment of inertia is
overcome by the force of ground fiction, whereas wheel B will travel a further distance before its moment
of inertia can be overcome by the friction of the ground.

The unit of Moment of Inertia is m4.

In the above figure the second moment of the rectangle about an axis(CE) parallel to one of its sides and
passing through the centroid is given by the formula
ICE = Lb3
12 where L is the length and b the breadth
Similarly, the second moment of the rectangle about an axis(AB) parallel to one of its sides and passing
through the centroid is given by the formula
IAB = bL3
12
The second moment of a triangle about an axis(AC) parallel to its base and passing through the centroid(G)
is given by the formula
IAC = BD3
36 ,where B is the breadth of the base and D is the depth
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Application of Moment of Inertia to ships

A ship floating at a particular draft (T), has a unique water plane. When the ship rolls in the condition, if
one looks from the top, the entire water plane area seems to oscillate about its longitudinal centroidal axis
(shown in blue). The area moment of inertia of this waterplane area about its centroidal axis is the
transverse moment of inertia of waterplane at the corresponding draft.
The waterplane creates initial stability by it’s resistance to being rotated about it’s centerline.

Theorem of Parallel axes

The moment of inertia of a body about an axis parallel to the body passing through its centre is equal to the
sum of moment of inertia of the body about the axis passing through the centre and product of the area of the
body times the square of the distance between the two axes.

I = IG + Ad2
Moment Of Inertia for Curvilinear shapes
It is often found necessary to determine the area, centroid of a curved plane ,such as a waterplane, and the second
moment of area of the waterplane.

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The above figure ABCD, is half a waterplane area(WPA) whose ordinates are a,b, c etc.
The area, 1st moment of area and moment of inertia of this WPA can be calculated by Simpson’s rules
A)For calculating the moment of inertia about a transverse axis, through the centre of flotation(F), we
first calculate the moment of inertia of the waterplane about one end by running an ordinate of the order
x2y through Simpson’s Rule.

1. Area of waterplane = 2 x h/3(Σ ) , where h is the common interval between the ordinates
2. Posn. Of COF from end ‘a’ = Σ1h
Σ
3. Moment of Inertia about end ‘a’ is Ia= 2 x h/3 (Σ2h2)
Hence, Moment of Inertia about COF is ICOF = Ia – Ad2 , where A is area of waterplane and d is the
distance of the COF from side ‘a’ .

B) For calculating the moment of inertia about a centreline axis(BC), through the centre of flotation(F),
we calculate the moment of inertia of the waterplane by running the ordinate of the order y3x through
Simpson’s Rule.

Moment of Inertia about centreline is ICL = 2 x h/3 x 1/3 (Σ )

The Transverse metacentric radius( BMT) is the height of the transverse metacentre above the centre of buoyancy
and is found by using the formula:

BMT = ICL/V where ICL is the second moment of the water-plane area about the centre line axis,

and V is the ship’s volume of displacement.

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The Longitudinal metacentric radius( BML) is the height of the longitudinal metacentre above the centre of
buoyancy and is found by using the formula:

BML = ICOF/V where ICOF is the second moment of the water-plane area about a transverse axis passing through the
centre of flotation, and V is the ship’s volume of displacement.

Moment of Inertia of a liquid surface in a slack tank is used to find the Free Surface Effect of the slack tank.

FSE= Virtual Loss of GM = i x δ

W
where I is the moment of inertia of the liquid surface, δ is the density of the liquid and W is the
displacement of the vessel.

CHAPTER-2 Stability at Moderate and Large angles of Heel,

Rolling Period,
The moment of statical stability at small angles of heel is calculated using the formula W x GZ , where GZ=
GMsinθ

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However for angles of heel greater than . say 10 deg, the centre of buoyancy moves further away from the
centreline, such that the line of force of buoyancy acting upwards , through this displaced COB, now
intercepts the vertical line passing through the upright COB ,at another point than the initial Metacentre.
As a result there is a change in KM and GM values.
The value of GZ can no longer be considered equal to GMsinθ
M1

Up to the angle at which the deck edge is immersed, GZ may be found by using a formula known as the
Wall sided formula; i.e. GZ = (GM + ½BMtan2θ)sinθ
The Wall sided formula is so named , as it applies as long as the parallel sides are above water. Once the
deck edge is immersed, the waterplane area changes considerably and since the value of BM is based on
the moment of inertia of the waterplane, the value of BM changes.
GZ values at greater angles of heel can be calculated by Atwood’s formula
Moment of statical stability= W (v x hh1) - BG sinθ)
V
Where v = the volume of the immersed or emerged wedge
hh1 = the horizontal component of the shift of the centre of gravity of the wedge
V = the underwater volume of the ship
BG = distance between centres of buoyancy and gravity

Rolling Period
Natural Roll period of a ship, is the time it takes from upright position to going to a particular angle on port
side and then going to an angle on starboard side and then again returning back to upright position (zero list
position) during natural rolling in still water.
The Time Period (T or TR) is the natural rolling period for the vessel for its condition of GMf and the transverse
distribution of weights on board.

One of the formula for calculating roll period is

In the above formula K is the Radius of gyration,and g is the acceleration due to gravity(9.81m/sec 2)

Radius of Gyration can be defined as the distance of a point, on either side of the centreline of the ship,
where the resultant of all weights on that side may be considered to act at.
The time period of roll varies directly as K, the radius of gyration. Hence if the radius of gyration is
increased, then the time period is also increased. K may be increased by moving weights away from the
centreline axis of oscillation.

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Average K value is about 0.35 × Br. Mld.

-The time period of roll is completely independent of the actual amplitude of the roll so long as it is a small
angle.
-The time period of roll varies directly as K, the radius of gyration. Hence if the radius of gyration is
increased, then the time period is also increased. K may be increased by moving weights away from the
axis of oscillation. Average K value is about 0.35 × Br. Mld.
-The time period of roll varies inversely as the square root of the initial metacentric height. Therefore, ships
with a large GM will have a short period and those with a small GM will have a long period.
-The time period of roll will change when weights are loaded, discharged, or shifted within a ship, as this
usually affects both the radius of gyration and the initial metacentric height.
-The time period of roll is completely independent of the actual amplitude(extent of degrees of roll on
either side) of the roll so long as it is a small angle.
Rolling Period Test
An approximation of the initial GM in small ships(upto 70m in length) may be obtained by the expression
GMI = (f.B)2
( Tr)2 ,Where f = the rolling co-efficient , which varies from 0.88 for thew ship in ballast to about
0.73 for the fully loaded vessel. The rolling co-efficient varies with the radius of gyration.
‘B’ – Ship’s Breadth
‘TR’= Rolling period in seconds.
The test should be conducted in harbour with minimum interference from wind and tide.
The ship is rolled to one side by external force( a small boat pulling on a high point amidships).
The time taken for at least 5 complete oscillations should then be averaged.
A long period of roll corresponds to a low GM (0.20m or less)with reduced accuracy.
The initial stability may be graphically determined by using a sample ’nomogram’ as below

The values of B and f are marked and connected by a straight line to intersect the straight line ‘mm’ at M.
A second straight line is drawn connecting the TR to M and extended to the GM scale, from where the
initial GM can be read off.

CHAPTER-3 Inclining Experiment

Purpose:It is an experiment carried out on new-build ships( or an existing ship that has had major
structural change) to determine the position of her centre of gravity( KG and LCG) in the lightship condition
KG.Once KG of lightship is known, KG in any load condition can be calculated.

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Principle : By suspending a long pendulum at a suitable high point on the ship (such as above a open
hatchway) and heeling the ship, the deflection of the pendulum bob is recorded.
The ratio Plumbline length x Heeling Moment = GM
Displacement x Deflection
d

Let a mass of ‘w’ tonnes be shifted across the deck through a distance ‘d’ metres. This will cause the centre
of gravity of the ship to move from G to G1 parallel to the shift of the centre of gravity of the weight. The
ship will then list to bring G1 vertically under M, i.e. to θ degrees list. The plumb line will thus be deflected
along the batten from B to C. Since AC is the new vertical, angle BAC must also be θ degrees.
GG1 = tanθ = BC , where BC = Deflection of pendulum and AC= Length of pendulum
GM AB
Since GG1= w x d , w x d = BC
W W x GM AB
Therefore GM = w x d x Length of pendulum
W x deflection of pendulum
Procedure:
1.Two or three plumb lines are used and each is attached at the centreline of the ship at a height of about
10 m above a specially constructed batten which lies perfectly horizontal when the ship is upright.(If two
lines are used then one is placed forward and the other aft. If a third line is used it is usually placed
amidships).
2.The ship is forcibly inclined by shifting weights a fixed distance transversely across the deck. (The weights
used are usually concrete blocks)
3. A little time is allowed for the ship to settle and then the deflection of the plumb line along the batten is
noted.
4. The weight is now returned to its original position with the ship upright.
5. The ship is then listed in the opposite direction and the deflection of the plumbline noted.
6. From the deflections, the GM is calculated for each instance of inclining and an average obtained.
7. With the KM already known, the KG is calculated for this draft.
8.By taking moments about the keel, for weights to be removed or added to obtain lightship, the KG for
lightship is calculated.
Every new ship should have an Inclining Experiment. However, some shipowners do not request one if
their ship is a sister-ship to one or more in the company’s fleet.
Precautions: Conditions necessary for experiment accuracy are
1. Experiment should be conducted at completed stage of building (or nearly so).
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2. Vessel should be perfectly upright.

3.Keep trim to minimum. Deviation from designed trim should not exceed 1% of LOA.
4. Accurate list(wt and KGs) of items to be added-on and of those to be removed after the experiment,
should be drawn up.
5. Vessel should preferably be in a sheltered place with sufficient water depth and not affected by wind ,
current or tide.
6. Only persons directly connected with the experiment should be on board and located on the centre line
when deflections are noted.
7.All loose weights ,derricks, boats etc,should be secured in sea-going condition.
8. All tanks should be full or empty. FSM value should be noted for partially filled tanks . Bilges should be
kept dry.
9.All mooring lines should be kept slack and gangway clear of the jetty.
10. No barges or crafts should be alongside.
11. Record drafts and density of water at forward, midships and aft positions.
12. Experiment heel produced by moving the weights should not be less than 2 deg or more than 4 deg.( If
heel is large the KMT will change and heel produced will not be proportional to the heeling moment).
Fluctuations in a ship’s lightweight over a period of time Over the years in service, there will be increases
in the lightweight due to:
1.Accretion of paintwork. 2.Formation of oxidation or rust. 3. Build up of cargo residue.
4.Sediment in bottom of oil tanks. 5. Mud in bottom of ballast tanks. 6.Dunnage/Lashing material
7.Gradual accumulation up of rubbish. 8. Retrofits on accommodation fittings and in navigational aids.
9.Barnacle attachment or animal growth on the shell plating. 10. Marine Growth on shell plating.
11.Additional engineers’ spares and electricians’ spares.
At periodical intervals, not exceeding 5 years, a Lightship survey must be carried out on all Passenger
Ships to ascertain any changes in Lightship displacement and KG.
A special tool known as stabilograph is used these days . The tool consists of a heavy metal pendulum
balanced on a knife edge and connected to a pointer to record the heel angle readings.

CHAPTER-4 Recommendations on Intact Stability Code for Passenger and Cargo ships.

The following Intact stability criteria are recommended for passenger and cargo ships.
 The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 0.055 metre-
radian up to θ = 30° angle of heel a

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 The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not less than 0.09 metre-radian
up to θ = 40° or the angle of flooding θf ,if this angle is less than 40°.
 Additionally, the area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) between the angles of
heel of 30° and 40° or between 30° and θf , if this angle is less than 40°, should not be less
than 0.03 metre-radian.
 The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20 m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than
30°.
 The maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel preferably exceeding 30° but
not less than 25°.
 The initial metacentric height GMf should not be less than 0.15
In addition, for passenger ships,
 the angle of heel on account of crowding of passengers to one side as defined should not exceed
10 degree.
Where anti-rolling devices are installed in a ship, the Administration should be satisfied that
the
above criteria can be maintained when the devices are in operation.
 the angle of heel on account of turning should not exceed 10 degree when calculated using
the following formula:
MR= 0.02 x V2 (KG – d/2)
L
where: MR = heeling moment ( metre-tons) V0 = service speed in m/sec,
L = length of ship at waterline in m., W = displacement in metric tons,
d = mean draught in m., KG= height of centre of gravity above keel in m.

Damage Stability Criteria for Passenger Ships

Longitudinal extent of damage; 3m + 3% of L or, 11m whichever is least.
Where the required factor of subdivision is 0.33 or less the longitudinal extent must be increased to
include flooding of any three consecutive compartments.
Transverse extent of damage; 20% of B measured inboard from the ship's side at right angles to the
centreline at the level of the deepest subdivision load waterline taken parallel to the keel
Vertical extent of damage;From the baseline upwards without limit

The damage stability shall apply in the final stage after damage and after equalisation
a)The Residual area under curve shall be at least 0.015m-rad measured from the angle of equilibrium to
the lesser of Angle of flooding or 22 deg from upright (one flooded compartment) or 27 deg from upright
(two or more flooded compartments)
b)The Range of positive stability shall be at least 15 deg beyond angle of equilibrium
c)Maximum GZ value to occur within the range of positive stability when determined by the formula;
GZ(m) = heeling moment + 0.04
displacement
where the heeling moment is taken as the greater value of any one of the following effects;
- Crowding of passengers to one side of the ship
- Launching of all fully loaded, davit launched survival craft on one side of the ship
- Pressure of wind on the side of the ship
In no case shall the GZ value so determined be less than 0.1m
d) Sufficient intact stability in all conditions to withstand flooding of any 1 main compartment or;
-Where factor of subdivision is 0.33 - 0.5 to withstand the flooding of any 2 adjacent compartments or;
- Where factor of subdivision is 0.33 or less to withstand the flooding of any 3 adjacent main
compartments

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Precautions against capsizing

1.Compliance with the stability criteria does not ensure immunity against capsizing, regardless of the circumstances, or
absolve the master from his responsibilities. Masters should therefore exercise prudence and good seamanship having
regard to the season of the year, weather forecasts and the navigational zone and should take the appropriate action as to
speed and course warranted by the prevailing circumstances.
2. Care should be taken that the cargo allocated to the ship is capable of being stowed so that compliance with the criteria can
be achieved. If necessary, the amount should be limited to the extent that ballast weight may be required.
3.Before a voyage commences, care should be taken to ensure that the cargo and sizeable pieces of equipment have been
properly stowed or lashed so as to minimize the possibility of both longitudinal and lateral shifting, while at sea, under the
effect of acceleration caused by rolling and pitching.
4.A ship, when engaged in towing operations, should possess an adequate reserve of stability to withstand the anticipated
heeling moment arising from the tow line without endangering the towing ship. Deck cargo on board the towing ship
should be so positioned as not to endanger the safe working of the crew on deck or impede the proper functioning of the
towing equipment and be properly secured. Tow line arrangements should include towing springs and a method of
quick release of the tow.
5.The number of partially filled or slack tanks should be kept to a minimum because of their adverse effect on stability.
6.The stability criteria set minimum values, but no maximum values are recommended. It is advisable to avoid excessive
values of metacentric height, since these might lead to acceleration forces which could be prejudicial to the ship, its
complement, its equipment and to safe carriage of the cargo. Slack tanks may, in exceptional cases, be used as a means of
reducing excessive values of metacentric height. In such cases, due consideration should be given to sloshing effects.
7. Regard should be paid to the possible adverse effects on stability where certain bulk cargoes are carried. In this connection,
attention should be paid to the IMO Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes.

Stability Information
When a new ship is nearing completion, a Trim and Stability book is produced by the shipbuilder and
presented to the shipowner for use by the shipboard officers , for the day to day operation of the vessel.
In the Trim and Stability book is the following technical data:
1. General particulars of the ship and General Arrangement Plan.
2. Inclining experiment report and its results.
3. Capacity, VCG, LCG particulars for all holds, compartments, tanks etc.
4. Cross curves of stability. These may be GZ curves or KN curves.
5. Deadweight scale data. May be in diagram form or in tabular form.
6. Hydrostatic curves. May be in graphical form or in tabular form.
7.Trim Tables in tabular form.
8. Example conditions of loading such as:
a)Lightweight (empty vessel) condition.
b) Full-loaded departure and arrival conditions.
c)Heavy-ballast departure and arrival conditions.
d)Medium-ballast departure and arrival conditions.
e)Light-ballast departure and arrival conditions.

Heel due to Turning

When one rotates a stone tied to the end of a string, the stone has a tendency to accelerate in a path away
from the centre with a force called the ‘centrifugal’ force. If the string breaks, the string will recoil towards
the centre, while the stone will move tangentially away.
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When a body moves in a circular path there is also an acceleration towards the centre equal to v2/r ,where
‘v’ represents the velocity of the body in m/sec and ’r’ represents the radius of the circular path. The force
required to produce this acceleration, called a ‘Centripetal’ force, is equal to , Mv 2/r,where M is the mass
of the body.
In the case of a ship turning in a circle, the centrifugal force acts through the centre of gravity and tries to
push the ship away from the centre of the turn.
However the lateral resistance of the water body on the side away from the centre, acts through the
centre of buoyancy and tends to push the underwater body towards the centre of the turn.

These two equal and opposite centrifugal and centripetal forces produce a heeling couple = Mv2 x B1Z
r
It can be shown that B1Z = (KG-d/2)cosθ, where ‘d’ is the vessel’s draft.
Hence Heeling couple is Mv2 x (KG-d/2)cosθ
r
The ship will heel till the Righting moment (W x GZ or W x GMsinθ ) equals the heeling couple
So, M x g x GMsinθ = Mv2 x (KG-d/2)cosθ
r
or tanθ = v2 x (KG-d/2)
g x r x GM
where where ‘v’ represents the velocity of the body in m/sec and ’r’ represents the radius of the circular
path

In normal cases where G is above B, the ship will heel away from the centre of the turn.

IMO Severe wind and weather heeling criteria

Weather criterion, i.e. severe wind and rolling criterion, regards the ability of a ship to withstand the
combined effects of beam wind and rolling.
The following has to be demonstrated for a vessel to follow the rule.
1.The ship is subjected to a steady wind pressure acting perpendicular to the ship's centreline which results
in a steady wind heeling lever (lw1); The angle of heel under action of steady wind (θo) should not exceed
16° or 80% of the angle of deck edge immersion, whichever is less
2.From the resultant angle of equilibrium (θo), the ship is assumed to roll owing to wave action to an angle
of roll (θ1) to windward.
3.The ship is then subjected to a gust wind pressure which results in a gust wind heeling lever (lw 2) and
heels the vessel to leeward to θ2.
4.Under these circumstances, area b(measured upto θ2 or θf or θc or 50 deg, whichever is least)shall be
equal to or greater than area a.

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CHAPTER-5 Rolling of Ships

Effect of GM on Rolling
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If the metacentric height of a ship is small, the righting arms that develop will be small. Such a ship is
“tender” and will roll slowly. However, if the metacentric height (GM) of a ship is large, the righting arms
that develop, at small angles of heel, will be large. Such a ship is “stiff” and will resist roll.
This is also obvious from the formula Tr= 2K/square root of GM
Effect of Displacement/ draft on Rolling
The true criterion of stability is the Righting Moment (displacement x righting arm). Therefore, an increase
of displacement, all other things being equal, increases the true stability of the ship. A ship at the lighter
drafts, requires a larger GM to offer a proper amount of stability, while a more heavily laden ship can
afford to have a smaller GM.
However an increase stability from increase in Displacement/ draught affects a ship’s rolling period
differently, than would the GM of the ship. A heavier deeply laden ship will have a easier slower motion in
a roll.The primary reason for this is related to the structure of ocean waves. The slope/height of a wave is
much steeper than its sub-surface slope. The slope becomes progressively flatter with increase of water
depth and hence a deeper draught ship will have a larger rolling period(T R).
Synchronous Rolling:-
As seen in Chapter-2, every vessel has a natural rolling period which is inversely proportional to the square
root of the GM and directly proportional to the beam of the ship.
Synchronous rolling is caused when the rolling period becomes ‘synchronous’ with the period of wave
encounter. When this occurs, the ship will heel over and in exceptional circumstances be rolled further
over by the action of the wave.
If the vessel encounters a series of swell in such a manner that the wave period matches the natural rolling
period, the vessel will have no time righting itself before the next wave strikes. This situation if not
corrected, can result in capsizing of the ship.
The vessel encountering synchronous rolling is in a serious danger that she may heel over beyond a point
from which it cannot return to the upright condition. She may end up with negative stability & eventually
capsize.
Synchronous rolling can be experienced regardless of the direction of sea w.r.t. the ship’s heading. But it is
most likely to happen when natural rolling period of the ship is short or when sailing in high beam or
quartering seas.
Other danger associated with it is that of cargo shifting that can result in loss of stability and capsizing.
Also, cargo lashings may give way because of the excessive rolling and cause damage to the cargo and in
some cases, structural damage to the ship.
A vessel which has suffered engine failure is most vulnerable to synchronized rolling and efforts to bring
the vessel’s head into the wind should be made while she still has headway.

To reduce synchronous rolling, following actions are suggested:

Use ballast changes to alter KG and so the GMT of the vessel. By doing so, the rolling period will change
making it of a non-synchronous value.
Change the course of the ship so as to effectively change the period of wave encounter and eliminate the
condition.
Alter the speed of the ship until the synchronous rolling ceases to exist.

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It is imperative that the OOW recognizes the condition of synchronization immediately and immediately
alters course to change the period of wave encounter and eliminates the condition.
Parametric Rolling:-
Parametric rolling occurs when the pitching period is either equal to or half of that of the rolling period.
Large roll angles may occur quickly in head or stern seas or nearly head or stern seas. The roll angle may
increase from a few degrees to over 30 degrees in only a few cycles.
It is caused due to the combination of various factors such as low initial stability, large flare around the
water line, waves as long as ship’s length, sufficiently large wave amplitudes, period of encounter half the
rolling period and low hydrodynamic roll damping.
Parametric rolling is produced by the pitching motion on vessels which have a very fine bow together with
very wide and flat stern like large container ships which have a large flare forward and a flat after stern.
Parametric rolling is more when a ship is operating in heavy sea condition. Such conditions can generate
extremely high loads on the lashings and containers. It can even exceed the breaking load of the container
lashings. As a result, the cargo & vessel could be damaged & containers could be lost.
Parametric rolling causes heavy stresses in the ship’s structure especially fore and aft parts. It also causes
variation in the load of ship’s main engines. If not tackled quickly, it can also result in the capsizing of the
vessel.
As the stern dips into the waves, it produces a rolling action. The rolling action is different at the stern than
to those at the bow which causes a twisting along the ship leading to the extra rolling motion.
IMO suggests that parametric rolling is dangerous when the wavelength is one to 1.5 times the ship’s
length.
Ships which have a high GM will have a shorter roll period and unlikely to have parametric rolling in
head/stern seas. Ships which have a low GM will have a long rolling period and are likely to have
parametric rolling in head/stern seas.
To reduce parametric rolling, following actions are suggested:
Use ballast changes to alter KG and so the GMT of the vessel. By doing so, the rolling period will change
making it of a non-synchronous value.
Use Anti-rolling stability tanks (if provided) to transfer water across the ship. A quick response time is vital
to counteract this rolling.
Hydraulic fin stabilizers would help to reduce parametric rolling.
Slow down and alter to a more favourable course to ease vessel’s motion by breaking resonance between
rolling period & wave encounter period.

Anti-Rolling Systems
1.Bilge keel
This is a fixed passive stability system used to increase hydrodynamic resistance to rolling and thus reduce
a ship's tendency to roll.
A bilge keel is often in a "V" shape, welded along the length of the ship at the turn of the bilge.
They are employed in pairs (one for each side of the ship) in the form of a strake, running along the middle
length of the ship

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As the ship is rolling, the bilge keel generates a resistance opposite to the direction of rolling to form an
anti-rolling moment, which can reduce the ship rolling
to an extent around 10-30%.
Its disadvantage is that the loading of a bilge keel may
result in a slightly increased resistance in the ship
sailing, generally a reduction of 1-2% in its hydrostatic
speed
Hydrodynamic drag (in the fore/aft direction) is
reduced by tapering the ends and fairing into the hull.

2. Fin stabilizer
Fin stabilizer is an active anti-rolling device and generally consists of an electrical control part, a hydraulic
transmission device to turn the fins, and the wing-type fins.
Its gyroscope detects the rolling angle of the ship hull and generates a control signal, and then its electro-
hydraulic device controls the deflection angle and movement direction of the fins, for the moment
generated by the flow acting on the fin surface when the ship advances to reduce the rolling of the ship
body.
Fin stabilizer can be either fixed, retractable or folding fins.
Its disadvantages include the additional resistance to the
ship, high costs of manufacturing and maintenance, higher
occupancy tonnage (if using hydraulic transmission, it can
reach 10% of the total weight of the ship displacement).
The fin stabilizer can effectively reduce the rolling only at
higher speed of the ship, but hardly do so at low or zero
speed.

3.Anti-rolling tanks
The anti-rolling tanks can be classified into two types: passive and active.
The basic consists of two pairs of water tanks on either side (approximately 3-5% of entire ship
displacement). Sensors, detect the ship's rolling angle and its angular velocity ,to select different
combination of water tanks and
control the opening and closing of the valves to make the lateral flow period of the water in the tanks and
the ship's rolling period in synchronization but in opposite direction to each other.
This achieves the goal of reducing the rolling amplitude.

Active anti- rolling tank is based on a control system that uses

a pump actively and quickly for pumping the water from one
side tank into another to offset wave moment and so to reduce
the amplitude of ship's rolling motion.
The best advantage of anti-rolling tank is that it can be applied
to a ship sailing at low speed.

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CHAPTER-6 Thrust due to liquid pressure / Centre of Pressure

The liquid pressure at any depth is due to the weight of liquid above the point in question and increases
uniformly with depth below the surface. Hence, the pressure at any depth will vary with the depth below
the surface and the density of the liquid.
Pressure is the load per unit area at any point in a liquid, and acts in all directions
Pressure= Depth x Density
It is expressed in t/s per square metre (t/m2).
To express in kilo- Newtons per square metre (kN /m2) multiply by 9.81

Thrust is the total pressure exerted on a given surface.

Thrust = pressure x area
It is expressed in tonnes(t/s) or in kilo-Newtons (kN) where 1 tonne =9.81 kilo-Newtons.

If the thrust on each element of area of a surface immersed in a fluid is found, the scalar sum of all such
thrusts is called the ‘total thrust’ whilst their vector sum is called the ‘resultant thrust’. When the surface is
plane then the total thrust is equal to the resultant thrust.
Resultant thrust(t/s) =Density x Depth of centroid x Area
It should be noted that this formula gives only the magnitude of the resultant thrust. It does not indicate
the point at which the resultant thrust may be considered to act.
The Centre of Pressure (COP)is that point at which the resultant thrust on an immersed surface may be
considered to act.
Its position may be found as follows:
COP = Second moment of area about the waterline or COP = Iwl
First moment of area about the waterline Axh

Where Iwl = IG + Ah2 (using Theorem of parallel axis)

IG = the moment of inertia about the axis passing through the centroid
A = Area in m2
h= distance between top of liquid level and centre of gravity of the liquid.
Standard formulae for Moment of Inertia about an axis passing through the centroid of some regular
shapes are as follows

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When using Simpson’s Rules to estimate the area of a bulkhead under liquid pressure together with the
VCG and centre of pressure the procedure should be as follows:
1. Make a sketch from the given information. 2. Make a table and insert the relevant ordinates and
multipliers. 3. Calculate the area of bulkhead’s plating. 4. Estimate the VCG below the required liquid level.
5. Using the parallel axis theorem, calculate the requested centre of pressure.
Note:If the liquid level is in the sounding pipe, add the height in sounding pipe to the height of the centroid
of the tank to obtain the head ’h’. Area of the sounding pipe is to be ignored for calculating total area ‘A”

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CHAPTER-7 Shearing Force and Bending Moments

For calculations involving Shearing Force (SF) and Bending Moments(BM), a ship may be considered to be
a beam whose length equals the length of the ship. When floating freely, the forces of gravity and
buoyancy, acting on the ship, are equal.
The force of gravity, acting on the ship, would have different values at various places along the ship's
length depending on the longitudinal distribution of the weights on board, including the weight of the hull
itself.
Whilst at sea, waves would cause the buoyancy curve to change drastically. The ship would suffer
maximum longitudinal stress when the wave length equals the length of the ship.
This is because:
(i)It is then possible that the ends of the ship are supported by consecutive crests leaving the centre with
little or no support - maximum sagging stress.
(ii) It is also possible that the centre ship is supported by a crest the ends with little or no support -
maximum hogging stress
The problem of calculating the necessary strength of ships is made difficult by the many and varied forces
to which the ship structure is subjected during its lifetime. These forces may be divided into two groups,
namely statical forces and dynamical forces.
The statical forces are due to:
1. The weight of the structure which varies throughout the length of the ship.
2. Buoyancy forces, which vary over each unit length of the ship and are constantly varying in a seaway.
3. Direct hydrostatic pressure.
4. Concentrated local weights such as machinery, masts, derricks, winches, etc.
The dynamical forces are due to:
1. Pitching, heaving and rolling.
2. Wind and waves.

To understand calculations to determine SF and BM, the ship may be considered to be a beam whose
length equals the length of the ship. For the purpose of understanding:
• A ‘light beam’ is a straight, homogenous , beam with constant cross sectional area and negligent
weight.
• A ‘Uniform beam’ is a straight, homogenous , beam with constant cross sectional area and
constant weight per metre run.
• ‘Concentrated load’ means that the weight is acting at a single point.
• ‘Uniform load’ means that the force is spread evenly over a given distance of the beam.
Shear Force(SF) occurs when two parallel forces act out of alignment with each other. It tends to break or
shear a beam perpendicularly across its major axis.
Bending Moment(BM) are rotational forces within the beam , that cause bending.At any point on a beam,
it is the total moment tending to alter the shape of the beam, and is the sum of each external force x
distance.

When a beam is in static equillbrium, the net resultant of all the forces acting on it must be zero.
If the resultant force to one side of a point on the beam has a value 'x' in the upward direction, then the
resultant force on the other side of that point must also be 'x' but in the downward direction.

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It is customary for the left side to be considered to calculate total SF at any point. In the above figure, AB is
a beam.
supported at ends A and B. Since the forces to the left of A are zero and if the beam is at
rest(equilibrium),then all the forces(upwards and downwards) to the right of A must add upto zero. Hence
at any point on a beam, SF is the algebraic sum of the forces acting on any one side of that point.
SIGN CONVENTION:
The following assumptions, if summing up the Shearing forces/Bending moments to the left of a point on
the beam.
SF : All upward forces are ‘+ve’ and all downward forces are ‘-ve’.
BM : All clockwise moments to the left and anti- clockwise moments to the right, of the chosen point, are
‘+ve’. This means that bending moments that cause a beam to sag are ‘+ve’.
All clockwise moments to the right and anti- clockwise moments to the left, of the chosen point, are ‘-ve’.
This means that bending moments that cause a beam to hog are ‘-ve’.

A light beam AB of length ’ l’ is simply supported at its ends, and loaded in the middle with a weight W .
Then the reaction force ,acting upwards, at each support is equal to W/2, denoted by RA and RB.
Now cover the beam with the right hand, and slowly draw the hand to the right gradually uncovering the
figure.
At A there is a +ve shearing force of W/2 and this is plotted to scale on the graph by the ordinate AC. The
shearing force is then constant along the beam to its mid-point O. As the hand is drawn to the right, O is
uncovered and a force W downwards appears. This must be considered in addition to the force W/2
upwards at A. The resultant is a -ve shearing force of W/2 downwards(ordinate OE). This force is then
constant from O to B.
At B a upward +ve shearing force of W/2 and so the algebraic sum of forces becomes Zero at B.
The SF diagram is plotted by joining points A→C→D→O→E→F→B

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The Bending Moment diagram can now be drawn in the same way by algebraically adding up the
moments(Force x distance to the left, from the chosen point ).
It can also be drawn, by first calculating the area under the shearing force diagram between the ordinate
AC and various points along the beam, and then plotting these values as ordinates on the bending moment
diagram A→G→B.
It will be seen that the Bending Moment is zero at the ends and attains its maximum value at the mid-point
in the beam indicated by the ordinate OG. Note. BMmax occurs when SF = 0.

A uniform beam AB of length ‘l’ and weight W per unit length supported at its ends.
The total weight of the beam = WL. The reaction at each end is equal to WL/2,i.e. half of the weight of the
beam.
The shearing force and bending moment diagrams can now be drawn as in the previous example.
At A the shearing force is W l / 2 upwards and this is shown on the graph by the ordinate AC. Because the
weight of the beam is evenly distributed throughout its length, the shearing force decreases uniformly
from A towards B. At the mid-point (O) of the beam there is a shearing force of -W l /2 downwards (half
the weight of the beam) and one of +W l /2 upwards (the reaction at A) to consider.
The resultant shearing force at O is therefore zero. Finally, at B, there is a shearing force of -WL
downwards (the weight of the beam) and +W l /2 upwards (the reaction at A) to consider, giving a
resultant shearing force of w l /2 downwards which is represented on the graph by the ordinate BD, which
then becomes zero when the upward reaction +W l /2 at B is considered. The Shearing Force diagram can
now be drawn joining A→C→ O→D→B
Note: the shearing force at any point Y which is at a distance X from the end A is given by the formula:
SF= W( ½ l ̶ X)

The Bending Moment diagram can now be drawn in the same way by algebraically adding up the
moments(Force x distance to the left, from the chosen point ).Note: For a uniform beam or a uniform load
the distance from the chosen point will be midway between the force and the chosen point
BM( at any chosen point) = wX( l - X)
2
It can also be drawn, by first calculating the area under the shearing force diagram between the ordinate
AC and other sections along the beam and then plotting these values as ordinates on the bending moment
diagram. The bending moment diagram is represented in Figure by the curve AEB.

Application to Ships
For a ship floating at rest in still water, on an even keel, the total weight of the ship is balanced by the total
force of buoyancy. However, neither the weight nor the buoyancy is uniformly distributed throughout the
ship’s length.
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In the above figure spaces 1, 3 and 5 have cargo weights in them and are heavier than spaces 2 and 4.
Assuming each section is watertight, if the sections are transversely cut , each section will be free to move
in a vertical direction until it displaces its own weight of water.

The weight of each of the end sections (1 ,3 and 5) exceeds the buoyancy which they provide and these
sections will therefore sink deeper into the water until equilibrium is reached at which time each will be
displacing its own weight of water. Sections 2 and 4 represent the empty hold sections, therefore provide
an excess of buoyancy over weight and will rise to displace their own weight of water.
Although the sections in the ship are not free to move in this way, shearing stresses and bending moments,
are created by the variation in the longitudinal distribution of weight and buoyancy, and these must be
allowed for in the construction of the ship.

Longitudinal stresses in waves

When a ship encounters waves at sea the stresses created differ greatly from those created in still water.
The maximum stresses are considered to exist when the wavelength is equal to the ship’s length and either
a wave crest or trough is situated amidships.
Whilst at sea, waves would cause the buoyancy curve to change drastically. This is because:
(i)It is then possible that the ends of the ship are supported by consecutive crests leaving the centre with
little or no support - maximum sagging stress.
(ii) It is also possible that the centre ship is supported by a crest the ends with little or no support -
maximum hogging stress
Strength Curves for Ships
Strength curves consist of five curves that are closely inter-related. The curves are:
1. Weight curve – tonnes/m run.
2. Buoyancy curve – either for hogging or sagging condition – tonnes/m run.
3. Load curve – tonnes/m run run.
4. Shear force curve – tonnes.
5. Bending moment curve – tonnes m.
To calculate the Shearing Force and Bending Moments , it is first necessary to construct diagrams showing
the longitudinal distribution of weight, buoyancy and load.
Weight Curve
A weight curve shows the longitudinal distribution of weight. It is constructed by first drawing a baseline to
represent the length of the ship, and then dividing the baseline into a number of sections to represent the
length of each compartment. The weight of each section per metre run is then calculated and plotted as a
weight curve.
Buoyancy Curve

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The buoyancy curve is drawn by calculating the Total displacement of the vessel and dividing by its length
to obtain the buoyancy per metre run. This is marked on the Y-axis and extended as a straight line, for the
length of the ship.
Load Curve
A load curve shows the difference per metre run, between the weight ordinate and buoyancy ordinate of
each section throughout the length of the ship. The curve is drawn as a series of rectangles, parallel to the
weight curve. An excess of weight over buoyancy is considered to produce a negative load whilst an excess
of buoyancy over weight is considered to produce a positive load.
Units are Weight, Buoyancy and Load curves is tonnes/m run longitudinally.

Load Curve
AFT FWD

Weight Curve

Shearing force at any section is equal to the algebraic total area under the load curve from one end to the
section concerned.
Bending Moment at any section is equal to the area under the shearing force curve measured from the
same end to that section.

Longitudinal stresses in waves

When a ship encounters waves at sea the stresses created differ greatly from those created in still water.
As stated earlier, maximum stresses are considered to exist when the wavelength is equal to the ship’s
length and either a wave crest or trough is situated amidships.
When the ship is supported by a wave having its crest
amidships and its troughs at the bow and the stern,
although the total weight of the ship is balanced by the
total buoyancy, there is an excess of buoyancy over the
weight amidships and
an excess of weight over buoyancy at the bow and the stern.

Hence the vessel’s bottom undergoes a compression

stress while the upper deck experiences a tensile stress
as in the case of ‘hogging’.

After the wave crest has moved onwards and the ship is
now supported by wave crests at the bow and the stern

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and a trough amidships there is now an excess of buoyancy over weight at the ends and an excess of
weight over buoyancy amidships.

Hence the vessel’s bottom undergoes a tensile stress

while the upper deck experiences a compressive stress as
in the case of ‘sagging’

Bonjean Curves

A Bonjean Curve is a curve drawn with the draft of the ship along the vertical axis and the transverse cross-
sectional area, of the immersed part of the hull, along the horizontal axis.
Bonjean curves are drawn to give the immersed area of transverse sections to any draft and may be used
to determine the longitudinal distribution of buoyancy
The use of Bonjean Curves simplifies, considerably, the of calculating the values of 'buoyancy per metre'.

Bonjean Curves

The waterline of the

proposed drafts fore & aft is drawn as a straight line on the ships profile containing the Bonjean Curves and
the transverse cross sectional area, of the immersed part of the hull, at each station, is obtained.

A transverse section of a ship, (below figure), shows the Bonjean curve for the same section. The
immersed area to the waterline WOLO is represented on the Bonjean curve by ordinate AB, and the
immersed area to waterline W1L1 is represented by ordinate CD.

Bonjean curves are shown for each section throughout the length of the ship. If a wave formation is
superimposed on the Bonjean curves and adjusted until the total buoyancy is equal to the total weight of
the ship, the immersed transverse area at each section can then be found by inspection and the buoyancy
in tonnes per metre run is equal to the immersed area multiplied by 1.025.

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Total longitudinal bending moment amidships on a ship in waves is based on the division of the Total
Bending Moment into two parts:

(a) the Still Water Bending Moment,

(b) the Wave Bending Moment.

The Still Water Bending Moment is the longitudinal bending moment amidships when the ship is floating
in still water.

The Still Water Bending Moment (SWBM) is then given by the formula:

SWBM = Mean Weight moment – mean buoyancy moment

i.e. SWBM= WF+WA - W X L X C

2 2
where the value of Murray’s co-efficient’C’ can be found from the table in terms of the block coefficient
(Cb ).

If the Mean Weight Moment is greater than the Mean Buoyancy Moment then the ship will be hogged, but
if the Mean Buoyancy Moment exceeds the Mean Weight Moment then the ship will sag.

The Wave Bending Moment amidships, is that produced by the waves, when the ship is supported on
what is called a ‘Standard Wave’. (A Standard Wave is one whose length is equal to the length of the ship
(L), and whose height is equal to 0.607 L ). The Wave Bending Moment is then found using the formula:

WBM= b x B x L2.5 x10-3 tonnes metres

where B = beam of the ship in metres , b = constant based on the ship’s block coefficient (Cb ) and on
whether the ship is hogging or sagging.
The Total Bending Moment(TBM) is calculated by adding up the SWBM and WBM
TBM hogging = WBM hogging + SWBM hogging
TBM sagging = WBM sagging + SWBM sagging

Torsional Stresses

When a body is subject to a twisting moment which is commonly referred to as torque, that body is said to
be in ‘torsion’. A ship heading obliquely (45°) to a wave will be subjected to righting moments of opposite
direction at its ends twisting the hull and putting it in ‘torsion’.

Static torsion or still water torsion is caused due to the unsymmetrical cargo loading over port and
starboard with the ship remaining upright.

Dynamic torsion or wave induced torsion is caused

due to the unsymmetrical hydrodynamic wave
loading on the port and the starboard sides of the
vessel. A ship heading obliquely to a wave will be
subjected to righting moments of opposite direction
at its ends, twisting the hull and putting it in
‘torsion’.

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In most ships these torsional moments and stresses are negligible but in ships such as large container ships
with extremely wide and long deck openings, they are significant.

On larger container ship , a heavy torsion box girder structure including strengthening the upper deck, is
provided to accommodate the torsional stresses.

CHAPTER-8 Effect of Bilging on Transverse and Longitudinal Stability

Bilging is said to occur when ingress of water takes place into the vessel from a point below the waterline,
such that the water is free to flow in and out of the vessel.
If the water enters the vessel from above the waterline then it will not be able to flow out of the vessel, in
which case it is called flooding .

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We can consider the increase in draft , due to bilging , by calculating using the Added weight method or by
the Lost Buoyancy method.
Since the calculations using Added weight method are tedious and involve repeated calculations for
additional ingress of water, the Lost Buoyancy method is preferred for calculating Sinkage etc.
 After bilging, water level in the bilged hold will be same as water level outside the vessel.
 However, if the bilged compartment is a DB tank / deep tank, located at the bottom of the vessel,
and it is fitted with a tank-top / watertight flat which is located below the outside water level, then
water in the compartment will rise only upto the tank top / watertight flat.
 Because the water is free to flow in and out of the bilged compartment, it is not part of the ship and
hence there is no addition of weight i.e. the vessel’s displacement does not increase.
 Because the displacement does not change, the COG of the vessel will not shift vertically,
transversely or longitudinally from its original position i.e. the vessel’s KG and LCG will not change
after bilging.
 However, the part of the compartment, which is submerged under water, is lost to the sea i.e. the
vessel’s underwater volume is said to be reduced by an amount equal to the volume of the bilged
part of the compartment. Hence the vessel’s buoyancy is reduced.
 To compensate for the lost buoyancy/volume without any change in displacement, the vessel will
submerge till the lost buoyancy is regained, so that once again the vessel’s buoyancy and
displacement will remain equal.
The increase in draft(sinkage ‘s’) may be calculated as follows:
s = volume of lost buoyancy
intact water-plane area
 This means that the vessel’s draft will increase due to bilging, but the underwater volume and the
displacement of the vessel will not change.
 Due to increase of the draft, COB of the vessel will shift upwards i.e. KB will increase.
 Due to loosing and regaining of the vessel’s buoyancy, the shape of the vessel’s underwater volume
will change. Hence the COB will also shift longitudinally and/or transversely, away from the bilged
compartment.

 Due to the longitudinal shift of COB, the horizontal distance between the new COB and the original
COG will change, which will change the vessel’s trim.

 Due to the transverse shift of COB, the horizontal distance between the new COB and the original
COG will change, which will change the vessel’s list.

 If the water level in the bilged compartment is the same as the water level outside the vessel, then
the vessel’s water-plane is also said to be bilged i.e. the area of the water-plane is reduced by an
amount equal to the area of the bilged compartment.

 COF is the geometric centre of the water-plane. Hence, if the area of the water-plane is reduced
due to bilging, then the COF will shift longitudinally and/or transversely, away from the bilged
compartment.

 Vessel’s water-plane will not reduce and its COF will not shift if the water level in the compartment
does not rise upto the water level outside the vessel e.g. if a DB tank or a deep tank located at the
bottom of the vessel is bilged.

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 Trim and list caused, as stated above, will occur about the new position of COF.

 Loss of buoyancy/volume due to bilging will be less if the compartment has some solid cargo in it,
because water entering the compartment will only occupy the empty spaces within the cargo i.e.
the loss of buoyancy/volume will depend on the permeability of the compartment.
 By the same theory, the loss of water-plane area due to bilging will also be less, depending on the
permeability of the compartment.

 Bilging of a part or full compartment does not affect the original FSM of the vessel, because the
bilged compartment is not considered to be part of the vessel any more.

 If a tank containing some liquid is bilged then it is assumed that initially the liquid in the tank is
discharged, which will cause the following changes :
-Draft, U/W volume, displacement, KB and FSM will reduce.
-KG will increase.
-LCG, trim and list will change depending on location of the bilged tank.
-LCB will also change for vessel but for a box-shaped vessel it will remain the same as half the
length of the vessel.
Subsequently, the empty tank is said to be bilged, which will further change the draft, KB, LCB, LCF, trim
and list, as explained above.
Note: All numericals on Bilging are based on box-shaped vessels and lost buoyancy method.

Bilging of a midship compartment

Above figure shows the box-shaped vessel with a bilged midships compartment of length ‘Ɩ’ and breadth
‘b.’ As the buoyancy provided by the bilged compartment is lost, the draft increases and the vessel now
floats at the waterline W1L1 , where it is again displacing its own weight of water.
Gained volume of buoyancy = Lost volume of buoyancy
L x B x s = Ɩ x b x d where ‘d’ is the initial draft of the vessel.
s(sinkage) = volume of lost buoyancy = Ɩ x b x d
intact water-plane area LxB–Ɩxb
The displacement after bilging is the same as the displacement before bilging and there is no alteration in
the position of the vessel’s centre of gravity. The increase in the draft is due solely to lost buoyancy.
The volume of lost buoyancy, and hence the resultant sinkage, is less when the bilged compartment has a
water-tight flat below the waterline. The volume of lost buoyancy is then Ɩ x b x h, , where ‘h’ is the height
of the compartment. Since the waterplane area is not breached ,
s= lxbxh
LxB
Effect of bilging on Stability
Since bilging causes a loss of buoyancy, resulting in an increase in draft, the KM of the ship would change.
Since there is no weights added on or removed, the KG remains the same, the GM of the vessel will
change, since GM= KM-KG .
To calculate ,KM= KB + BM
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If water plane area is breached, KB= ½Draft and BM= LB3 - Ɩb3
12V
If water plane area is not breached, Final KB = original Vol x its KB - lost vol x its KB + gained vol x its KB.
Original Vol
3
and BM = LB
12V
Permeability
Permeability( p) is the percentage ratio of the space available for the entry of water into a compartment,
to the total volume of the compartment. For an empty compartment, p = 100% and for a compartment so
full, that water could not enter at all, if bilging occurred, p = 0%.
The permeability of a compartment can be found from the formula:
Permeability =Broken stowage x 100% , where Broken stowage(per tonne) = Stowage factor ̶ ( 1 )
Stowage factor ( R.D of cargo)
Note: Whenever area or vol of compartment has a permeability factor, ‘p’ must be multiplied with it
E.g s(sinkage) = volume of lost buoyancy = Ɩ x b x d x ‘p’
intact water-plane area L x B – Ɩ x b x ‘p’
Bilging of an end compartment

The increase in draft, and the effect on GM, resulting from bilging an end compartment is the same as that
caused by bilging an amidships compartment.
The bilging of an end compartment causes the centre of
buoyancy(COB) of the ship to be longitudinally displaced away
from the bilged compartment. Since the position of the centre
of gravity(COG) of the ship remains unaffected by bilging, the
consequent longitudinal separation of the COB and the COG
(i.e. BG) results in a trimming moment (W x BG).
Bilging an end compartment, therefore, causes a change in the trim of the ship.
Steps for solving numericals with end compartment bilged.
1)Calculate Sinkage (S) and obtain new hydrostatic draft.
2) Determine new position of COB. (Note: If WPA is breached, new LCB = new LCF)
3) Determine BG = LCB-LCG (Note: If LCB greater than LCG, trim caused will be by stern and vice-versa)
4) Obtain Trimming Moment = W x BG
5) Obtain MCTC by W x GML (If GML is not given, find BML = BL3/12V)
100L Note: The 'L' to be used in this formula is the LBP of the ship.
6)Calculate Trim change(tc) = Trimming Moment and then obtain ta and tf.
MCTC
7) Apply ta and tf to new hydrostatic draft.(Note: If bilged forward add tf and subtract ta. Vice versa if bilged
Aft)

Bilging of an intermediate compartment

As in the case of bilging of an end compartment, there is a change in trim when an intermediate
compartment is bilged
Calculations are similar as that for an end compartment, except that it is more convenient to ind the new
COF than finding the new COB

Bilging of a Midship side compartment

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When a side compartment in a ship is bilged the buoyancy provided by that compartment is lost. This causes the
centre of buoyancy of the ship to move directly away from the centre of the lost buoyancy and a listing moment will
be created.
In the above figure the starboard side is shown as bilged. To make good the lost buoyancy the ship will sink to the
waterline W1L1 . The centre of buoyancy will move from B to B 1 , directly away from the centre of gravity of the lost
buoyancy.
The distance BB1 = w x d ,
W where w represents the lost buoyancy and d represents the distance between the ship’s
centre of buoyancy and the centre of the lost buoyancy and W us the vessel’s displacement .The shift in the centre of
buoyancy produces a listing moment.
GN is the transverse separation between B and G after bilging and parallel sinkage - the moment so formed causes
the ship to heel over to the side on which the bilging occurred.
B2 is the final position of COB and is vertically below G, when floating in equilibrium at the new waterline W 2L2.
Let θ be the resultant list. Then tan θ= GN ,where NM1 is the initial metacentric height in the bilged condition
NM1
Steps for solving numericals with side compartment bilged
1)Calculate Sinkage (S) and obtain new hydrostatic draft.
2) Calculate ,KM= KB + BM
If water plane area is breached, KB= ½Draft and BM= LB3 - Ɩb3
12 x V
If water plane area is not breached, Final KB = original Vol x its KB - lost vol x its KB + gained vol x its KB.
Original Vol
3
and BM = LB
12 x V
4) Obtain new GMf, KM-KG= GMf
5)Calculate transverse shift of B, BB1= vol of lost buoyancy x dist. from centreline
Vol of displacement of ship
6) Tan θ = BB1
GMf

Prepared by Capt. John Ephraim