Chapter 16: Social Movements and Collective Action

Slacktivism: Engagement in minimal-effort online activism, such as signing petitions or sharing posts,
which creates a sense of involvement in a cause without requiring significant time or effort

Social Movements: Organized efforts by a large group of people to achieve social, political, or economic
change or to resist such change, typically operating outside established institutions

Collective Behavior: Spontaneous and unstructured actions of a group of people in response to an

event, issue, or shared emotion, often differing from societal norms

WUNC: An acronym standing for Worthiness, Unity, Numbers, and Commitment, used to describe the
characteristics social movements need to display to be effective and gain support

Social Movement Organization: A formal group or entity that coordinates and directs activities of a
social movement, working to achieve its goals through organized efforts

Repertoires of Collective Action: The range of tactics and strategies used by social movements and
activists, such as protests, strikes, demonstrations, and petitions, to achieve their objectives

Machine Breaking: The deliberate destruction or sabotage of machinery by workers as a form of protest
against industrialization or labor conditions

Women’s Suffrage: The movement and effort to grant women the right to vote and participate in
elections

Arab Spring: A series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that spread across
much of the Arab world in the early 2010s, starting in Tunisia and affecting several countries in the
region

Riots: Violent, chaotic, and uncontrolled disturbances by a crowd, often in reaction to grievances or
unrest

Rebellions: Acts of violent or open resistance to an established government or ruler, typically involving
an organized group of people

Revolutions: Fundamental and relatively sudden changes in political power and organization, often
involving the overthrow of an existing government or social system

Internet Kill Switch: A government-initiated shutdown or restriction of internet access within a

country, often used to control information flow or suppress dissent

Comparative Historical Analysis: A research method that compares historical events and processes
across different societies or time periods to identify patterns and causes of social change

Bourgeois Revolution: A revolution led by the bourgeoisie (middle class) aimed at overthrowing feudal
or aristocratic systems to establish capitalist and democratic institutions

Network Social Movements: Social movements that organize and operate through decentralized
networks, often using digital communication technologies for coordination and mobilization
 Horizontal Forms of Organizing: Organizational structures that emphasize equal participation,
non-hierarchical decision-making, and decentralized control within a group or movement

Lifeworld: A concept referring to the personal and social experiences, everyday realities, and meanings
constructed by individuals in their everyday lives, often contrasted with systemic or institutional
structures

New Social Movement Theory: A theoretical perspective that focuses on post-industrial social
movements that address issues of identity, quality of life, and cultural autonomy, rather than just
economic or political change

Resource Mobilization Theory: A theory that explains social movements by their ability to acquire and
utilize resources such as money, labor, and organizational strength to advance their causes

Emergence: The initial stage of a social movement, characterized by the identification of an issue,
increasing awareness, and the beginning of collective action

Coalescence: The stage in a social movement where strategies are developed, leadership emerges, and
more organized efforts are made to raise awareness and address the movement’s goals

Bureaucratization: The stage in a social movement where formal structures, professional staff, and
standardized procedures develop, allowing for more efficient organization and sustained efforts

Social Movements and ICTs: A Critical Analysis

Social Movements and Power Dynamics

• Social movements are key tools for citizens to express dissatisfaction with power structures
and elites.
• Elites can also use social action to consolidate and increase their power.
• Social movements have a long history and are constantly evolving.

Criticism of Slacktivism or Clicktivism

• Slacktivism is a term used to describe the laissez-faire attitude and simplistic actions required
by online activists.
• Critics argue that forms of online participation like retweeting or liking posts don't qualify as
social activism.

The Kony 2012 Campaign

• The Kony 2012 campaign, launched by Invisible Children, focused on the atrocities in Central
Africa, mainly Uganda, by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA).
• The campaign focused on Joseph Kony, the leader of the rebel group, and advocated for his
arrest.
• The campaign received over 100 million views on YouTube within one week, raising money
for schools, jobs, and an early warning radio network.
Critiques of the Campaign
• The campaign was criticized for being "simplistic and naive" and not achieving its goals.
• Many donations went towards funding the campaign itself, not helping those affected in the
war zone.
• The campaign also fed the idea that Western nations need to "save" developing nations.
• The participants still had limited knowledge about the political landscape and the complex
history of Central Africa.

The Importance of Understanding Social Movements and ICTs

• Examining what motivates individuals to participate in social activism, how they participate,
and their trajectory of participation is crucial.
• The chapter examines how ICTs are changing the nature and scope of social movements,
facilitating citizen involvement, information flow, and resource mobilization.

Understanding Social Movements

Key Characteristics of Social Movements

• Group action or collective behavior is a key characteristic of social movements.
• The ultimate goal of social movements is to advocate for social change, altering people's
attitudes and bringing about fundamental changes in society.
• Movement actors, or WUNC, are perceived as worthy, unified, numerous, and committed,
giving the movement momentum and attracting attention from the media, public, and
governments.
• Social movements have an underlying organizational structure that helps mobilize resources,
coordinate members, organize events, and share messages with the media and the public.

Structure of Social Movement Industries

• Social movements can be structured into social movement industries, each with a different
focus.
• Within a single social movement industry, different organizations with similar objectives can
operate and compete.
• SMOs in the same industry can compete for attention and resources.

History of Social Movements

• Social movements provide a vehicle for ordinary individuals to participate in public life and
take a political stance on critical issues.
• Most Americans and Canadians will, at some point in their lives, be part of a social movement.

Understanding Engagement in Social Activism

• Being asked to get involved is the single most important predictor of individual participation in
protests.
• Younger, better educated individuals interested in politics and political debate are more likely
to be asked to protest.
• There is a group of individuals who become involved in social activism without ever being
asked by their social networks.

Social Movements and Their Evolution

• Social movements are a recent phenomenon linked to individual frustration and

dissatisfaction.
• Charles Tilly's study of early social movements in 17th-century France reveals that these
movements were small, localized, and had minimal social change.
• These early forms of activism were not considered social movements due to their short-lived,
limited scope, and focus on local concerns.
• Tilly defines these behaviors as the repertoires of collective action, which evolve over time
through small changes and variations.
• Learning occurs slowly and incrementally as various tactics and approaches are tested on the
ground.
• Political sociologists need to examine the historical trajectory of social movements and the
evolution of the repertoires of collective action.
• Early social engagements like bandits, mafias, and city mobs were ineffective due to their
inability to organize swiftly, methodically, and executable.
• Early social movements differ from modern ones in size, persistence, scalability, reliance on
technology, and elements of planning and organizational structure.
• New social movements learn from past experiences and build on key convictions and
mobilization strategies.

Industrial Revolution and Women's Suffrage in Canada

• The Industrial Revolution introduced large machinery, leading to increased unemployment
among skilled craftspeople.
• The term "machine breaking" was introduced to describe workers' actions against machinery
and the social changes resulting from industrialization.
• English weavers and textile workers known as Luddites participated in these actions.

Women's Suffrage Movement in Canada

• The main objective of the women's suffrage movement was to gain the right for women to
vote and hold elected government offices.
• Majority of women in Canada obtained the right to vote in 1918, two years before their
American counterparts.
• Women fought for equal voting rights to men for decades, leading to Canada-wide voting
privileges for women by the mid-twentieth century.
• Women's suffrage in Canada was not initially inclusive of all women and did not occur at a
single point in history.
• Indigenous women faced particular voting challenges and were largely excluded from the
suffrage movement.
• First Nations women lost their Indigenous rights, including status and treaty rights, when they
acquired federal voting rights.

Civil Rights Movement and the Anti-Apartheid Movement

• The civil rights movement in the U.S. was influenced by factors such as the decline of the
cotton industry, migration of southern blacks, international pressures, and federal government
advocates.
• The movement fought for equal rights for black citizens, including freedom and participation
in civil and political life without discrimination.
• The Civil Rights Movement provided a basis for the development of Social Movement
Organizations (SMOs), which were then transferred to other social movements worldwide.

South African Apartheid and the Anti-Apartheid Movement (4AM)

• The Anti-Apartheid Movement (4AM) opposed South Africa's system of government based on
racism and colonial oppression.
• The AAM gained international support from countries like the U.S., Britain, and France, leading
to the divestment of South African asset-based institutions and boycotts of South African
universities and sports clubs.
• The AAM impacted both national and international political culture, learning tactics from the
civil rights movement and serving as motivation for the civil rights movement.

The Environmental Movement

• The environmental movement refers to many related movements and SMOs focusing on issues
such as air, water, and soil pollution, deforestation, waste disposal, and decreasing biodiversity.
• Environmental movements are committed to non-violent, creative confrontation to eliminate
environmental problems.

The New Energy Movement and Greenpeace

• The New Energy Movement aims to create awareness and change around fossil fuel usage.
• Greenpeace is now an actor in the modern climate change movement.

Indigenous Resistance to Fossil Fuels

• Resistance to fossil fuels has been prominent in many Indigenous communities in Canada, as
part of broader Indigenous rights movements.
• Some Indigenous groups have successfully resisted big oil companies’ fossil fuel and coal
extraction, the expansion of tar sands, and fracking practices.
Types of social movements:

Transformative: These movements aim to change an established order by focusing on

supra-individual systems. During the Arab Spring, the uprisings were transformative in their
desire to remove the current leaders and enact a more democratic structure for their
governments.

Reformative: This type of movement works to enact partial change within larger systems. ‘They
focus less on changing the whole system and instead work to have groups’ rights better
represented within it. Examples include the women’s suffrage movement in Canada and the civil
rights movement in the United States.

Redemptive: These social movements look to change the whole individual. This is common
among religious movements, whereby constituents reach out to others and offer the chance at
radical personal transformation by virtue of joining and working alongside adherents of a
particular religion.

Alternative: The aim is to create partial change in a specific aspect of people’s behavior. For
example, Truth is a national anti-tobacco campaign aimed at stopping people from smoking.
Using pithy slogans like “Don't get played while they get paid,” this campaign aims at stopping
the practice of smoking tobacco altogether.

Forms of Activism:

Petition: Form of activism involving a formal written statement addressed to an authority figure,
often garnering thousands of signatures quickly.

Protest: Public action expressing disapproval or discontent, ranging from signs and megaphones
to silent protests.

Rebellion: Act of defiance to authority demonstrating the need for social change, often involving
the use of arms and force. Letters and postcards encourage leaders to take concerns seriously,
like New Brunswick's campaign to repeal safe abortion laws.

Blockade: Act of obstructing entry into a specific place or area, as seen in New Brunswick's
Mi'kmaq community protest.

Hacktivism: Part of cyber-activism, involving hacking a computer network for a socially or

politically motivated purpose.
Controversial Movement Strategies

Civil Disobedience
• A non-violent protest method used to express opposition to governmental law and policy.
• Can include silent protests, marching, hunger strikes, and sit-ins.
• Criticized for its disruptive nature and potential for provoking confrontation and unrest.

Sabotage and Property Damage

• Non-institutional armed resistance methods used to damage property rather than injure
people.
• Used when other forms of unarmed resistance fail.
• Property damage aims to destroy public or private property, while sabotage obstructs societal
functioning.
• Controversial due to potential escalation beyond intended goals and risks to human life.

The Wiebo Ludwig Case

• Controversial movement strategies, such as vandalism and sabotaging oil pipelines, have drawn
media attention.
• Some view these actions as domestic terrorism, while others sympathize with them.

First Wave Feminism: The early phase of the feminist movement, primarily focused on
achieving political and legal equality for women. Emerging in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, first wave feminists campaigned for women's suffrage, the right to vote, and property
rights. This movement addressed issues such as gender discrimination in education, employment,
and marriage laws. Key events during this period include the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848,
where the Declaration of Sentiments was drafted, and the eventual ratification of the 19th
Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920, granting women the right to vote. First
wave feminism laid the groundwork for subsequent waves of the feminist movement, setting a
precedent for advocating women's rights and challenging patriarchal structures in society.

Second Wave Feminism: A period of feminist activism and thought that emerged in the United
States in the early 1960s and lasted into the late 1980s. It focused on issues such as
reproductive rights, workplace equality, and combating cultural and social inequalities. Second
wave feminists sought to challenge traditional gender roles, stereotypes, and discrimination,
advocating for legal and social changes to address these issues. This movement played a
significant role in shaping modern understandings of gender equality and laid the groundwork
for many of the rights and opportunities women enjoy today.

Third Wave Feminism: Emerged in the late 20th century and focuses on diversity,
intersectionality, and individual empowerment. Unlike earlier waves, it emphasizes the
experiences of women of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and those from marginalized backgrounds.
Third-wave feminists aim to deconstruct gender norms, challenge traditional notions of
femininity and masculinity, and promote equality in all aspects of life, including politics,
economics, and culture. They advocate for reproductive rights, body positivity, and the
dismantling of systemic oppression in order to create a more inclusive and equitable society for
both genders.

Network Theory in Social Movements

• Social movements are characterized by social networks, facilitating information flow and
resource mobilization.
• Networks have become more relevant, scaled, and ranged due to the widespread use of digital
technologies.
• Key characteristics of networked social movements include speed and distance of information
dissemination, the number of people reached, and diverse mobilization methods.
• Centralization was key to the success of early social movements, requiring gatekeepers,
opinion leaders, and hierarchical organization.
• Centralized forms of collective action have limitations, including slow mobilization and high
costs.
• Emerging research suggests that digital media's low cost, speed, scale, and connectivity may
reduce the need for formal, centralized organization.
• Decentralized networks, like M-1s, rely on digital, participatory media and global support,
demonstrating the potential of digital media in reducing the need for centralized organization.

New Social Movements (NSMS) in Post-Industrial Economy

• Post-industrial economy has led to changes in political engagement, with downturns in voter
turnout and growing disinterest in mainstream political parties.
• New social movements (NSMS), particularly among young people, have emerged as a
response to these trends.
• Examples of NSMs include the anti-nuclear movement, animal rights movement, LGBTQ
movement, and free software movement.
• NSMs aim to address the invasive nature of capitalism, institutionalization, and industrialization
in the lifeworld, aiming to regain control over the subjectivity of the lifeworld.
• The study of NSMs is called new social movement (NSM) theory.
• Collective identity is a key feature in social movements, but there is an emerging approach
that opposes notions of collectivity.
• Sociologist Nelson Pichardo criticizes NSM theory for three reasons: lack of novelty, lack of
support for the argument that NSMs are a direct result of post-industrial society, and focusing
primarily on left-wing movements.
• Pichardo acknowledges the contribution of NSM theory to sociological inquiry by highlighting
previously overlooked aspects of social movements, such as identity and culture.
Resource Mobilization Theory in Social Movements

• Resource mobilization theory is crucial for understanding social movements' evolution.

• It addresses the dynamics and tactics of social movement growth, decline, and change.
• The theory challenges assumptions of collective action resulting from deprivation and the need
for a generalized belief or ideological justification.
• Identifies various resources as pivotal to organizational function, from inception to recruitment
and mobilization.
• Technological competency is a less prevalent resource, but is increasingly used by Social
Movement Organizations (SMOs) to disseminate messages, recruit members, and mobilize
members.

The Life Cycle of Social Movements:

Stage 1: Emergence: In the early stages of a social movement, activists become aware of a
cause to which they feel drawn, creating an initial interest in a group that then decides to
involve others. The emergence stage can be slow or relatively quick.

Stage 2: Coalescence: This stage is characterized by the movement growing, gaining

momentum, and making its messages available to others. A central part of coalescence is
recruitment; through publicizing its core mission and aims, the movement continues to draw
further members. Participation is another central aspect of coalescence as new members
become active in various movement tasks and, through their enthusiasm and commitment,
further draw new members.

Stage 3: Bureaucratization: In this stage, the movement no longer relies exclusively on

grassroots volunteerism. As it becomes a more established SMO, it hires paid staff to support
the movement in publicizing its goals and organizing events.

Stage 4: Decline: Like many social processes, social movements have an evolutionary
trajectory, and often social movements decline.