- CHAPTER

TWO
THERMAL PRINCIPLES

2-1 Roots of refrigeration and air conditioning Since a course in air conditioning and
odynamics and Heat Trans-
refrigeration might easily be titled Applications of Therm
text with a brief review of the
fer, it is desirable to begin the technical portion of this
of the fundamental prin-
basic elements of these subjects. This chapter extracts some
design and analysis of thermal
ciples that are important for calculations used in the
tation of these principles is
systems for buildings and industrial processes. The presen
no attempt to cover the full range
intended to serve a very specific purpose and makes
Readers who feel the need of a
of applications of thermodynamics and heat transfer.
these subjects.!™
more formal review are directed to basic texts in
material in a manner which
This chapter does, however, attempt to present the
d repeatedly throughout the re-
establishes a pattern of analysis that will be applie
fication of the essential elements
mainder of the text. This process involves the identi
or idealizations to model the sys-
of the problem or design, the use of simplifications
the appropriate physical laws
tem to be designed or analyzed, and the application of
to obtain the necessary result.

cs and heat transfer have developed

2-2 Concepts, models, and laws Thermodynami
ns of the physical world, the spe-
from a general set of concepts, based on observatio
and design systems. Mass and
cific models, and laws necessary to solve problems
engineering science grows. From our
energy are two of the basic concepts from which
of these is but would probably find
own experience we all have some idea what each
h definition of either mass or en-
it difficult to provide a simple, concise, one-paragrap
these concepts to realize that they
ergy. However, we are well enough acquainted with
cal world in which we live.
are essential elements in our description of the physi
virtually impossible to describe
As the physical world is extremely complex, it is
ns would be much too cumber-
it precisely. Even if it were, such detailed descriptio
ficant accomplishments of engj-
some for engineering purposes. One of the most signi
of physical phenomena which,
neering science has been the development of models
ate description and
although they are approximations, provide both a sufficiently accur
relationship of force to mass
a tractable means of solution. Newton’s model of the
ed universally, within its
and acceleration is an example. Although it cannot be appli
l.
range of application it is accurate and extremely usefu
13
 ING
14 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITION
ex-
of the mse lve s, how eve r, are of little value unless they can be
Models in and
te mat hem ati cal term s. The mathematical expressions of models
pressed in approp ria ain or
c equ ati ons , or laws , whi ch allow engineering science to expl
provide the basi and the
phe nom ena . The first and second laws of thermodynamics
predict natural l be
equ ati ons prov ide pert inen t examples here. In this text we shal
heat-transfer rate gn, and
use of thes e con cep ts, mod els , and laws in the description, desi
discussing the .
rma l sys tem s in buil ding s and the process industries.
analysis of the
is of thermal
dyn ami c pro per tie s Ano the r essential element in the analys
2-3 Thermo s. A property is
tem s is the ide nti fic ati on of the pertinent thermodynamic propertie
sys tatively. Tem-
ter which can be evaluated quanti
any characteristic or attribute of mat u-
and den sit y are all pro per tie s. Work and heat transfer can be eval
perature, pressure, s. A
of cha nge s in pro per tie s, but they are not properties themselve
ated in terms ne”
eth ing mat ter «ha s.” Wor k and heat transfer are things that are “do
property is som ed only at the
to cha nge its pro per tie s. Work and heat can be measur
to a system s on how a
of the sys tem , and the amo unt of energy transferred depend
boundary
given change takes place. ties are related
energy, all thermodynamic proper
As thermodynamics centers on defined by the values
ene rgy . The the rmo dyn ami c state or condition of a system is
to brium states and find
its pro per tie s. In our con sid erations we shall examine equili state.
of
sub sta nce two int ens ive the rmodynamic properties define the
that for a simple ine
sub sta nce s, €.g. , dry air and water vapor, it is necessary to def
For a mixture of
the state of the substance
s to specify the state. Once
three thermodynamic propertie found since they
erm ine d, all the oth er the rmodynamic properties can be
has been det
.
are not all independently variable temperature,
the rmo dyn ami c pro per tie s of primary interest in this text are
The ropy, and the liquid-
re, den sit y and spec ific vol ume, specific heat, enthalpy, ent
pressu
vapor property of state. rmal state and it
re The tem per atu re of a substance indicates its the
with it. Thus, a substance with -
Tem per atu
substance in contact
ability to exchange energy with a erence points
to one with a lower temperature. Ref
a higher temperature passes energy point of
poi nt of water (0°C) and the boiling
on the Celsius scale are the freezing
water (100°C). expressed
tem per atu re T is the num ber of degrees above absolute zero
Absolute two scales are
(K); thus T'=1 ¢ °C + 273 . Sin ce temperature intervals on the
in kelvins ins.
ius temperatures are stated in kelv
identical, differences between Cels a fluid per unit
re Pre ssu re p is the nor mal (perpendicular) force exerted by
Pressu measure of pressure
exerted. Absolute pressure is the
area against which the force is ic pressure.
sured above existing atmospher
above zero; gauge pressure is mea er (N/m?), also called a
The unit used for pre ssure is newtons per square met
of force.
pascal (Pa). The newton is a unit
is 101,325 Pa = 101.3 kPa.
Standard atmospheric pressure manometers,
ssu res are mea sur ed by suc h instruments as pressure gauges or
Pre e one end of the ma-
sch ema tic all y inst alle d in the air duct of Fig. 2-1. Becaus
shown
the deflection of water in the manometer indicates
ometer is open to the atmosphere,
ge does.
gauge pressure, just as the pressure gau
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 15

Manometer

Pressure gauge
|4
: B Deflection
/‘
-f

Duct

Air

r.
duct with a pressure gauge and a manomete
Figure 2-1 Indicating the gauge pressure of air in a

g a unit
Density and specific volume The density p of a fluid is the mass occupyin
volume v is t! he volume occupied by a unit mass. The density and
volume; the specific
r. The density of air at standard atmo-
specific volumes are reciprocals of each othe
1.2 kg/m>.
spheric pressure and 25°C is approximately
ained in a room of dimensions 4 by 6
Example 2-1 What is the mass of air cont
air is 0.83 m3/kg?
by 3 m if the specific volume of the
so the mass of air in the room is
Solution The volume of the room is 72 m3, and
72 m?
P 867k g
083 m’/ke
to
a substance is the quantity of energy required
Specific heat The specific heat of tity is
tem per atu re of a unit mass by 1 K. Since the magnitude of this quan
raise the d or removed must
lue nce d by how the pro ces s is carri ied out, how the heat is adde
inf me
riptions are specific heat at constant volu
be described. The two most common desc us be-
cp- The second is the more useful to
¢, and specific heat at constant pressure air con-
and cooling processes experienced in
cause it applies to most of the heating
ditioning and refrigeration.
The approximate speci fic heats
of several important substances are
1.0kJ/kg'K dry air
¢ ={4.19 kJ/kg-K liquid water
1.88 kJ/kg-K water vapor

the joule.
where J symbolizes the unit of energy,
r
input to a water heater if 0.4 kg/s of wate
Example 2-2 What is the rate of heat
enters at 82°C and leaves at 93°C?

ins essentially constant as it flows through

Solution The pressure of water rema
unt of energy in the form of heat added
the heater, so ¢, is applicab! le. The amo
to each kilogram is
(4.19 kJ/kg-K) (93 - 82°C) =46.1 kJ/kg
 NG
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONI
16
can-
es of equ ati ons mus t bal ance, but the °C and K do
The units on opposite sid in tem perature expressed in kel
vins and
heat imp lie s a cha nge
cel because the specific degrees
re of 11° C. A cha nge of temperature in Celsius
peratu
93 - 82 is a change in tem in kel vin s. To complete Example.
2-2, con-
the sam e cha nge then is
of a given magnitude is h the hea ter . The rate of heat input
kg/s flo ws thr oug
sider the fact that 0.4 )
KJJs = 18.44 kW
(04 kefs) (46.1 Kl /kg) = 18.44
restricted by
pre ssu re pro ces s int roduced above is further of
Enthalpy If the constant- sub sta nce , e.g ., by a compressor, the amount
done on the
permitting no work to be the cha nge in ent halpy of the substance.
Tables
per unit mas s is are
heat added or removed
ble for ma ny sub sta nce s. These enthalpy values
are availa
and charts of enthalpy h da tu m pla ne. For example, the datum
plane
itrari ly cho sen
always based on some arb of zer o for liquid water at 0°C. Based
on that
ent hal py val ue
for water and steam is an of water vapor
of liq uid wat er at 10 0°C is 419.06 kJ/kg and
datum plane, the enthalpy
kg.
(steam) at 100°C is 2676 kJ/ py is that amount of heat added or removed per unit
al
Since the change in enth nge in enthalpy of the
water in Example
ssure process, the cha transfer
mass in a constant-pre ty can als o exp ress the rates of heat
e enthalpy pro per boiler or an
22 is 46.1 kJ/kg. Th ion or co nd en sa tion, e.g.,ina water
re is vapori zat
for processes where the s.
steam condense
air-heating coil where
at which
of 0.0 6 kg/ s of wat er enters a boiler at 90°C,
e
Example 2-3 A flow rat kJ/ kg. The water leaves as steam at
100°C.
py is 37 69
temperature the enthal ?
t added by the boiler
What is the rate of hea
s is
ge in en th al py in thi s constant-pressure proces
Solution The chan
2299 kl/kg
Ah=2676 - 377kI[kg=
steam is
t tra nsf er to the wat er in converting it to
The rate of hea
= 137.9 kW
(0.06 kgfs) (2299 ki/kg)
l connotations,
§ has im po rt an t tec hnical and philosophica
Entropy Although entr
opy
and lim ite d ma nn er . Entropy does appear in
ty in a specific un-
we shall use this proper and is me nt io ne d her e so that it will not be
of properties
many charts and tables s property:
Th e fo ll ow in g are two implications of thi
famili ar.
or re-
ss ed of ex pa nd ed fri ctionlessly without adding
compre
1. If a gas or vapor is en tr op y of the substance remains con
stant.
pro ces s, the
moving heat during the represents the
the change in enthalpy
e

bed in imp lic ati on 1,

2. In the process descri required by the compression
Orf delivered by
per unit mass
amount of work
kbt

the expansion.
stant
we sha ll hav e for en tr opy is to read lines of con
actical use
Possibly the greatest pr
s

ion 1
ion in vapor-compress
ting the work of compress
on graphs in ¢ ompu
o

entropy
frigeration cycles.
MM
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 17

nces that pass

Liquid- vapor properties Most heating and cooling systems use substa
refrigerants are prime ex-
between liquid and vapor states in their cycle. Steam and
, and enthalpies are key
amples of these substances. Since the pressures, temperatures
properties are listed in tables
properties during these changes, the relationships of these
m for water shown in Fig. 2-2.
or displayed on charts, e.g., the pressure-enthalpy diagra
quid region to the
The three major regions on the chart are (1) the subcooled-li
heated-vapor region on
left, (2) the liquid-vapor region in the center, and (3) the super
exists, and in region 2
the right. In region 1 only liquid exists, in region 3 only vapor
2 and region 3 is the
both liquid and vapor exist simultaneously. Separating region
horizontal line at constant pres-
saturated-vapor line. As we move to the right along a
line, the mixture of liquid
sure from the saturatedliquid line to the saturated-vapor
vapor.
and vapor changes from 100 percent liquid to 100 percent
C, t = 100°C,
Three lines of constant temperature are shown in Fig. 22, t=50°
boils at a higher temperature
and £ = 150°C. Corresponding to our experience, water
at
when the pressure is higher. If the pressure is 12.3 kPa, water boils at 50°C, but
standard atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa it boils at 100°C.
of constant entropy.
Also shown in the superheated vapor region are two lines

500 T
—T— T
—fF—T —J—F—F—F—F
400 t=150°C
£
=
300 sl
a
/ sl
g
&._
200 sl g’
Sub- / Liquid-vapor region.
e
|—cooled-
3 |‘f\\
liquid
i t =100°C |~”
P 100 | _region

S
E

g2 % ]
-~

nn

i 50 P
yAVH
T 8
~
40 £ /
=3 | ihe
30 &
¥s i.
Super-
20 3
S heated-
t =50°C | vapor
__"_"‘__T~_'—’A‘_"—_ — | region
T 1T
10 H
il _§ 1

10 1.2 14 1.6 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
80 02 04 06 08
Enthalpy, MJ/kg

Figure 2-2 Skeleton pressure-enthalpy diagram for water.

18 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

boiler, is heated,
of liqu id water at 50°C flows into a

AT
Exa mpl e 24 If 9 kg/s
process takes
perature of 150°C and the entire
boiled, and superheated to a tem rate of heat transfer to the
atmospheric pressure, what is the
place at standard
water?
ature
s cons ists of thre e dist inct parts: (1) bringing the temper

v
Solution The pro ces t
led wat er up to its sat ura tio n temperature, (2) converting liquid°a
of the subcoo
or at 100 °C, and (3) sup erh eating the vapor from 100 to 150°C.

Y
100°C into vap
t of the mass rate of flow multiplied by the
The rate of heat transfer is the produc 50°C and 101 kPa is 209
The enthalpy of entering water at

Y
change in enthalpy. d more pre-
rox imately from Fig. 22 or determine

Y1
KkJ/ kg, whi ch can be read app
am at 150°C
The enthalpy of superheated ste
cisely from Appendix Table A-1.
rate of heat transfer is
and 101 kPa is 2745 kJ/kg. The
kW
4= (9 kgls) (2745 - 209 kl/kg) = 22,824
nce are
ed pre vio usl y, the the rmo dynamic properties of a substa
Perfect-gas law As not idealized
y vari able but are fixe d by the state of a substance. The
not all independentl specific volume of
tes the pressure, temperature, and
model of gas behavior which rela
example
a perfect gas provides an
pv=RT

Pa
where p = absolute pressure,
» = specific volume, m3/kg
for air and 462 J/kgK for water
R = gas constant = 287 J/kg-K
T = absolute temperature, K hly super-
es the per fec t-g as equ ati on is applicable to dry air and to hig
For our purpos close to their
er vap or and not app lic abl e to water and refrigerant vapors
heated wat
saturation conditions.
at 101 kPa and 25°C?
Example 2-5 What is the density of dry air

of the specific volume v, and so

Solution The density p is the reciprocal
1 b 101,000Pa
P RT (287 J/kg-K) (2+5273 K)
p=1.18 kg/m’
ies, we have
dyn ami c pro ces ses In dis cussing thermodynamic pmpert
2-4 Thermo cooling), but we
rod uce d sev era l the rmo dyn amic processes (heating and
already int s we shall use before
rev iew sev era l mor e def ini tio ns and the basic models and law
must
a wider range of applications.
expanding this discussion to dynamics, its fundamental mod
els and
cen tra l con cep t in the rmo
As energy is the content
elo ped to faci lita te ene rgy _an alyses, €.g., to describe energy
laws have been dev . In any
er. Ene rgy ana lys is is fun dam entally an accounting procedure
and energy transf rly identi-
ced ure wha tev er it is that is under consideration must be clea
accounting pro
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 19

nate the object or objects considered

fied. In this text we use the term system to desig a
as simple as a specified volume of
in the analysis or discussion. A system may be
al-distribution network in a large
homogeneous fluid or as complex as the entire therm space
of a specified region in
o

bunding. In most cases we shall define a system in term.s d surface,

(sometimes referred to as a control volume) and entirely enclosed by a close
ce). The size of the system and the
referred to as the system boundary (or control surfa
specified for each problem so that
shape of the system boundary are arbitrary and are
storage within the system or energy
they simplify accounting for the changes in energy
not included in the system is called
transfers across a system boundary. Whatever is
the environment.
simple flow system shown in Fig. 2-3, where mass is transferred
Consider the
1 and from the system to the environ-
from the environment to the system at point
to analyze something as simple as a
ment at point 2. Such a system could be used des the
building. The definition of the system provi
pump or as complex as an entire
objects considered in thermody-
framework for the models used to describe the real
namic analysis.
basic laws so that they are appli-
The next step in the analysis is to formulate the
conservation of mass and conservation of
cable to the system defined. The laws of
be applying them repeatedly in every
energy provide excellent examples, as we shall
ion design.
aspect of air-conditioning and refrigerat

tal concept and thus is not simply de-

2.5 Conservation of mass Mass is a fundamen
e to Newton’s law
fined. A definition is often presented by referenc
av
Force=ma=m—
do

where m = mass, kg
a = acceleration, m/s?
V = velocity, m/s
6 = time, s
accelerates at a rate dependent upon
An object subjected to an unbalanced force
the mass of an object is conceived of as
the magnitude of the force. In this context which undergo
ge in velocity. Two objects
being characteristic of its resistance to chan
l forces have the same mass. Further, our
the same acceleration under action of identica

®25m, —_—

Figure 2-3 Conservation of mass in a simple flow system.

 — —
— — — ——“
’

IONING
AND AIR CONDIT

NENRR
20 REFR!GERATION
m of their
tw o ob je ct s ta ke n together is the su
of rts pro-
lds that the mass to two identical pa
concept of mass ho homo ge ng ou s bo dy in
and that cutting 3 equivalent
individual masses th e or ig in al ma ss . This idea i s the
of
masses, each half
duces two identical
ervation of mass. at mass is
on of mass states th

)
of the law of cons pl e of co ns er va ti
ext the princi . It may be stored
within a sys:
In the present cont pr oc es se s an al yz ed
destroyed in the accounted for

Y Oy
en t, but it must be

TYYY
neither created nor an d its en vi ro nm
between 2 system in the system may
change
tem or transferred Fig. 3 again. The mass
2- incre-
ocedure. Consider that during a time
in any analysis pr of the system. Assume in
flows into or out leaves. If the mass
over time as mass and an in cr em en t 8m
§m enters the sy
stem
50> conservation of mass
ment df of mass at at time 0+ 80 is Mg +
@ is mg and th
the system at time
requires that
=my 4_w+¢5m2
my +ém

s
Dividing by 80 give
Mg +50 " "o smy dmy
&6 56 &0

ss flux as
If we express the ma
. om
m=—
50

y instant as
te of change at an
we can write the ra
dm . -m, = =0
i, 2 1
d6

zer0,
ch an ge of ma ss wit hin the system is
If the rate of
0 " . .
dm
—_—=
m,=m an 1~ ™2
a0
is.
en co un te re d fr eq uently in our analys
will be
flow. Steady flow
and we have steady
s
co nd it io ni ng an d refrigeration system
most air- rate
ergy equation In (or if they do, the
2.6 Steady-flow en one in st an t to the ne xt
do not change from be steady. In the sy
stem
the mass flow rates rate ma y be as su me d to
rate of
therefore the flow stated as follows: the
of change is small); gy ba la nc e ca n be
! in Fig. 2-4 the ener energy added as heat
minus
shown symbolically 1 pl us the rat e of
the stream at point of energy leaving at
point 2
energy entering with s th e rat e
S

d mi nu
performing work an The mathematical ex
pression
the rate of energy co nt ro l vo lu me .
ange of energy in the
equals the rate of ch
e is
for the energy balanc
w 4a0— (21- )
+V5——-%+gz 2
-mlh 27
+qq -m
- =
T

+Vi+
mn (1(h 1)
8z
5
e~e
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 21

W, W v,

Figure 2-4 Energy balance on a control volume experiencing steady flow rates.

where m = mass rate of flow, kg/s

h = enthalpy, J/kg
V = velocity, m/s
z = elevation, m
g = gravitaticnal acceleration = 9.81 m/s?
g = rate of energy transfer in form of heat, W
W = rate of energy transfer in form of work, W
E = energy in system, J
Because we are limiting consideration to steady-flow processes, there is no change
of E with respect to time; the dE/df term is therefore zero, and the usual form of the
steady-flow energy equation appears:
v? V2
m h1~l—?l+g;:1 tq=m h2+72+g22)+w (2-2)

This form of the energy equation will be frequently used in the following chap-
ters. Some applications of Eq. (2-2) will be considered at this point.

2-7 Heating and cooling In many heating and cooling processes, e.g., the water heater
in Example 2-2 and the boiler in Example 2-3, the changes in certain of the energy
terms are negligible. Often the magnitude of change in the kinetic-energy term V2
and the potential-energy term 9.81z from one point to another is negligible compared
with the magnitude of change of enthalpy, the work done, or heat transferred. If no
work is done by a pump, compressor, or engine in the process, W= 0. The energy
equation then reduces to
q+mh =mh, or q=rh,-h)
i.e, the rate of heat transfer equals the mass rate of flow multiplied by the change in
enthalpy, as assumed in Examples 2-2 and 2-3.

Example 2-6 Water flowing at a steady rate of 1.2 kg/s is to be chilled from 10
to 4°C to supply a cooling coil in an air-conditioning system. Determine the neces-
sary rate of heat transfer.
 NING
AND AIR CONDITIO
22 REFRIGERATION

I
ki/kg.
l, at 4° Ch = 16. 80 kJ/ kg and at 10°C h =41.99
Solution From Table A-
Then
4199)=-3023 kW
q= i, -hy)=(12kels) (1680 -

s
thus q=0.

AaA
ba ti c me an s tha t no heat is transferred;
Ad ia system are ther-
2-8 Adiabatic processes tic occ ur when the walls of the
adi aba
Processes that are essent
ial ly
are not ins ula ted , if the throughput rates of
en the walls

N
mally insulated. Even wh
in
rgy tr an sm it te d to or from the environment

~
ation to t he ene
energy are large in rel abatic.
pr oc es s may be considered adi

N
the fo rm of hea t, the
abatic is
pl e of a pro ces s wh ic h can be modeled as adi
An exam and the heat-
2.9 Compression work ge in kin eti c and potential energies
gas. The ch an potential-
the compression of a Aft er dr op pi ng out the Kinetic- and
y neg lig ibl e.
transfer rate are usuall the result is
and the hea t-t ran sfe r rate 4 from Eq. (2-2)
energy terms
W=y ~hy)
in en-
ss rat e of flo w mu lt iplied by the change
t equals the ma
The power requiremen a co mp ressor and positive
for an engine.
ne ga ti ve for
thalpy. The W term is
ange in en-
ot he r too l is ava ila ble to predict the ch
ssion An t friction, the
2-10 Isentropic compre co mp re ss io n is adiabatic and withou
ssion. If the y diagram of
thalpy during @ compre tr op y. On the sk eleton pressure-em.halp
consta nt en om 1 to 2.
compression OCCUTS at urs alo ng the constant-entropy line fr
compre ss io n occ a compression
Fig. 2-5 such an ideal tha t if the entering condition to
op er ty is r
The usefulness of this
pr
kn ow n, poi nt 2 can be Jocated and the powe
g pressure aré ng
(point 1) and the leavin Th e act ual co mp re ss io n usually takes place alo
mihy -h2)- 2'
predicted by computing nt ro py lin e (s ho wn by the dashed line to point
the constant-e
a path to the right of r po wer than for the ideal
compression.
g sli ght ly gre ate
in Fig. 2-5), indicatin

to compress 1.5 kg/s of saturated

the power required
Example 27 Compute kPa.
a pressure of 34 kPa to one of 150
water vapor from

on
= 34 kPa and saturati
Solution From Fig. 22,atpy
and §,=77 KI/kg'K
hy =2630 Kijkg
=1
Atpy = 150 kPa and s9
h,= 2930 kJ/kg

Then
KJ/kg) = -450 kW
w= (1.5 kels) (2630 -2930
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 23
Pressure

Figure 2-5 Pressure-enthalpy dia-

gram showing a line of constant

Enthalpy entropy.

mechanical
2-11 Bernoulli’s equation Bernoulli’s equation is often derived from the
of fluids, but it is also derivable as a special case of the energy equation
behavior
be shown that
through second-law considerations. It can
Tds=du+pdv (2-3)

kilogram. This expression is referred to as

where u is the internal energy in joules per
ss ¢ =0, and with no mechanical work
the Gibb’s equation. For an adiabatic proce
flows in a pipe or duct. Equation (2-2)
Ww=0. Such a process might occur when fluid
then requires that
V2
h+ 7+gz=const

Differentiation yields
dn+VdV+gdz=0 24)
be differentiated to yield
The definition of enthalpy h =u + pv can
(2-5)
dh=du+pdv+vdp

Combining Egs. (2-3) and (2-5) results in

(2-6)
Tds=dh-vdp
follows that, since ds = 0,
Applying Eq. (2-6) to an isentropic process it
1
dh=vdp=—dp
P
for isentropic flow gives
Substituting this expression for dh into Eq. (24)
d¥ yavigdz=0 @7
P
ulli equation
For constant density Eq. (2-7) integrates to the Berno
p V?
Z + — +gz=const
(2-8)
P
 T
NG
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONI
24

P
density varies
|| equation for liquid and gas flows in which the
We shall use the Bernoulli
treated as incompressible.
\ only slightly and may be
ere z; =0 m,to
is pu mp ed fr om a chi ller in the basement, wh
Exampl- 2-8 Water at
ti et h flo or of a bui ldi ng, where z, = 80 m. Wh
the twen
a cooling coil located on mu st be cap abl e of providing if the te
m-
rise the pu mp
is the minimum pressure
?
perature of the water is 4°C
V22
out let vel oci tie s are equal, the change in the
and
Solution Since the inlet
noulli’s equation
term is zero; so from Ber
p P
—-‘+g21=~2+gz2
p

and g = 9.81 m/s2, therefore

The density p = 1000 kg/m3,
?) (80 m) = 785 kPa
py - Py = (1000 kg/m®) (9.81 m/s
namic laws
fe r ana lys is is de ve lo ped from the thermody
-trans and three rate
2-12 Heat transfer Heat the se co nd law of thermodynamics,
and ene rgy ,
of conservation of mass rate equations were
on , rad iat ion , and convection. The
of energy exchange. They
co nd uc ti
equations describing phy sic al ph en om en a
servation of the served
developed from the ob of the mo de ls der ived to describe the ob
descriptions
are the mathematical
es energy
phenomena.
id mat eri al, ref err ed to as conduction, involv
a sol
Heat transfer through n, on the other hand, is a process
that trans-
r lev el. Ra di at io
exchange at the molecula r. Radiation
ot on pr op ag at io n fr om one surface to anothe
ph
ports energy by way of and doe s not depend on any
intervening medium
across 2 va cu um depends upon
can transmit energy fac es. Convection heat transfer
ee n the tw o sur fluid
to provide a link betw the movement of the

ia
an adj ace nt flu id and
id surface to te dis-
conduction from a sol Th us eac h hea t-t ran sfer mechanism is qui
away from it. nds
along the surface or
y all hav e co mm on cha racteristics, as each depe
however, the
tinct from the others; me ns ions of the objects cons
idered.
the phy sic al di
on temperature and
reasoned
the phy sic al ph en om ena and a series of
rvation of x arising
2-13 Conduction Obse for co nd uc ti on . Consider the energy flu
e equati on mperature
steps establishes the rat a sol id rod . Iti s proportional to the te
transfer alo ng gth. These
from conduction heat a and inv ers ely proportional to the len
s-sectio na l are ier provided a
difference and the cros ser ies of sim ple experiments. Four
verified by a
observations can be nal problem
mo de l for thi s pro cess. In 2 one-dimensio
mathematical
At (29)+
q=-kA — .
L «
€
a, m?
where A= cross-sectional are *
ence, K
At = temperature differ L
.
€
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 25
>

Table 2-1 Thermal conductivity of some materials

Material Temperature, °C Density, kg/m3 Conductivity, W/m-K

Aluminum (pure) 20 2707 204

Copper (pure) 20 8954 386
Face brick 20 2000 1.32
Glass (window) 20 2700 0.78
3
-~ Water 21 997 0.604
Wood (yellow pine) 23 640 0.147
N
Air 27 1.177 0.026
Bl

L =length,m
k = thermal conductivity, W/m-K
The thermal conductivity is a characteristic of the material, and the ratio k[L is re-
ferred to as the conductance.
The thermal conductivity, and thus the rate of conductive heat transfer, is related
to the molecular structure of materials. The more closely packed, well-ordered mole-
widely
cules of a metal transfer energy more readily than the random and perhaps
spaced molecules of nonmetallic materials. The free electrons in metals also contribute
to a higher thermal conductivity. Thus good electric conductors usually have a high
ic solids is
thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of less ordered inorgan
still lower
lower than that of metals. Organic and fibrous materials, such as wood, have
are generally
thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivities of nonmetallic linuids
lower still.
Jlower than those of solids, and those of gases at atmospheric pressure are
lecular
The reduction in conductivity is attributable to the absence of strong intermo
indicates the
bonding and the existence of widely spaced molecules in fluids. Table 2-1
ls.
order of magnitude of the thermal conductivity of several classes of materia
The rate equation for conduction heat transfer is normally expressed in differ-
ential form
A dt
a ax
when photons
2.14 Radiation As noted previously, radiant-energy transfer results
other surfaces
emitted from one surface travel to other surfaces. Upon reaching the
the surface.
radiated photons are either absorbed, reflected, or transmitted through
emissive power. It
The energy radiated from a surface is defined in terms of its
is proportional
can be shown from thermodynamic reasoning that the emissive power
, generally
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. For a perfect radiator
referred to as a blackbody, the emissive power Ej, W/m? is
Eb
goT

where o = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.669 X 10-8 W/m? - K4

T = absolute temperature, K
Since real bodies are not “black,” they radiate less energy than a blackbody at the
R —————

3
)
NING
AND AIR CONDITIO

AR EDED
26 REFRIGERATION
ody
tu al em is si ve po we r E W/m? to the blackb
e ratio of the ac
same temperature. Th ty €, where
the emissivi
emissive power is
€=
E

bl
Eb
proxi-
be assumed to be ap

33323333
ab so rp ti vi ty ma y
and
als the emissivity
In many real materi are referred to as gr
ay bodies, and
Th es e ma te ri al s
mately equal.
ETQ

).
tivity (dimensionless at radiation leaving
2
where o is the absorp er gy ex ch an ge is th
feature of radiant-en ometric relationship
Another important io ns . Th er ef or e the ge
uniformly in all direct em. For example,
surface is distributed exchange between th
gy
n tw o su rf ac es af fects the radiant-ener pl at es 1bylm separa
ted by
betwee o bl ac k par all el :
sferred between tw respectively, would
be 1.13
the radiant heat tran 10 00 an d 30 0 K,
th temperatures of heat transfer would
be 0.39 kW.
a distance of 1 m wi m ap ar t, the .
o plates were move
d 2 rate of heat
KW. If the same tw ea ch ot he r wi th 2 common edge, the and .
rpendicular to can be determined
If they were set pe The geometri c re la ti on sh ip
ain be 1.13 kW.
transfer would ag ctor Fy.
terms of a shape fa tivities,
accounted for in ac es , i€ , the ir emissivities, absorp
surf ansfer. If
teristics of the of radiant heat tr
The optical charac o in fl ue nc e the rat e
transmissivities, als n be ex-
reflectivities, and Fy, the ra di an t- energy exchange ca
expressed by 2 factor
these effects are “~
pressed as (2-10) =
. a4y = OAFE, (T‘; -T9) .,
texts and
F4 can be found in heat-transfer
for evaluating Fe and
' Procedures
handbooks. was originally pro---=.
.- heat transfer
I for convective
Th e rate equation enomena,
; 2-15 Convection n fr om ob se rv at ion of physical ph
in 1701, agai (2-11) .
posed by Newton
i q=hcA (ts_tf) “
"
e h,, = co nv ec ti on coefficient, W/m? + K o
S wh er e, °C
t, = surface temperatur h¢
i e,“C re 2 definition of
t o= fluid temperatur ering ev en th ou gh it is mo s
dely used in engine heat-
This equation is wi . In fac t, th e es sence of convective
nvection the con-
ogical law for co demonstrated that
than a phenomenol Ex pe ri me nt s ha ve
the evaluation of h,. and ducts, and acro
ss tubes
transfer analysis is e su rf ac es , in pi pe s
the solid
for flows over plan d the geometry of
vection coefficient fl ui d pr op er ti es , an -
with flow velocity, the experimentally
observed
can be correlated ve lo pe d to su pp or t *2
theory has been de urations.
surface. Extensive ed ic t be ha vi or in untested flow config l &
rr el at io ns an d to extend them to pr ho we ve r, wh ic h are used in practica
co theories, per- i
ns rather than the sis of most of the
It is the correlatio parameters pr ov id e th e ba
Loeel

. Dimensionless ysis
A
engineering analysis en ti fi ed by ap pl yi ng dimensional anal
Were id ion of
\ These parameters . The proper select
tinent correlations. nvec ti ve he at tr an sf er
ables influencing co
in grouping the vari
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 27

physical
the variables to be considered, of course, depends on understanding the
basic flow
phenomena involved and on the ability to construct reasonable models for
scope of this
configurations. A detailed presentation of these techniques is beyond the
present
chapter, and the interested reader is referred to neat-transfer texts. For our
forms of the
> purposes it will be sufficient to identify the pertinent parameters and the
h,: .
E correlations which will often be used in evaluating the convection coefficient

- VD
N Reynolds number Re = —
H
.
ue,
= = —2
. Prandtl number Pr

h D
Nusselt number Nu = CT

ns so that the rela-

Expressions have been developed for particular flow configuratio
l numbers can be
tionship between the Nusselt number and the Reynolds and Prandt
expressed as
Nu = C(Re") (Pr'™")
being determined experi-
with values of the constant C and the exponents n and m
as in Fig. 2-6,
mentally. Alternatively these relationships can be illustrated graphically,

104

101_

1 1 1
]01

10° 10 10% 108

Reynolds number

t flow.
Figure 2-6 Typical data correlation for forced convection in smooth tubes, turbulen
 —J
P————

28 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

values of con-
Table 2-2 Typical range of
boiling, and condensing heat-
vective,
transfer coefficients®
h,, W/m2 *K
Process
-
5-25
Free convection, air
20-100
Free convection, water
10-200
Forced convection, air
50-10,000
Forced convection, water
3000-100,000
Boiling water
5000-100,000
Condensing water

le 2-2 provides
nit ude s app lic abl e to tur bul ent flow in a smooth tube. Tab
giving mag and for boiling and
val ues of h, for con vec tiv e heat transfer with water and air
typical
condensing of water.
tion
e It is of int ere st that the rate equations for both conduc
2.16 Thermal resistanc les—conductance, area, and
tempera-
the pertinent variab
and convection are linear in ever, is nonlinear in temperature.
iation rate equation, how
The rad
difference. n all occur
tion, radiation, and convectio
ture
cal cul ati ons in whi ch con duc
Heat-transfer in terms of
fie d gre atl y if the rad iat ion heat transfer could be expressed
could be simpli
that
a radiant conductance such
q=hA At
-
hea t-t ran sfe r coe ffi cie nt by radiation, W/m2 + K. When com
where &, is the equivalent ltz man n law, Eq. (2-10), h, can be ex-
on wit h the Ste fan -Bo
paring the above equati
pressed as
4 o4
=°F5FA (T} -T,)
r T,-T,
as the temperatures are
function of temperature. However,
which is a nonlinear ature ranges and
out that h, doe s not var y greatly over modest temper
absolute, it turns cases using the linearized
acceptable accuracy in many
it is indeed possible to obtain
equation.
rate equation we have
With the linearized radiation
k
ZA At conduction

q= hCA At convection

h A At radiation
draw an
w and At is a pot ent ial difference, it is possible to
Noting that q is 2 heat flo
law
analogy with Ohm’s

E=IR or [I=—
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 29

where E = potential difference

I = current
R = resistance
When the heat-transfer equation is written according to the electrical analogy,
At
q9= .
RT
where R T is thermal resistance. For the three modes of heat transfer

— conduction
kA
. 1
RT = A convection
h2

1
—— radiation
h A

With these definitions of thermal resistance it is possible by analogy to apply certain

is the
concepts from circuit theory to heat transfer. Recall that the conductance C
reciprocal of the resistance, C = 1/R*, and that in series circuits the resistances sum but
for parallel circuits the conductances sum. In the transfer of energy from one room to
another through a solid wall (Fig. 2-7) assume that both the gas and the other walls of

s1 1

Wall

Radiation
Radiation |
conduction and
and
I convection
convection

—VW—
—VMW— 11 2
*
51 52 Ry*
fy R, —o—
—o— —AW—
R
L—a— ” AN
R*
* RY. 2

Figure 2-7 Heat transfer from one room to another across a solid wall.
—r—

-
AND AIR CONDITIONING
30 REFRIGERATION
L} N
5 Is2 -
h M S AASE
o— A * R},
* R,
R
stances are combined into a
Heat -tra nsfe r circ uit whe n the convective and radiative resi +
Figure 2-8
single surface resistance.
[a)

- -
. . tal
|
application the total resistance is
. . .

se in roo m 2 are at ¢,. In this.

room 1 are at £, and tho i

1 1
~
* R:' + ~
R:ot =
Clr t Clc CZr + CZc
1 * 1
* + +
or R, tot .= * * +R w * ’
1/R1r+l/Rlc 1/R2r+1/Rlc
subscripts 7, ‘
1 and 2 refe r to roo ms 1 and 2, respectively, and the
where the subscripts .
s
vection, and wall, respectively
¢, and w refer to radiation, con at a surface, and the con
vective .
radiation occur simultaneously
Convection and ce, a usual prac-
con duc tan ces can be com bined into a single conductan
and radiative 4. The combined
tin g- and coo lin g-l oad cal culations followed in Chap. N
tice in hea in
ome s (he + h)A . In the heat-transfer situation shown
surface conductance bec Fig. 2-8, where
as shown in
2-7, the circuit reduces to a series of resistances,
Fig.
R = 1/(h, + h)A. ine the temperature of the surface
knowing
nece ssar y to det erm
It is frequently the other is con- ”
the spa ce. Sin ce the heat flux from one room to
the temperatures in :
stant at steady-state conditions,
r:
't2
q=’1'rs,l _t:,l' s,2_ts,2't2_t1 * -
= * i -
* e
RW Rr—c,2 R tot
Rr—c. 1
-
If 7, ; is sought, for example,
*
= __r=cl - .
tiTh g (-1 o
tot
ments are present
r ins tan ce of par all el hea t flow arises when structural ele
Anothe structural member and
sec tio ns. In Fig. 29, for example, element C may be a o
in wall -

B
.
RB

* vVv * 1y
B Ry
h Ry W— O— »
M— AN —] - —AAA—A
| A Dt —o —A '
1
2 R, '
R —AW—
B R* -
c

paths.
Figure 2-9 Heat transfer through parallel
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 31

- ) Outside air

. . Face brick

< Air space

’
Sheathing

Insulation

Stud

o]——————— Gypsum board

-
o———————Inside air

L.m W/;;K A.m’ R, R, R R Rp R

1.0 .029
Outside air
.09 1.30 1.0 070
Face brick
1.0 170
Air space
013 0.056 1.0 232
Sheathing 2.96
Insulation .09 0.038 0.8
0.2 32
Stud .09 0.14
1.0 08
Gypsum board .013 0.16
1.0 125
Inside air
Subtotal 029 472 296 32 .08 .125

Figure 2-10 Wall section in Example 2-9.

members is occupied by a different material, perhaps

- the space between structural
the wall and air on the other
insulation. The total resistance between air on one side of
is
R‘Rt
* * * * *
R =R +R, + *
B C+R
* D
+R 5,2
tot 5,1 A
RB + RC

the heat transfer in

Example 29 Using the data given in Fig. 2-10, determine
the temperature. of the out-
watts per square meter through the wall section and
the insulated portion of
side surface of the insulation if 7, = 0°Cand t; = 21°C. In
up with the structural ele-
the wall assume that 20 percent of the space is taken
ments, which are wood studs.

Solution From the data given, for each 1 m? of surface

N 296(3.2)
R® . =0.029+0472+— " +0.08+0.125
tot 296+3.2
=224 K/W
 ING
32 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITION

3
Thus
21-0
_=937W/m?
RL,:
g=-_2=""224
ace of the insulation is

3333305,
The temperature at the outside surf
0.029 +0.472 (21-0°!C)=4.7°CN

stance
ent has been neglected, the total resi
In Example 2-9 if the structural elem indi-
ulat ed woul d have been Ry = 3.67 and ¢ would have been 5.73 W, which
calc the heat-
elements has a significant effect on
cates that the presence of structural
transfer calculation.
The heat-transfer equation

=ie 212

frequently appears in the form

q=UA(; - 1)
coefficient, W/m2 -K
where U = overall heat-transfer
A = surface area, m?
(2-12), we see that
Comparing this equation with Eq.

a3
1
UA=—

s
Riot

v
1
U= —4——
and thus
R4
L
s0 that it is pos-
y con str uct ion mat eri al Is are available in standard thicknesses
Man ing to calculate the
e to pre sen t the res ist anc e of the material directly without hav
sibl stances are expressed
A ter m for the mate rial . An additional convention is that resi
LJk ces R, which have units of
The relationship of these resistan
on the basis of 1 m2.
we have dealt with so far is
P .

m2 - K/W, to the R* resistances

L
—=R conduction
w

R*A= .
=R surface
Bt h,
R

the same for all surfaces,

For a plane wall for which A is
1 1
v o= —
[

Rs,l +Rw +R:,2 Rtot

 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 33

Resistances presented in Chap. 4 (for example in Table 4-3) will be the unstarred
variety and have units of m2 * K/W.

2-17 Cylindrical cross section The previous discussion applies to plane geometries,
but when heat is transferred through circular pipes, geometries are cylindrical. The
area through which the heat flows is not constant, and a new expression for the re-
sistance is required.
_Ing@, /)
= 2-13
s ok @13)
where r,= outside radius, m
r; = inside radius, m
=length, m

2-18 Heat exchangers Heat exchangers are used extensively in air conditioning and
refrigeration. A heat exchanger is a device in which energy is transferred from one
fluid stream to another across a solid surface. Heat exchangers thus incorporate both
convection and conduction heat transfer. The resistance concepts discussed in the
previous sections prove useful in the analysis of heat exchangers as the first fluid, the
solid wall, and the second fluid form a series thermal circuit (Fig. 2-11).

1 . In(ry/r) R —1__ 214)

where Ry =——
hA4, 2mkl 112A2
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to fluids 1 and 2.
At a particular point in the heat exchanger the heat flux can be expressed by the
thermal resistance and the temperature difference between the fluids. However, since

f L
T
B
T
;
|
|
|| —
Fluid 2 —»
I T

)t t
|}
Fluid 1

1 L)
AMN— AN AN—
1 In (ro/r‘) 1

hA 2kl hyAy
Figure 2-11 Counterflow heat exchanger.
 34 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

A
they flow through the heat ex-
the temperature of one or both fluids may vary as
e difference can be determined
changer, analysis is difficult unless a mean temperatur
heat exchanger. The usual

L
which will characterize the overall performance of the
ence (LMTD) and a con-
practice is to use the logarithmic-mean temperature differ ex-
i
figuration factor which depends upon the flow arrangement through the heat
i changer. The LMTD is defined as

N
if!
i
Mrp = —4
IMTD= a2 B 21
In (At ,/At) @19

N
on 4, K
where At = temperature difference between two fluids at positi
on B, K
Atp = temperature difference between two fluids at positi
i at greater length in Chap. 12.
{ The analysis of heat exchangers will be examined

shown in
Example 2-10 Determine the heat-transfer rate for the heat exchanger
W/m? + K,y iy =
Fig. 2-11, given the following data: /1) =50 W/m? - K, hy =80 length
60°C, 1y gyt = 40°C, 130 = 20°C, 130yt = 30°C,7, = 11 mm, r; = 10 mm,
=1 m, and for the metal k =386 W/m - K.

Solution Ay =2mr,1=0069m> A;=0.063m?

1 Ini} !
= + =0.487W/K
Rt
0.069(50) 2m(1) (386) 0.063(80)
60 - 30) - (40 - 20 ) =24.7°C
LMTD = ( ) 30(
In 55

247
= =507W
0.487

n body The primary objective of air

219 Heat-transfer processes used by the huma
for people. Some principles of ther-
conditioning is to provide comfortable conditions
Since some thermodynamic and heat-
mal comfort will be explained in Chap. 4.
this chapter help explain the phenomena
transfer processes such as those discussed in
explored now.6 From the thermal stand-
presented in Chap. 4, these processes will be
a remarkably good regulator of its own
point the body is an inefficient machine but
the form of food, converts a fraction of
temperature. The human body receives fuel in
remainder as heat. It is the continuous
the energy in the fuel into work, and rejects the
thermal balance. Figure 2-12 shows the
process of heat rejection which requires a
The generation of heat occurs in cells
thermal functions of the body schematically.
m carries this heat to the skin, where
throughout the body, and the circulatory syste
it is released to the environment.
produced by metabolism equals the
In a steady-state heat balance the heat energy
ction, radiation, evaporation, and
rate of heat transferred from the body by conve
nced momentarily by the sum of the ’
respiration. If the metabolism rate is not bala
ge slightly, providing thermal storage
transfer of heat, the body temperature will chan
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 35

Insulation — T - irculating system

|
Heat rejection <— i >
1
|
I \J\

Heat generation

Figure 2-12 The body as a heat generator and rejector.

in the body. The complete equation for the heat balance becomes
M=8+R+C+B%S (2-16)

where M = metabolism rate, W

& = heat loss by evaporation, W
® = rate of heat transfer by radiation, W
C = rate of heat transfer by convection, W
B = heat loss by respiration, W
S = rate of change of heat storage in body, W
losses of heat
Several of the terms on the right side of Eq. (2-16) always represent
terms can either
from the body, while the radiation, convection, and thermal-storage
may either gain or
be plus or minus. In other words, the body in different situations
lose heat by convection or radiation.

energy in
220 Metabolism Metabolism is the process which the body uses to convert
e: a person can con-
food into heat and work. Look at the body again as a heat machin
20 percent for short
vert food energy into work with an efficiency as high as 15 to
activity, the efficiency
periods. In nonindustrial applications, particularly during light
basal metabolic rate is the
of conversion into work is of the order of 1 percent. The
not asleep.
average possible rate, which occurs when the body is at rest, but
in the heat-
We have several interests in the metabolism rate: (1) it is theM term
h the various
balance equation (2-16) that must be rejected from the body throug
nditioning sys-
mechanisms; (2) this heat contributes to the cooling load of the air-co
vary from 120
tem. The heat-rejection rate by an occupant in a conditioned space may
The heat input by
W for sedentary activities to more than 440 W for vigorous activity.
l system for
occupants is particularly important in the design of the environmenta
schoolrooms, conference rooms, theaters, and other enclosures where there is a con-
centration of people.

Example 2-11 Forarough estimate, consider the body as a heat machine assuming
d
anintake in the form of food of 2400 cal/d (1 cal = 4.19 J). If all intake is oxidize
and is rejected in the form of heat, what is the average heat release in watts?
 IONING
36 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDIT

ulated to be 0.12 W, which disagrees with

Solution The average heat release is calc
factor of 1000. The explanation is that
the expected quantity of 120 W by-a ies, in
ke are large calories or kilogram calor
calories used in measuring food inta heat
make up 4.19 J. So indeed the average
contrast to the gram calories which
release is about 120 W.
ts the rate of heat transfer due to
221 Convection The C term in Eq. (2-16) represen
the body. The elementary equation for convection
air flow convecting heat to or from
applies
2-17)
Cc= hcA('s -t)

where A = body surface area, m?

°c
t; = skin or clothing temperature,
t, = air temperature, °C m2, depend-
y is usually in the range of 1.5 to 2.5
The surface area of the human bod n the air
heat-transfer coefficient 4, depends upo
ing upon the size of the person. The of the person and
sequently also upon the position
velocity across the body and con n
to the air cur ren t. An app rox ima te value of h, during forced convectio
orientation
can be computed from
h =135 yo-6 (2-18)
ers per second.
where V is the air velocity in met perature-
ble to a certain extent by the tem
The skin temperature is controlla C for those
generally ranges between 31 and 33°
regulating mechanism of the body and normally lie
hing. The clothing temperature will
parts of the body covered by clot it is
wee n the skin and the air tem perature, unless lowered because
somewhere bet
wet and is evaporating moisture.
the human body and its
222 Radiation The equation for heat transfer between body radiate to
as Eq. (2-10). Not all parts of the
surroundings has already appeared effective area of the
to other parts of the body. The
the surroundings; some radiate
n is con seq uen tly less than the total surface area, usually about 70
body for radiatio
percent of the total. and
sivi ty of the skin and clot hing is very close to that of a blackbody
The emis radiates is often
a valu e of near ly 1.0. The temperature to which the body
thus has m temperature of the
to as the mea n radi ant temperature, a fictitious unifor
referred actual enclosure.
te enc los ure that dup lic ate s the rate of radiant heat flow of the
comple temperature
mea n radi ant tem per atu re will usually be close to that of the air
The that are affected
ept for infl uenc es of outs ide walls, windows, and inside surfaces
exc
by solar radiation.

ova l of heat fro m the bod y by evaporation of water from the

223 Evaporation Rem sfer of heat between the body
and
ns of heat reje ctio n. The tran
skin is a major mea or away
by con vec tio n and rad iat ion may be either toward the body
the environment other hand,
ing upo n the amb ien t con ditions. Evaporation, on the
from it, depend , sweating
tut es a rej ect ion of hea t fro m the body. In hot environments
always consti
of heat removal from the body.
provides the dominant method
 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 37

150
=
& -
2 . . .
29 100 - Insensible | sweating
< >
B3 -
==
50+

0 1 L 1 ! . I
1s 20 25 30 Figure 2-13 Heat rejection by
nonsweating (insensible) evapora-
Ambient air temperature, °C tion and by sweating.

There are two modes by which the body wets the skin, diffusion and sweating.
Diffusion, or insensible evaporation, is a constant process, while sweating is controlled
in
by the thermoregulatory system. Typical magnitudes of heat rejection are shown
Fig. 2-13. The rate of heat transfer by insensible evaporation is controlled by the
resistance of the deep layers of the epidermis to the diffusion of water from beneath
the skin surface to the ambient air. The rate of this transfer is given

qinszhngCdiff(px—pa) (2-19)

where gy, = rate of heat transfer by insensible evaporation, W

hy, = latent heat of water, J/kg
4 = area of body, m?
2
Cgjr = coefficient of diffusion, kg/Pa + s+ m
P = vapor pressure of water at skin temperature, Pa
P, = vapor pressure of water vapor in ambient air, Pa
The dominant mechanism for rejecting large rates of heat from the body is by
sensible sweating and subsequent evaporation of this sweat. Upon arise in deep body
temperature, the thermoregulatory system activates the sweat glands. Maximum rates
of sweating, at least for short periods of time, are of the order of 0.3 g/s, so if all this
sweat evaporates and removes 2430 kJ/kg, the potential heat removal rate by sweating
is approximately 700 to 800 W.
Heat generation and the heat-transfer processes of convection, radiation, and
evaporation all influence the design of air-conditioning systems in order to maintain
comfortable conditions for the occupants.

PROBLEMS

2-1 Water at 120°C and a pressure of 250 kPa passes through a pressure-reducing valve
and then flows to a separating tank at standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa, as
shown in Fig. 2-14.
 38 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

—» Vapor )
Water —» !
.
120°C, 250 kPa

A .
Pressure-
reducing valve

-
— Liquid

Figure 2-14 Pressure-reducing valve in Problem 2-1.

(subcooled liquid, saturated

(a) What is the state of the water entering the valve
liquid, or vapor)? much leaves
(b) For each kilogram that enters the pressure-reducing valve, how

the separating tank as vapor? Ans. 0.0375

at a rate of 2.5 kg/s is heated in a heat exchanger from -10 to 30°C.
2-2 Air flowing .
What is the rate of heat transfer? Ans. 100 kW
Fig.
rate of airflow is a venturi, as shown in
2-3 One instrument for measuring the en
reduced and the pressure difference betwe
2-15, where the cross-sectional area is is to
rate of air having a density of 1.15 kg/m3
positions 4 and B measured. The flow at B is
at position 4 is 0.5 m?2 and the area
be measured in a venturi where the area 20 mm.
ity = 1000 kg/m3) in a manometer is
0.4 m2. The deflection of water (dens
between 4 and B can be considered to be frictionless so that Bernoulli’s
The flow
equation applies.
en positions A4 and B?
(a) What is the pressure difference betwe
i (b) What is the-airflow rate? Ans. 12.32 m3/s
with R = 462 J/kg * K to compute the specific
i
| 2-4 Use the perfect-gas equation
at 20°C. Compare with data of Table A-1. Ans.
volume of saturated vapor water -
|
i Deviation = 0.19%
flows in =
Fig. 2-6 for heat transfer when a fluid
2-5 Using the relationship shown on transfer
ase or decrease in the convection heat-
side a tube, what is the percentage incre ase
is decreased 10 percent? Ans. 4.3% incre
coefficient A, if the viscosity of the fluid
human body
of heat release by convection from a
2-6 What is the order of magnitude
temperature is 24°C? Ans. 60 W
when the air velocity is 0.25 m/s and its
body in a
of radiant heat transfer from a human
2.7 What is the order of magnitude
40 W
comfort air-conditioning situation? Ans.

-
Airflow A e
—_—
p=115 kg/m? .

Figure 2-15 A venturi for measuring air flow.

 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 39

2.8 What is the approximate rate of heat loss due to insensible evaporation if the skin
temperature is 32°C, the vapor pressure is 4750 Pa, and the vapor pressure of air is
1700 Pa? The latent heat of water is 2.43 MJ/kg; Cg;r = 1.2 X 10-9 kg/Pa * s * m2,
Ans. 18 W

REFERENCES

1. G. J. Van Wylen and R. E. Sonntag: “Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics,” Wiley,

New York, 1978.
2. W. D. Reynolds and H. C. Perkins: “Engineering Thermodynamics,” McGraw-Hill, New York,
1970.
K. Wark: “Thermodynamics,” 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976.
AW

J. P. Holman: “Heat Transfer,” 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976.

F. Kreith and W. Z. Black: “Basic Heat Transfer,” Harper & Row, New York, 1980.
of Heating, Refrig-
oL

“ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume,” chap. 8, American Society

erating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., 1981.