Materials Today: Proceedings 58 (2022) 1423–1430

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Study of the thermal and mechanical properties of local clay materials

activated with quicklime, Sefrou (Morocco)
Fatima Zohra El Wardi a,⇑, Sara Ladouy a, Aziza Atbir b, Abdelhamid Khabbazi a
a
EMDD_CERNE2D, MOHAMMED V UNIVERSITY IN RABAT, EST Salé, 227 Avenue Prince Héritier, Salé, Morocco
b
Ecole Mohammadia d’Ingenieurs, Mohammed V University Rabat, Department of Civil Engineering, and Construction RABAT, Morocco

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study aims at testing experimentally the stabilization of unexploited clay from the Bensmim region
Available online 25 February 2022 (Middle Atlas, Morocco) using traditional quick lime from Sefrou located nearly to Bensmim for potential
use in building applications. The main purpose of the present work is to evaluate the thermophysical and
Keywords: mechanical behavior of lime-stabilized clay blocks. Many different samples of clay specimens reinforced
Lime-stabilized clay blocks with lime at six different contents (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, and 70%) were prepared and tested. The
Thermophysical characterization thermal characterization was made by the Asymmetrical Hot Plate method in study state and transient
Asymmetrical hot plate method
regime to identify, respectively, the thermal conductivity and the thermal effusivity. The Flash method
Flash method
Compressive strength
was used to evaluate thermal diffusivity. The mechanical performance was measured in terms of com-
Flexural strength pressive and flexural strengths. Besides, a Chemical identification of Bensmim clay was investigated
via the X-Ray Fluorescence method. Particle size distribution of used clay was determined following a
wet sieving analysis method. The results of clay identification showed that Bensmim clay meets the min-
imum requirements for manufacturing compressed earth and adobe bricks. The thermophysical tests
results showed that the lime addition positively influences the lightness and the thermophysical proper-
ties of lime-stabilized clay specimens. For the findings of the mechanical tests, it is observed that the flex-
ural and compressive strengths of lime-stabilized clay blocks continue to increase until a lime content of
30%. After this content, the mechanical performances decrease with lime addition, and no amelioration is
detected. Therefore, a lime content of 30% represents the optimal lime content for stabilizing Bensmim
clay. At this content, the stabilized clay blocks show optimal mechanical performance and improved ther-
mal properties compared to the reference samples. Stabilized clay blocks at 30% lime content present a
14% improvement in bulk density, 13% in thermal conductivity, 12% in thermal effusivity, 20% in thermal
diffusivity, 41% in compressive strength, and 10% in flexural strength, compared to unstabilized
specimens.
Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Con-
gress on Materials & Structural Stability.

1. Introduction
In the last few decades, an interest increase appears in sustain-
able construction materials with higher thermal efficiency and a
low environmental impact [1–5]. The biggest challenge is develop-
ing new building materials with improved thermal insulation, the
lowest environmental impact, and good mechanical properties. In
this context, the earth is one of the oldest construction materials
used and tested since the birth of humanity. Raw earth is an abun-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fatima.zohra.elwardi@gmail.com (F.Z. El Wardi).
dant, natural, and recyclable resource, with low cost, little embod-
ied energy, and less environmental impact required for its
transformation than concrete and fired clay bricks [6–10].
This research paper studies the possibilities of using local mate-
rials in construction. The work’s purpose is to encourage the use of
local and ecological materials such as Bensmim clay in construc-
tion applications, especially in rural areas and isolated regions like
the rural area of Bensmim (Middle Atlas, Morocco). In addition, this
article aims to improve the thermophysical and mechanical prop-
erties of the clay under study by stabilizing it with natural lime
from Sefrou located nearly to Bensmim. The use of local materials
will reduce the over-costs due to transport while proposing a qual-
ity building material (earth stabilized with lime). Under the cur-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.02.348
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Congress on Materials & Structural Stability.
Fatima Zohra El Wardi, S. Ladouy, A. Atbir et al.
rent distortions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the supply
chains, such material would limit the negative effects of the epi-
demic on the logistics by the relocation of production of bricks
on sites, especially in isolated regions. The stabilized clay will
allow the manufacture of bricks with improved thermal insulation
performance, good thermal inertia, a reduced carbon impact, and
mechanical properties adequate to the requirements of construc-
tion standards, contributing to the introduction of the concept of
bioclimatic construction and the reduction of energy needs of
HVAC systems especially in cold areas, as Bensmim.
Stabilization is a process of mixing admixtures with soil to
enhance its engineering properties, including volume stability,
mechanical strength, permeability, and durability, to improve soil
performance for building applications [11]. Literature review
reveals that the use of lime for stabilizing unfired clay bricks in
masonry construction has been known since ancient remains and
other civilizations [12]. Recently, attempts to use lime as a stabi-
lizer in earth blocks have been reported by various researchers
[13–16]. A study conducted by Guettala et al. [13] tested different
quantities of lime to enhance the mechanical performance and
durability of the blocks. Results showed considerable differences
in compressive strength between blocks tested under the dry and
humid states. The tested dry strength of block samples reaches
9.4 MPa for 5%, 14.2 for 8%, and 16.2 MPa for 12% lime content.
While, specimens’ compressive strength was proven to be
4.4 MPa for 5%, 8.2 MPa for 8%, and 9.8 MPa for 12% lime under
a humid state. It is observed that after an optimum lime ratio,
the lime addition will not be so beneficial in the strength gain of
the lime-stabilized samples. Similar results were shown by results
of other studies that indicate an optimum lime dosage correspond-
ing to the nature of the soil; beyond this optimum, the compressive
strength decreases [17,18].
This work presents an extension of the previous study [14] that
proposes new construction materiel of enhanced thermal and
mechanical performances and less environmental impact, based
on local and ecological materials such as clay, cork, sheep’ wool
fibers, and natural lime. That study revealed an optimal composi-
tion of lime-stabilized clay soil with outstanding mechanical
behavior for natural-local material. The main contribution of the
current paper is to focus on investigating the thermal behavior
while changing the composition of the clay-lime mixture soil to
provide recommendations for potential use in the building sector.
Accordingly, the current article presents an experimental investi-
gation of the lightness and the thermal behavior of lime-
stabilized earth blocks. The authors used the asymmetrical hot
plate method in the steady-state regime to characterize the ther-
mal conductivity of specimens. Besides, they deployed the asym-
metrical hot plate method to estimate the thermal effusivity.
They also used the flash method to define the thermal diffusivity
of lime-stabilized earth blocks.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw materials
2.1.1. Clay
Clay is taken from the Bensmim area in the Ifrane region.
Table 1
Chemical composition of Bensmim clay.
Chemical element SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
Mass composition (%) 59.6 22.4 6.69
Materials Today: Proceedings 58 (2022) 1423–1430
A chemical analysis of the Bensmim extracted soil sample was
established respectively via X-Ray Fluorescence. Table 1 displays
the results found.
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) being detected for the tested clay con-
firms the presence of clay in the soil. Besides, Potassium oxide’s
(K2O) high content (2.53%) confirms that the clay is of type Illite.
The presence of other elements such as Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) allows
classifying this clay as ferruginous clay. This presence explains its
reddish color [19], while its poor calcium oxide (CaO) content
(0.08%) allows listing our clay as non-calcareous and permits us
to manage its structure and rupture threshold [3,20].
Particle size distribution was determined following a wet siev-
ing analysis method according to NF P 94-041.
Fig. 1 illustrates the Bensmim soil particle size distribution,
referring to the lower and upper limits of the Adobe raw earth
blocks [21]. Bensmim soil reflected 46.7% sand, 48.6% clay and silt,
and 4.37% grave content; this shows that the soil studied meets the
minimum requirements for manufacturing compressed earth and
Adobe bricks according to Craterre’s specifications [21].
2.1.2. Lime
Quicklime (CaO), used as a stabilizing agent in this research,
was retrieved from the Sefrou region and manufactured tradition-
ally by calcination of pure limestone (CaCO3) in lime kilns at a tem-
perature above 900 °C. It was obtained in the form of highly
agglomerated granules with a pale-white coloration. Water was
then added in excess and allowed to stay for 24 h. Explosive reac-
tions are generated with heat release when adding water to quick
lime due to the transformation of quick lime into slaked lime (Ca
(OH)2). The obtained paste is oven-dried for one day at 105° C.
Thermal and mechanical characteristics of used lime were mea-
sured experimentally in the present work on prepared specimens.
The chemical composition of lime was established using the tech-
nique of X-ray Fluorescence (see Table 2).
2.2. Procedure of samples’ preparation
An experimental investigation was conducted to test the stabi-
lization of Bensmim clay using traditional Quicklime. Six different
series of clay-lime mixtures (C_ L10%, C_L 20%, C_L 30%, C_L 40%,
C_L 50% and C_L 70%) corresponding, respectively, to six different
proportions, namely 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 70% by weight,
of lime were prepared. The required lime proportion is mixed with
the tested clay soil in a dry condition until a homogeneous paste is
obtained. Next, the mixture was put into a mechanical mixer, and a
quantity of water was gradually added. The mixture was properly
stirred for 5 ± 1 min at a velocity of 40 rpm until a homogeneous
mixture was obtained to obtain a uniform distribution of the addi-
tive in the clay medium matrix. Obtained mixtures are molded to
manufacture 160x40x40 mm3 specimens for mechanical proper-
ties testing and 100x100x20 mm3 brick samples for thermal ones.
The water ratio was determined based on preliminary qualita-
tive tests to ensure the workability of the mixtures.
The number of samples produced for all lime contents was
three for consistency purposes (see Fig. 2).
Prepared specimens were left for a full day inside the molds.
After de-molding at the age of 24 h, they were air-cured in labora-
tory conditions with a temperature of 60 ± 10% and relative humid-
ity controlled at 23 ± 2 °C, until a curing period of 28 days. Brick
K2O TiO2 Cao P2O5 MgO L.O.I
2.53 0.832 0.0777 0.458 0.97 5.34
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Fatima Zohra El Wardi, S. Ladouy, A. Atbir et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 58 (2022) 1423–1430

100

cumulave percentage passing (%)

90
80
70
60 Bensmim clay soil

50 Lower limit
40
Upper limit
30
20
10
0
0.07 0.7 7
Parcle size(mm)

Fig. 1. The particle size distribution of the Bensmim clay.

Table 2
Chemical composition of lime.

Constituent SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Cao MgO CO2 L.O.I

Mass composition (%) 2.70 <1 <1 49 16 0.64 31.32

Fig. 2. (a) Stabilized soil blocks with lime for mechanical tests; (b) View of stabilized soil samples for thermal tests.

samples are put in a drying oven for a one-day drying period until a
constant mass is reached to eliminate total moisture content. The
experimental measurements will be performed on these dry sam-
ples. The experimental results are the average measured value for
the three prepared blocks for measurement accuracy.
2.3. Testing procedures
The experimental investigations in the present study are:
method [22,23].The Flash method [22,23] was deployed to calcu-
late samples’ thermal diffusivity.
Finally, the CONTROLS PILOT COMPACT-Line machine, con-
formed to EN 196-1 standard, applied at a loading speed
50 N s 1, analyzes the flexural strength behavior of the prepared
samples (see Fig. 3); three replications were applied in order to cal-
culate the average values. The same testing machine was applied at
a loading speed of 500 N s 1 to obtain the compressive character-
istics of the specimens. The results reported are the average of six
compression tests.

 Bulk density 3. Results and discussion

 Dry compressive strength
 Three points bending flexural 3.1. Bulk density
 Thermal conductivity
 Thermal effusivity Fig. 4 showcases experimental results of bulk density of all
 Thermal diffusivity manufactured specimens versus lime content.
Results show that adding traditional quicklime to clay mixture
The bulk density of specimens was determined by directly mea- allows for improving the lightness of specimens.
suring their weight and dimensions, according to the standard NM
EN 772-16. 3.2. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity was estimated using the steady-state
Asymmetrical Hot Plate method [22,23]. Test specimen’s thermal The obtained results of specimens’ thermal conductivity are
effusivity was assessed using the transient Asymmetric Hot Plate presented in Fig. 5.
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Fatima Zohra El Wardi, S. Ladouy, A. Atbir et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 58 (2022) 1423–1430

Fig. 3. (a) Blocks of lime under flexural strength test; (b) C-L10% blocks under flexural strength test.

2000 1885 40%

1753
1800 1665 36% 35%
1581
1600 1516
1419 30%
1400
1204
1200 1101 25%
25% Bulk density ρ (kg m-3)
1000 20% 20% Gain on lightness (%)
800 16% 15%
600 12%
10%
400
7%
200 5%

0 0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 100%
Lime contentLime content

Fig. 4. Experimental results of bulk density as a function of lime content.

0.8 0.746 40%

0.693 35%
0.7 0.657 35%
0.611
29%
0.6 0.558 30%
0.529 0.488 Thermal conducvity
0.5 25% 25% λ (W m-1 K-1)
0.412
Gain λ (%)
0.4 18% 20%

0.3 15%
12%
0.2 10%
7%
0.1 5%
0%
0 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 100%
Lime contentLime content

Fig. 5. Finding results of thermal conductivity measurement versus lime content.

The experimental findings revealed: a decrease in thermal con- material stores more energy but will not exchange energy quickly
ductivity of stabilized soil blocks in response to increasing lime with its ambiance.
content without exceeding an upper limit presented by the refer-
ence sample and a lower limit represented by the lime sample.
3.4. Thermal diffusivity

3.3. Thermal effusivity Fig. 7 describes the experimental results of thermal diffusivity.
Experimental graphs of Fig. 7 show that thermal diffusivity val-
The experimental results of the thermal effusivity measure- ues of specimens ranged between an upper limit of 5.26 m s 2
ments are regrouped in Fig. 6. (clay) and a lower limit of 3.79 m s 2 (lime). Besides, a decrease
Obtained results show that the thermal effusivity of the speci- in the thermal diffusivity of stabilized soil blocks with an increase
mens decreases with lime content. That means that sandwich in lime content is observed.
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Fatima Zohra El Wardi, S. Ladouy, A. Atbir et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 58 (2022) 1423–1430

1200 0.25
1022
984 22%
1000 933
902 0.2
865 838
794
800 18% 728 Thermal effusivity
15% 0.15 E (J m-2 K-1 s-1/2)

600 Gain E (%)

12%
0.1
400 9%

0.05
200 4%

0 0 0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 100%

Lime contentLime content

Fig. 6. Results of thermal effusivity versus lime content.

6 40%
5.26 36%
35%
5 4.75
4.49
4.23 28% 30%
3.87 3.77 Thermal diffusivity
4 26%
3.36 25% a (m s-2)

2.84 Gain a (%)

3 20% 20%
15%
15%
2
10% 10%
1
5%
0%
0 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 100%
Lime content

Fig. 7. Results of thermal diffusivity versus lime content.

3.5. Compressive strength 3.7. Discussion

Results of the compressive tests are presented in Fig. 8.
Compressive strength values of stabilized soil specimens do not
exceed the upper limit of 6.23 MPa shown by lime and the lower
limit 3.76 MPa presented by clay registering a maximum increase
of 56% for an optimum value of lime content of 30%. After the opti-
mum value, a drop in compressive strengths was observed at
higher dosages, and any further increase in lime will not be so ben-
eficial in the strength gain of the blocks.
3.6. Flexural strength
Fig. 9 relates obtained results from flexural strength tests.
Flexural strength of stabilized soil blocks followed the same
trending as well as compressive strength. The maximum increase
registered is about 15% against the control samples for the opti-
mum lime content of 30%. Samples displayed a resistance decrease,
which was recovered at higher lime content up to 30%.
1427
3.7.1. Density and thermal results analyses
Obtained values of bulk density, and thermal properties of
Bensmim soil are in the range of the results obtained by other
authors who investigated earthen-based materials [16,24,25].
According to Gomes et al. [16], kaolinitic earth mortars with 5%
hemp fiber and 5% air lime addition have a bulk density of
1780 kg m 3. El Wardi et al. [26] also used the asymmetrical hot
plate and the flash method. They measured thermal conductivity
of 0.51 W K 1 m 1, thermal effusivity of 865 J m 2 K 1 s 1/2, ther-
mal diffusivity of 3.51 m s 2 on the reference bricks without add-
ing fibers for a dry density equal to 1744 kg m 3, which is
consistent with the results of this study. The experimental findings
are comparable with those found by other authors who investi-
gated clay-based materials and deployed the same methods for
thermal characterization [4,6,27]. Besides, quicklime used in a
study of Oti and Kinuthia [15] has a bulk density (1150–1300 kg
m 3) very close to the bulk density of quicklime obtained by the
present study.
Fatima Zohra El Wardi, S. Ladouy, A. Atbir et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 58 (2022) 1423–1430

7
6.5 6.2
5.9

Compressive strength σc (MPa)

6
5.5 5.2 5.2
4.8 4.9
5 4.7
4.5
4 3.8
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Lime content

Fig. 8. Compressive strength as a function of lime content.

1.90
1.84 1.81 1.79
1.8
Flexural strength σf (MPa)

1.65 1.69

1.44
1.37
1.4

1
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Lime content

Fig. 9. Flexural strength as a function of lime content.

The obtained experimental findings revealed a decrease in bulk
density, thermal conductivity, thermal effusivity, and thermal dif-
fusivity of stabilized soil blocks in response to increasing lime con-
tent without exceeding an upper limit presented by the reference
sample and a lower limit represented by the lime sample.
Researchers investigating the mechanisms of soil stabilization
by adding chemical stabilizers like cement and lime have shown
similar results. An experimental investigation of durability, water
resistance, and mechanical characteristics of clay soil samples sta-
bilized by the addition of variable contents of sand and lime con-
ducted by Temga et al. [28] shown that the bulk density of the
specimens decreases with lime content (1.98 to 1.4 g cm 3) for 4
to 12% lime content. Liuzzi et al. [29] showed a decrease in thermal
conductivity because of dry bulk density reduction. Adam and
Jones [30] tested the thermal conductivity of lime/ cement stabi-
lized hollow and plain earth blocks. The findings show that lime
stabilized soil blocks within the same soil have lower thermal con-
ductivity values than cement.
In some cases, an increase in the lime content can increase ther-
mal conductivity and bulk density of stabilized soil in the litera-
ture; this is related to the type of lime used in the stabilization
1428
process and the nature of the soil. Barbero-Barrera et al. [31] stud-
ied the effect of two types of natural hydraulic lime (NHL2 and
NHL3.5) in ratios ranging from 3% to 12%, natural hydraulic lime
on the stabilization of compressed earth blocks. Authors reported
that different types of natural hydraulic lime determine different
pozzolanic reactions and formations of the calcium silicate hydrate
gels and the different properties of the mixtures. According to the
results of visual microscopic examination, a general trend was
observed in which the addition of NHL2 increased the pore size
and volume. However, NHL3.5 displayed an inverse performance
by decreasing pore size and volume.
The obtained results of bulk density and thermal properties of
stabilized clay soil samples align with multiple previous studies
confirming the proportional relationship between thermal conduc-
tivity, thermal effusivity, thermal diffusivity, and bulk density of
the materials investigated for potential use in building [2–4,6,27].
3.7.2. Mechanical results analysis
The finding results of compressive and flexural strengths align
with previous studies that showed that adding lime enhances the
mechanical strength of clay soil [13,17,18,28,32–34]. Test results
Fatima Zohra El Wardi, S. Ladouy, A. Atbir et al.
indicated an optimum lime dosage corresponding to the nature of
soil beyond which the mechanical strength decreases. A study con-
ducted by Raheem et al. [34] showed that the strength gain of the
blocks reaches 1.2 MPa for blocks made with lime for a maximum
content of stabilizer, about 25%.
Several chemical reactions can explain the mechanical behavior
of lime-stabilized soil blocks, namely, flocculation, cation-
exchange, agglomeration of clay particles, carbonation, and poz-
zolanic reactions, which appeared when lime was added to the
clay. These chemical clay-lime reactions form calcium silicate
hydrates, and calcium aluminate hydrates gel, which improved
particle binding [32,35], increasing mechanical strength. A
decrease in mechanical performances of stabilized soil blocs can
be detected at high lime content and due to the low relative
humidity conditions because of competition for the formation of
hydraulic products [36,37].
Moreover, the values of compressive (3.76 MPa) and flexural
(1.90 MPa) strengths of Bensmim clay obtained in the current
study are in the ranges of the results obtained from previous works
in the literature [14,31,37], confirming the accuracy of finding
experimental results.
4. Conclusion
This research paper studies the possibilities of using local mate-
rials in construction. An evaluation of the lime’s stabilizing effect
on the thermophysical and mechanical performances of unex-
ploited clay from the Bensmim area was investigated. Authors
aim to valorize local and ecological materials such as Bensmim clay
and traditional quicklime for potential building applications and
contribute to more sustainable building solutions using construc-
tion material with improved thermal properties, adequate
mechanical strength, and less environmental impact. Many differ-
ent specimens of lime-stabilized earth blocks corresponding to six
different contents (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, and 70%) were con-
structed and tested. The following highlights can be drawn from
the experimental results of the current research work:
 The lime added to the soil resulted in changes in the thermal
and mechanical properties of the Bensmim clay soil;
 The results revealed a decrease in lightness, thermal conductiv-
ity, thermal effusivity, thermal diffusivity, and an increase of
mechanical strength of soil-lime mixtures in response to
increasing lime content;
 The highest values are reached for an optimum lime content of
30% recorded a 14% improvement in bulk density, 13% in ther-
mal conductivity, 12% in thermal effusivity, 20% in thermal dif-
fusivity, 41% in compressive strength, and 10% in flexural
strength, compared to unstabilized specimens;
 After the optimum value, a drop in mechanical strengths was
observed at higher dosages, and any further increase in lime
will not be so beneficial in the strength gain of the blocks.
Based on these findings, the authors recommend prioritizing
the optimal composition when the mechanical properties are
required since the thermal properties always have room for
improvement by increasing lime content.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Fatima Zohra El Wardi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Soft-
ware, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – orig-
inal draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Sara Ladouy:
Methodology, Data curation, Writing – review & editing, Visualiza-
tion. Aziza Atbir: Software, Data curation, Writing – review & edit-
1429
Materials Today: Proceedings 58 (2022) 1423–1430
ing, Visualization. Abdelhamid Khabbazi: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Validation, Resources, Writing – review & editing,
Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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