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Encyclopedic Entry

paleontology

For the complete encyclopedic entry with media resources, visit:

http://education.nationalgeographic.com/encyclopedia/paleontology/

Paleontology is the study of the history of life on Earth as based on fossils. Fossils are the remains of plants,
animals, fungi, bacteria, and single-celled living things that have been replaced by rock material or impressions of
organisms preserved in rock.
Paleontologists use fossil remains to understand different aspects of extinct and living organisms. Individual fossils
may contain information about an organism’s life and environment. Much like the rings of a tree, for example, each
ring on the surface of an oyster shell denotes one year of its life. Studying oyster fossils can help paleontologists
discover how long the oyster lived, and in what conditions. If the climate was favorable for the oyster, the oyster
probably grew more quickly and the rings would be thicker. If the oyster struggled for survival, the rings would be
thinner. Thinner rings would indicate an environment not favorable to organisms like the oyster—too warm or too
cold, for example, or lacking nutrients necessary for them to grow.
Some fossils show how an organism lived. Amber, for instance, is hardened, fossilized tree resin. As the sticky
resin dripped down a tree trunk, it trapped air bubbles, as well as small insects and some organisms as large as
frogs and lizards. Paleontologists study amber, called “fossil resin,” to observe these complete specimens. Amber
can preserve tissue as delicate as dragonfly wings. Some ants were trapped in amber while eating leaves, allowing
scientists to know exactly what they ate, and how they ate it. Even the air bubbles trapped in amber are valuable to
paleontologists. By analyzing the chemistry of the air, scientists can tell if there was a volcanic eruption or other
atmospheric changes nearby.

The behavior of organisms can also be deduced from fossil evidence. Paleontologists suggest that hadrosaurs,
duck-billed dinosaurs, lived in large herds, for instance. They made this hypothesis after observing evidence of
social behavior, including a single site with approximately 10,000 skeletons.

Fossils can also provide evidence of the evolutionary history of organisms. Paleontologists infer that whales
evolved from land-dwelling animals, for instance. Fossils of extinct animals closely related to whales have front
limbs like paddles, similar to front legs. They even have tiny back limbs. Although the front limbs of these fossil
animals are in some ways similar to legs, in other ways they also show strong similarities to the fins of modern
whales.

Subdisciplines of Paleontology

The field of paleontology has many subdisciplines. A subdiscipline is a specialized field of study within a broader
subject or discipline. In the case of paleontology, subdisciplines can focus on a specific fossil type or a specific
aspect of the Earth, such as its climate.

Vertebrate Paleontology
One important subdiscipline is vertebrate paleontology, the study of fossils of animals with backbones. Vertebrate

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paleontologists have discovered and reconstructed the skeletons of dinosaurs, turtles, cats, and many other
animals to show how they lived and their evolutionary history.

Using fossil evidence, vertebrate paleontologists deduced that pterosaurs, a group of flying reptiles, could fly by
flapping their wings, as opposed to just gliding. Reconstructed skeletons of pterosaurs have hollow and light bones
like modern birds.
One type of pterosaur, Quetzalcoatlus, is considered one of the largest flying creatures in history. It had a
wingspan of 11 meters (36 feet). Paleontologists have competing theories about if and how Quetzalcoatlus flew.
Some paleontologists argue it was too heavy to fly at all. Others maintain it could distribute its weight well enough
to soar slowly. Still other scientists say Quetzalcoatlus was muscular enough to fly quickly over short distances.
These theories demonstrate how vertebrate paleontologists can interpret fossil evidence differently.

Invertebrate Paleontology
Invertebrate paleontologists examine the fossils of animals without backbones—mollusks, corals, arthropods such
as crabs and shrimp, echinoderms such as sand dollars and sea stars, sponges, and worms. Unlike vertebrates,
invertebrates do not have bones—they do leave behind evidence of their existence in the form of fossilized shells
and exoskeletons, impressions of their soft body parts, and tracks from their movement along the ground or ocean
floor.

Invertebrate fossils are especially important to the study and reconstruction of prehistoric aquatic environments.
For example, large communities of 200-million-year-old invertebrate marine fossils found in the deserts of the U.S.
state of Nevada tell us that certain areas of the state were covered by water during that period of time.

Paleobotany
Paleobotanists study the fossils of ancient plants. These fossils can be impressions of plants left on rock surfaces,
or they can be parts of the plants themselves, such as leaves and seeds, that have been preserved by rock
material. These fossils help us understand the evolution and diversity of plants, in addition to being a key part of
the reconstruction of ancient environments and climates, subdisciplines known as paleoecology (the study of
ancient environments) and paleoclimatology (the study of ancient climates).

At a small site in the Patagonia region of Argentina, paleobotanists discovered the fossils of more than 100 plant
species that date back about 52 million years. Prior to this discovery, many scientists said South America’s
biological diversity is a result of glaciers breaking up the continent into isolated ecosystem "islands" 2 million years
ago. The Patagonia leaf fossils disprove this theory. Paleobotanists now have evidence that the continent’s
diversity of plant species was present 50 million years before the end of the last ice age.

Some plant fossils are found in hard lumps called coal balls. Coal, a fossil fuel, is formed from the remains of
decomposed plants. Coal balls are also formed from the plant remains of forests and swamps, but these materials
did not turn into coal. They slowly petrified, or were replaced by rock. Coal balls, found in or near coal deposits,
preserve evidence of the different plants that formed the coal, making them important for studying ancient
environments, and for understanding a major energy source.

Micropaleontology
Micropaleontology is the study of fossils of microscopic organisms, such as protists, algae, tiny crustaceans, and
pollen. Micropaleontologists use powerful electron microscopes to study microfossils that are generally smaller
than four millimeters (0.16 inches). Microfossil species tend to be short-lived and abundant where they are found,
which makes them helpful for identifying rock layers that are the same age, a process known as biostratigraphy.
The chemical make-up of some microfossils can be used to learn about the environment when the organism was
alive, making them important for paleoclimatology.

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Micropaleontologists study shells from deep-sea microorganisms in order to understand how Earth’s climate has
changed. Shells accumulate on the ocean floor after the organisms die. Because the organisms draw the elements
for their shells from the ocean water around them, the composition of the shells reflects the current composition of
the ocean. By chemically analyzing the shells, paleontologists can determine the amount of oxygen, carbon, and
other life-sustaining nutrients in the ocean when the shells developed. They can then compare shells from one
period of time to another, or from one geographic area to another. Differences in the chemical composition of the
ocean can be good indicators of differences in climate.

Micropaleontologists often study the oldest fossils on Earth. The oldest fossils are of cyanobacteria, sometimes
called blue-green algae or pond scum. Cyanobacteria grew in shallow oceans when the Earth was still cooling,
billions of years ago. Fossils formed by cyanobacteria are called stromatolites. The oldest fossils on Earth are
stromatolites discovered in western Australia that are 3.5 billion years old.

History of Paleontology

Throughout human history, fossils have been used, studied, and understood in different ways. Early civilizations
used fossils for decorative or religious purposes, but did not always understand where they came from.

Although some ancient Greek and Roman scientists recognized that fossils were the remains of life forms, many
early scholars believed fossils were evidence of mythological creatures such as dragons. From the Middle Ages
until the early 1700s, fossils were widely regarded as works of the devil or of a higher power. Many people believed
the remains had special curative or destructive powers. Many scholars also believed that fossils were remains left
by Noah's flood and other biblical disasters.

Some ancient scientists did understand what fossils were, and were able to formulate complex hypotheses based
on fossil evidence. Greek biologist Xenophanes discovered seashells on land, and deduced that the land was once
a seafloor. Remarkably, Chinese scientist Shen Kuo was able to use fossilized bamboo to form a theory of climate
change.

The formal science of paleontology—fossil collection and description—began in the 1700s, a period of time known
as the Age of Enlightenment. Scientists began to describe and map rock formations and classify fossils. Geologists
discovered that rock layers were the product of long periods of sediment buildup, rather than the result of single
events or catastrophes. In the early 1800s, Georges Cuvier and William Smith, considered the pioneers of
paleontology, found that rock layers in different areas could be compared and matched on the basis of their fossils.

Later that century, the works of Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin strongly influenced how society understood the
history of Earth and its organisms. Lyell’s Principles of Geology stated that the fossils in one rock layer were
similar, but fossils in other rock layers were different. This sequence could be used to show relationships between
similar rock layers separated by great distances. Fossils discovered in South America may have more in common
with fossils from Africa than fossils from different rock layers nearby.

Darwin’s On The Origin of Species observed somewhat similar sequencing in the living world. Darwin suggested
that new species evolve over time. New fossil discoveries supported Darwin’s theory that creatures living in the
distant past were different from, yet sometimes interconnected with, those living today. This theory allowed
paleontologists to study living organisms for clues to understanding fossil evidence. The Archaeopteryx, for
example, had wings like a bird, but had other features (such as teeth) typical of a type of dinosaur called a
theropod. Now regarded as a very early bird, Archaeopteryx retains more similarities to theropods than does any
modern bird. Studying the physical features of Archaeopteryx is an example of how paleontologists and other
scientists establish a sequence, or ordering, of when one species evolved relative to another.

The dating of rock layers and fossils was revolutionized after the discovery of radioactivity in the late 1800s. Using
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a process known as radiometric dating, scientists can determine the age of a rock layer by examining how certain
atoms in the rock have changed since the rock formed. As atoms change, they emit different levels of radioactivity.
Changes in radioactivity are standard and can be accurately measured in units of time.

By measuring radioactive material in an ancient sample and comparing it to a current sample, scientists can
calculate how much time has passed. Radiometric dating allows ages to be assigned to rock layers, which can then
be used to determine the ages of fossils.

Paleontologists used radiometric dating to study the fossilized eggshells of Genyornis, an extinct bird from
Australia. They discovered that Genyornis became extinct between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago. Fossil evidence
from plants and other organisms in the region shows that there was abundant food for the large, flightless bird at
the time of its extinction. Climate changes were too slow to explain the relatively quick extinction.

By studying human fossils and ancient Australian cave paintings that were dated to the same time period,
paleontologists hypothesized that human beings—the earliest people to inhabit Australia—may have contributed to
the extinction of Genyornis.

Paleontology Today

Modern paleontologists have a variety of tools that help them discover, examine, and describe fossils. Electron
microscopes allow paleontologists to study the tiniest details of the smallest fossils. X-ray machines and CT
scanners reveal fossils' internal structures. Advanced computer programs can analyze fossil data, reconstruct
skeletons, and visualize the bodies and movements of extinct organisms.

Paleontologists and biologists used a CT scan to study the preserved body of a baby mammoth discovered in
Siberia in 2007. A CT scanner rotates 360 degrees, allowing scientists to construct 3-D representations of the
bones and tissue of the organism. Using this technology, scientists were able to see that the baby mammoth had
healthy teeth, bones, and muscle tissue. However, the animal’s lungs and trunk were full of mud and debris. This
suggested to scientists that the animal was healthy, but most likely suffocated in a muddy river or lake.

Scientists can even extract genetic material from bones and tissues.

Paleontologists made a remarkable genetic discovery when the bones of a Tyrannosaurus rex were broken during
an excavation in the 1990s. Soft tissue was discovered inside the bones. Soft tissue is the actual connective tissue
of an organism, such as muscles, fat, and blood. Soft tissue is rarely preserved during fossilization. Paleontologists
usually must rely on fossilized remains—rocks. Paleontologists now hope to use this rare discovery of 68-million-
year-old tissue to study the biology and possibly even the DNA of the T. rex.

Even with all these advancements, paleontologists still make important discoveries by using simple tools and basic
techniques in the field.

The National Geographic Society supports field work in paleontology throughout the world. Emerging Explorer
Zeresenay "Zeray" Alemseged conducts studies in northern Ethiopia. There, Alemseged and his colleagues
unearth and study fossils that contribute to the understanding of human evolution.

Emerging Explorer Bolortsetseg Minjin is a paleontologist who has found fossils of dinosaurs, ancient mammals,
and even corals in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. She also works to teach Mongolian students about the dinosaurs
in their own backyard, and is hoping to establish a paleontology museum in the country.

Many dig sites offer visitors the chance to watch paleontologists work in the field, including the Gray Fossil Site in
Gray, Tennessee; the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California; and the Ashfall Fossil Beds in Royal, Nebraska.

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VOCABULARY

Term Part of Speech Definition

abundant adjective in large amounts.

Age of noun (1700s) period in European history where science and reason were promoted
Enlightenment as ideals of good citizens and society.

algae plural noun (singular: alga) diverse group of aquatic organisms, the largest of which are
seaweeds.

amber noun translucent, yellow-orange material made of the resin of ancient trees. Amber is
sometimes considered a gemstone.

animal noun organisms that have a well-defined shape and limited growth, can move
voluntarily, acquire food and digest it internally, and can respond rapidly to
stimuli.

appendage noun part of something that extends out from the main body, such as an arm or leg.

aquatic adjective having to do with water.

Archaeopteryx noun extinct reptilian bird that lived about 150 million years ago.

arthropod noun invertebrate animal with a segmented body, usually with many legs and a shell.

aspect noun view or interpretation.

atmospheric noun alterations in the layer of air surrounding the Earth, such as an increase of
changes pollution or humidity.

atom noun the basic unit of an element, composed of three major parts: electrons, protons,
and neutrons.

bacteria plural noun (singular: bacterium) single-celled organisms found in every ecosystem on
Earth.

biblical adjective having to do with the Bible, the holy book of Christianity.

biologist noun scientist who studies living organisms.

biostratigraphy noun study of the dating of rock layers.

catastrophe noun disaster or sudden, violent change.

cell noun smallest working part of a living organism.

Charles Darwin noun (1809-1882) British naturalist.

Charles Lyell noun (1797-1875) English geologist.

chemistry noun study of the atoms and molecules that make up different substances.

civilization noun complex way of life that developed as humans began to develop urban
settlements.

classify verb to identify or arrange by specific type or characteristic.

climate noun all weather conditions for a given location over a period of time.

climate change noun gradual changes in all the interconnected weather elements on our planet.

coal noun dark, solid fossil fuel mined from the earth.

coal ball noun spherical structure of fossilized plant matter found in and around coal deposits.

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colleague noun a coworker or partner.

connective tissue noun material that surrounds or links different organs or other parts of an organism.

continent noun one of the seven main land masses on Earth.

coral noun tiny ocean animal, some of which secrete calcium carbonate to form reefs.

crust noun rocky outermost layer of Earth or other planet.

crustacean noun type of animal (an arthropod) with a hard shell and segmented body that usually
lives in the water.

CT scanner noun (computerized tomography scanner) device combining X-ray and computerized
equipment to provide cross-sectional images of internal body structures. Also
called a CAT scanner.

curative adjective able to cure or treat a disease or illness.

cyanobacteria noun type of aquatic bacteria that can photosynthesize light to create energy. Also
called blue-green algae (even though it is not algae) and (in freshwater habitats)
pond scum.

data plural noun (singular: datum) information collected during a scientific study.

debris noun remains of something broken or destroyed; waste, or garbage.

decompose verb to decay or break down.

deduce verb to reach a conclusion based on clues or evidence.

desert noun area of land that receives no more than 25 centimeters (10 inches) of
precipitation a year.

dig site noun place where paleontologists, archaeologists, or other scientists are digging into
the Earth to find artifacts or fossils. Also called an excavation.

disprove verb to prove wrong.

diversity noun difference.

DNA noun (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule in every living organism that contains specific
genetic information on that organism.

echinoderm noun phylum of marine invertebrate including sea stars and sea urchins.

ecosystem noun community and interactions of living and nonliving things in an area.

electron noun powerful device that uses electrons, not light, to magnify an image.
microscope

element noun chemical that cannot be separated into simpler substances.

Emerging noun an adventurer, scientist, innovator, or storyteller recognized by National

Explorer Geographic for their visionary work while still early in their careers.

emit verb to give off or send out.

environment noun conditions that surround and influence an organism or community.

establish verb to form or officially organize.

evolution noun process of how present types of organisms developed from earlier forms of life.

evolve verb to develop new characteristics based on adaptation and natural selection.

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excavation noun area that has been dug up or exposed for study.

exoskeleton noun the hard external shell or covering of some animals.

extinct adjective no longer existing.

field work noun scientific studies done outside of a lab, classroom, or office.

flipper noun large, flat limb used by marine mammals for swimming.

forest noun ecosystem filled with trees and underbrush.

formulate verb to develop or create.

fossil noun remnant, impression, or trace of an ancient organism.

fossil fuel noun coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient plants
and animals.

fungi plural noun (singular: fungus) organisms that survive by decomposing and absorbing
nutrients in organic material such as soil or dead organisms.

genetic adjective having to do with genes, inherited characteristics or heredity.

Genyornis noun extinct large, flightless bird indigenous to Australia.

geologist noun person who studies the physical formations of the Earth.

Georges Cuvier noun (1769-1832) French paleontologist and biologist.

glacier noun mass of ice that moves slowly over land.

Gobi Desert noun large desert in China and Mongolia.

hadrosaur noun duck-billed dinosaur.

herd noun group of animals.

hypothesis noun statement or suggestion that explains certain questions about certain facts. A
hypothesis is tested to determine if it is accurate.

ice age noun long period of cold climate where glaciers cover large parts of the Earth. The last
ice age peaked about 20,000 years ago. Also called glacial age.

indicator noun sign or signal.

invertebrate noun animal without a spine.

invertebrate noun study of the fossils of animals without spines, such as corals, sponges, and
paleontology insects.

isolate verb to set one thing or organism apart from others.

lung noun organ in an animal that is necessary for breathing.

mammal noun animal with hair that gives birth to live offspring. Female mammals produce milk
to feed their offspring.

mammoth noun one of many extinct species of large animals related to elephants, with long,
curved tusks. The last mammoths became extinct about 5,000 years ago.

marine adjective having to do with the ocean.

microfossil noun fossil that can only be seen and analyzed with a microscope, such as a grain of
pollen or a single bacterium.

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microorganism noun very tiny living thing.

micropaleontology noun study of fossils of microorganisms.

Middle Ages noun (500-1500) period in European history between the Roman Empire and the
Renaissance.

mold noun type of fungi that forms on the surface of materials.

mollusk noun type of invertebrate animal.

myth noun legend or traditional story.

National noun (1888) organization whose mission is "Inspiring people to care about the
Geographic planet."
Society

nest noun protected area built by birds to hatch their eggs and raise their young.

Noah's flood noun story in the Bible, a catastrophe that eliminated almost all life on Earth.

nutrient noun substance an organism needs for energy, growth, and life.

oyster noun type of marine animal (mollusk).

paleobotany noun study of the fossils of ancient plants.

paleoclimatology noun study of the atmosphere of prehistoric Earth.

paleoecology noun study of prehistoric environments and habitats.

paleontologist noun person who studies fossils and life from early geologic periods.

paleontology noun the study of fossils and life from early geologic periods.

Patagonia noun large plateau in southern South America, stretching from the Andes Mountains
to the Atlantic Ocean.

petrify verb to turn to stone.

pioneer noun person who is among the first to do something.

plant noun organism that produces its own food through photosynthesis and whose cells
have walls.

pollen noun powdery material produced by plants, each grain of which contains a male
gamete capable of fertilizing a female ovule.

prehistoric adjective period of time that occurred before the invention of written records.

prior adjective before or ahead of.

protist noun type of microscopic organism.

pterosaur noun extinct order of flying reptiles that flourished from 220 million-65 million years
ago.

Quetzalcoatlus noun flying reptile that lived about 70 million years ago, native to North America.

radioactive adjective having unstable atomic nuclei and emitting subatomic particles and radiation.

radiometric dating noun method of dating material such as rocks that compares the amount of a naturally
occuring isotope of an atom and its decay rates. Also called radioactive dating.

resin noun clear, sticky substance produced by some plants.

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 revolutionize verb to completely change a process or way of doing something.

root noun part of a plant that secures it in the soil, obtains water and nutrients, and often
stores food made by leaves.

scholar noun educated person.

seafloor noun surface layer of the bottom of the ocean.

sediment noun solid material transported and deposited by water, ice, and wind.

sequence verb to put in order.

Shen Kuo noun (1031-1095) Chinese scientist, politician, and poet.

Siberia noun region of land stretching across Russia from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific
Ocean.

skeleton noun bones of a body.

soft tissue noun connective tissue of an organism, such as blood, muscle, and skin.

specimen noun individual organism that is a typical example of its classification.

sponge noun simple type of marine animal permanently attached to something in the water.

stromatolite noun fossil of ancient cyanobacteria that forms a rounded or column-like structure.

subdiscipline noun field of study within a larger area of research.

suffocate verb to be unable to breathe.

sustain verb to support.

swamp noun land permanently saturated with water and sometimes covered with it.

technology noun the science of using tools and complex machines to make human life easier or
more profitable.

theropod noun type of dinosaur that walked on two legs and was usually carnivorous.

T. rex noun (Tyrannosaurus rex) large carnivorous or scavenger dinosaur.

unearth verb to dig up.

vertebrate noun organism with a backbone or spine.

vertebrate noun study of the fossils of animals with spines, such as dinosaurs.
paleontology

volcanic eruption noun activity that includes a discharge of gas, ash, or lava from a volcano.

William Smith noun (1769-1839) English geologist.

wingspan noun the distance between the tips of a bird's wings when stretched out.

worm noun animal with a long, limbless body.

Xenophanes noun (570-480 BCE) Greek philosopher and poet.

For Further Exploration

Articles & Profiles
National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence: Paul Sereno—Paleontologist

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 National Geographic News: Dino Dung—Paleontology’s Next Frontier?
Audio & Video
National Geographic Channel: Waking the Baby Mammoth
Interactives
University of California: Museum of Paleontology—Stories from the Fossil Record
Maps
The Paleontology Portal: Exploring Time and Space
Websites
National Geographic Science: Prehistoric World
University of California: Museum of Paleontology
Paul Sereno: Paleontologist

© 1996–2015 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.

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