History of Modern India- 1857-1947

Colonialism- Economic and cultural subjugation of a territory and its people by a stronger military power.
The British ruled over India to access its natural resources and markets for British industries in England.

 1857- 1st War of Independence

Causes- P.R.E.M (Political, Religious, Economic, Military)- under EIC rule till 1858
 Political-
 Annexation through War- Battle of Plassey-1757-EIC forces led by Robert Clive defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula
of Bengal; Anglo-Mysore Wars-4-1767-99; Anglo-Maratha Wars-3- 1775-1819; Anglo-Sikh Wars-2-1845-49
 Subsidiary Alliance- Lord Wellesley-1798- The Resident controlled the military and finances of the territory
 Doctrine of Lapse- Lord Dalhousie- 1848-56- If a ruler died without a natural born male heir, the territory was
annexed by the EIC. e.g. annexation of Jhansi, Nagpur, Satara
 Annexation of Berar-1854 for recovery of loan & of Awadh-1856 for maladministration
 Religious-
 Interference with traditions- banning Sati pratha, legalization of widow remarriage
 Missionary activity promoting conversion to Christianity through inducement or fear (railways & telegraph poles)
 Religious Disabilities Act, 1850- allowed a convert from Hinduism into Christianity to inherit family property
 Taxing of land belonging to temples and mosques
 Economic-
 Land Revenue Settlements- Permanent, Ryotwari & Mahalwari- fixed, high land revenue to be paid in cash
 Feudal nobility, Zamindar/Taluqdar, losing hereditary right to land
 Drain Theory- Dadabhai Nauroji- explained drain of wealth from India to England in his book ‘Poverty and
Unbritish Rule in India’; through salaries & pensions of soldiers & staff posted in India and unfair trade practices
with high import & low export duties
 Deindustrialization- Ruin of handicrafts due to import of cheaper factory made goods from England
 Military-
 Limited opportunities for soldiers for employment, promotion & pension
 Discrimination against Indian soldiers in promotion- maximum Subedar
 General Services Enlistment Act- 1856- Indian soldiers to compulsorily serve overseas, if required
 Introduction of Enfield rifles whose cartridges had tallow/lard & had to be bitten before loading,
offensive to both Hindus & Muslims

Events-
 The rebellion began on 29 March, 1857 at Barrackpore by Mangal Pandey of 34th Bengal Native Infantry
 It spread through United Provinces, reached Delhi where Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared the Emperor of India
 The rebellion was led by Nana Saheb in Kanpur, Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow, Rani Laxmibai in Jhansi
 EIC response initially was slow, but by July they laid siege of Delhi & captured it in September
 Bahadur Shah Zafar was sent to Rangoon where he died in 1862
 The revolt ended in 1858 with final casualties being more on the Indian side
 The rebellion failed because it was restricted to United Provinces & Delhi while Bengal, Bombay & Madras
Provinces were unaffected; rulers of Hyderabad & Mysore did not support; Sikhs & Pathans supported the British;
mutineers were poorly armed, had no central leadership & were divided along region and religion

Consequences-
 Rule over India transferred from EIC to the British Crown by the GoI Act, 1858;
Secretary of State for India to frame laws for India in London assisted by a 15 member Council;
Governor General to be designated Viceroy- 1st Viceroy Lord Canning
 Annexation of territories in India stopped; Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned
 Army was restructured with more British soldiers, nearly 1/3rd, occupying all higher positions of authority;
increased recruitment of martial Sikhs, Pathans & Gurkhas and reduced number of upper caste Hindus & muslims
 Beginning of the policy of ‘Divide & Rule’ based on caste-upper vs lower, class-landlords vs peasants,
martial vs non-martial & religion-Hindus vs Muslims
 1858-1885- Revival of Indian Nationalism and political awareness
 Political & administrative unification of India under British rule with common governance, laws, railways, post
 Revival of Hinduism through art- Raja Ravi Verma and literature- Bankim Chandra Chaterjee-Vande Mataram,
Rabindranath Tagore-Jana-Gana Man, Mohd. Iqbal-Saare jahan se achchaa
 Reform of Hinduism- status of women, rituals/customs, caste- by Raja Rammohan Roy-Brahmo Samaj,
Dayanand Saraswati-Arya Samaj, Jyotiba Phule-Satya Shodhak Samaj
 Drain Theory defined by Dadabhai Nauroji in his book, Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India
 Ownership of media by Indians, informing Indians about the adverse effects of the British rule in India-
ToI-1861, ABP-1868, The Hindu-1878
 Emergence of English educated middle class that was aware & informed of happenings worldwide
 Ilbert Bill controversy-1883-discriminatory British judiciary between superior whites & inferior Indians
 Gradual emergence of Indian leadership- East India Association-Dadabhai Nauroji-1866;
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha-MG Ranade-1870, Indian Association-SN Banerjee-1876
 Formation of INC by AO Hume & educated Indians in Bombay in 1885, supported by Viceroy Lord Dufferin;
1st President-WC Banerjee, 2nd President-Calcutta-DB Nauroji, 3rd President-Madras-Badruddin Tyabji
 Goal- Attainment of self government through constitutional & legal means
 Aims/Objectives-
 Formulate popular opinion on common problems, draw government’s attention towards them & offer solutions
 Promote national integration & Hindu-Muslim unity
 Help Indians develop intellectually, socially & politically
 Propagate anti-colonial nationalist ideology democratically & peacefully
 Phases of INC- Moderate-1885-1905; Assertive-1905-1919; Gandhian-1919-1947

Moderates Assertives
i. Leaders DBN, SNB, WCB, MGR, GKG Lal-Bal-Pal (LLR-BGT-BCP)
ii. Belief Superiority of British culture & need for British rule Superiority of Indian culture
iii. Goal Self government under British rule Swaraj-Self rule
iv. Actions Constitutional, legal, peaceful; Swadeshi & Boycott; Mass movement;
Prayers, pleas, petitions (Armchair politicians) Agitational & vocal; Self sacrifice

 1905- Partition of Bengal- by Lord Curzon (also responsible for Calcutta Corporation Act, Universities Act,
Official Secrets Act, Seditious Meetings Act)
 Province of Bengal was divided into East Bengal including Assam and West Bengal including Bihar & Orissa
 Reasons given- administrative convenience due to smaller provinces, allowing Oriya & Bihari culture to flourish
 Reasons perceived- furthering the policy of Divide & Rule by separating Muslim majority EB from Hindu majority
WB, thus weakening the growing nationalism in Bengal
 Peoples’ reaction- 16 October, 1905 was declared Day of Mourning
 Political reaction- INC launched Swadeshi & Boycott movement (Swadeshi-of one’s own country e.g. Khadi;
Boycott-of British goods, schools, colleges, courts, jobs; thus hurting British economic interests in India)
 Consequences- Revolutionary activities by Aurobindo Ghosh, Pulin Das, Prafulla Chaki etc.;
1906-formation of Muslim League; 1907-Surat split; 1909-Morley-Minto reforms

1906- Formation of Muslim League in Dhaka, presided over by Nawab Salimullah-

a political organization protecting political, economic & educational interests of Muslims only
Causes- Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, established MAO College; Hindi-Urdu controversy, 1900; Partition of Bengal, 1905
Demands- Separate electorate; increased representation in legislature, government & military;
formation of a Muslim University (MAO College became Aligarh Muslim University)
1907- Surat split between Moderate & Assertive factions of INC; reverted in1916
1909- Morley-Minto reforms- by SoS Morley & Viceroy Minto- provided for increased number and representation of
Indians in legislature & separate electorate for Muslims (in Muslim majority areas/constituencies, only Muslim
candidates & only Muslim voters)
1911- Partition of Bengal annulled & Indian capital shifted from Calcutta to New Delhi
1915- MKG came back to India from South Africa; led small movements in Champaran-indigo farmers,
Kheda-reduced land revenue of farmers & Ahmedabad-increased wages of mill workers; Gandhian Nationalism
included Satyagrah & Ahimsa, was inclusive-muslims, youth, women & SCs, emphasizing development of villages
1916- Lucknow Pact- between INC & ML, where increased representation in legislature & separate electorate for
Muslims was accepted by INC; also demanded abolition of India Council & separation of judiciary from executive;
in Lucknow only both moderate & aggressive factions of INC came together to fight the British, after Surat split
1916-18 Home Rule Leagues- established by Annie Besant & Bal Gangadhar Tilak to take the concept of Swaraj to the
masses & encourage evolution of leadership from among the masses, specially in rural areas

 1920-22- Non-Cooperation Movement- resolution passed by INC in Calcutta in 1919, President Lala Lajpat Rai
Causes- all in 1919
 Rowlatt Act- provided power to police to arrest & jail anybody without warrant to prevent unrest after WW I
 Jalianwala Bagh incident- in Amritsar where General Dyer fired at unarmed people killing nearly 1000
 Montague-Chelmsford reforms- introduced Dyarchy (dual government in provinces with transferred & reserved
subjects) & separate electorate for Sikhs, Christians & Anglo-Indians
 Khilafat Movement- launched by Ali brothers against ill treatment of Khalifa by the British in Turkey after WW I
Events/Actions- Swadeshi, Boycott, involvement of youth, Hindu-Muslim unity
Withdrawal- following Chauri Chaura incident near Gorakhpur, leading to killing of 22 policemen in 1922
Consequences-
 Formation of Swaraj Party by Pro-changers in INC led by CR Das & ML Nehru, that contested elections
 Revolutionary activities by HSRA including CS Azad & Bhagat Singh leading the disgruntled youth
 MK Gandhi emerged as the undisputed leader of INC
 Hindu-Muslim unity was at its peak during our freedom struggle

1927- Simon Commission- 7 member, all white group sent to India to review working of M-C reforms;
received with protests & slogan ‘Simon, Go back’; LLR died due to injuries suffered during the protest in Lahore;
recommended abolition of Dyarchy & setting up of a federation of British India and princely States
1928- Nehru Report- submitted by ML Nehru, demanding dominion status with a federal set up in India; joint electorates
with reservation for minorities in legislature; fundamental rights of voting, conscience & liberty
1930- Two Nation Theory first proposed by Mohd. Iqbal- Hindus & Muslims are two people so different culturally that
they cannot live together (later translated in 1940 in Lahore by MA Jinnah as demand for Pakistan for Muslims)

 1930-34- Civil Disobedience Movement- resolution passed by INC in Lahore in 1929 presided over by JL Nehru
Demand- Poorna Swaraj; 26 January, 1930 celebrated as 1st Independence Day of India
Events-
 MK Gandhi led the Dandi March from Sabarmati to Dandi to break Salt Laws affecting all Indians
 Swadeshi, Boycott, non-payment of revenue/taxes, involvement of women
 Khudai Khidmatgars, Red Shirts, led by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan/Frontier Gandhi in NWFP
 Severe repression with leaders jailed, protesters beaten & jailed
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed with Gandhi agreeing to withdraw CDM & INC participating in 2nd Round Table
Conference and the British agreeing to abolish Salt Laws & free political prisoners (2 nd RTC in 1931 was a failure)
 INC relaunched CDM in 1932; Ramsay McDonald introduced Communal Award providing separate electorate for
SCs (Poona Pact between BR Ambedkar & MK Gandhi- no separate electorate for SCs but reservation for SCs)
 GoI Act, 1935 provide for establishment of federation of British India & majority of princely states, direct elections
with increased franchise, increased representation of Indians in provincial assemblies, a federal court
(formed the basis of our Constitution, enacted on 26 Nov., 1949 & implemented on 26 Jan., 1950)

1937- Elections held per GoI Act of 1935, INC formed governments in 9/11 provinces, except in Bengal & Punjab;
the Congress governments resigned in 1939 when Lord Linlithgow unilaterally decided that Indians will fight WW II
for the British; ML celebrated 22 December, 1939 as ‘Day of Deliverance’
1939-1945- WW II
1940- August Offer by Lord Linlithgow- increased representation of Indians in Central legislature & formation of a
representative Constituent Assembly after the War- rejected by INC as no Poorna Swaraj & no time limit
1942- Cripps’ Mission- sent by British PM, Winston Churchill, seeking men & material help from India for WW II;
offered Dominion status & Constituent Assembly after the War, with an option to provinces to stay out-
rejected by INC for no Poorna Swaraj & hint of partition; rejected by ML for no Pakistan
 1942- Quit India Movement- resolution passed by INC in Bombay, presided by Abul Kalam Azad
 Causes- failed Cripps’ Mission, communal riots in India, threat from expansionist Japan
 British were fighting WW II, hence not interested in quitting India
 MK Gandhi gave the slogan ‘Do or Die’; all INC leaders were jailed; mass detentions & >1000 killed in firings
 Locally successful in Satara, Ballia, Midnapore & Saurashtra
 Opposed by ML, Hindu Mahasabha, CPI & princely States

 1942- Indian National Army- aimed for an armed struggle for independence of India, supported by Japan
 Formed in 1942 in Singapore by Mohan Singh with Indian PoWs in Malaya,
following Indian Independence League, Tokyo Conference & Bangkok Conference
 SC Bose became the leader in 1943 (elected President of INC in 1938 & 1939; resigned due to differences
with MKG-favored violence, was a socialist, accepted help of Japan; formed Forward Bloc in 1939, escaped India
in 1941)- expanded the army by recruiting expatriates, youth-Tokyo Boys & women-Rani of Jhansi Regiment
 Captured Andaman & Nicobar (renamed Shaheed & Swaraj), reached Kohima & Imphal via Burma
 INA disbanded in 1945 following surrender of Japan in 1945
 Nearly 11,000 troops surrendered, had trial in Red Fort & finally released

WW II ended in 1945 & Clement Atlee of Labor Party became PM of England favoring independence of India

1946- Cabinet Mission Plan

Proposals-
 A federal Union with center controlling defence, foreign affairs & communications only
 Provinces provided autonomy to control all other subjects
 Provinces to be divided into A-Hindu majority, B-Muslim majority in NW, C-Muslim majority in East
 Formation of a unified Constituent Assembly, functioning as an interim government, with 385 (292 elected + 93
nominated) members; in elections 201 members of INC & 73 of ML won
ML initially accepted the plan, but gave a call for ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16 August, 1946 for separate Pakistan
causing massive communal riots; slogan- Lad ke lenge, Pakistan

1947- Mountbatten Plan- objective to transfer power to India

Proposals-
 Partition of Bengal & Punjab to create Pakistan out of Muslim majority areas
 A boundary commission to define boundaries of India & Pakistan (Radcliffe line)
 Princely states to become part of India or Pakistan or stay independent
 NWFP in North & Sylhet in East to have referendums to decide whether they will stay with India or Pakistan
Both INC-a necessary evil & ML-got Pakistan, accepted the plan

1947- India Independence Act passed in British Parliament on 15 July, 1947

Proposals-
 Two new dominions/nations- India & Pakistan
 Separate Constituent Assemblies for both
 Princely States became independent to align with either India or Pakistan or stay independent
 Abolition of office of Secretary of State for India

Why did the British quit India in 1947?

 India left poor & deindustrialised with famines & hunger
 Increasingly assertive & violent freedom struggle with widespread communal riots
 Armed struggle waged by INC in 1945 & Naval Mutiny in 1946
 Post WW II reconstruction & rehabilitation back in England

India became independent on 15 August, 1947, the date when Japan surrendered in WW II in 1945
Civics
 Organs of Government of India (GoI)-
 Legislature- makes laws- includes President, MPs of Lok Sabha & of Rajya Sabha
 Executive- implements laws- includes Prime Minister, Council of Ministers & all Government servants
 Judiciary- checks/ensures that the laws are made & implemented according to the Constitution

 Characteristics of the GoI-

 India is a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic with Parliamentary system of democracy
 Written Constitution to define responsibilities of the Government & minimize disputes between Union & States
 Bicameral legislature- 2 houses of Parliament, Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha (LA & LC in B.U.M.K.A.T only)
 Federal Government- Schedule VII- division of subjects in 3 lists, Union-97, Concurrent-47, State-66
 Independent hierarchical judiciary- Supreme Court-1, High Courts-25, District Courts, Subordinate Courts

 Legislature- a representative body that makes & amends laws, controls national Budget, checks the Executive
Quorum- minimum attendance to conduct the proceedings of a House; 1/10th of the total strength of the House
Sessions- at least 2 per year, not more than 6 months apart; actual- 3- Budget, Monsoon, Winter
Qualifications of an MP- Citizen of India with name in the electoral list and
should not be holding an office of profit, an insolvent, a proven criminal, of unsound mind
Lok Sabha-Lower House-House of the People Rajya Sabha-Upper House-Council of the States
 Directly elected  Indirectly elected by MLAs
 Maximum strength-550; current-543  Maximum strength-250 (238 + 12)
 Tenure-5 years, can be dissolved  6 years for a member; permanent, cannot be dissolved
 Age >25 years  Age >30 years
 Presiding officer-Speaker, a member of Lok Sabha  Vice-President, Chairman of Rajya Sabha
 Election through secret ballot  Election through open ballot

 Powers of Union Parliament- common to both LS & RS, unless specified

Legislative- concerned with making or amending laws

 All bills, draft of a law, can originate in & require approval of both the Houses to become a law, except money bill
 Can make laws on all subjects in the Union list & concurrent list in Schedule VII of the Constitution
(in case of a conflict between Union & State laws, the Union law supersedes)
 Can make laws on State subjects in case of National & Constitutional Emergency, conflict between states,
if RS approves
 Has Residuary powers to make laws on subjects not in any list of Schedule VII
 Pass an Ordinance, a temporary law issued by the President when the Parliament is not in session
(an Ordinance needs to be passed by both Houses of Parliament within 6 weeks of reassembly, else it lapses)
 Amendment- procedure defined in Article 368 of the Constitution
 Simple majority- Flexible- e.g. formation of new states, delimitation of constituencies, appointment of SC judges
 2/3rd majority of members present & voting
 2/3rd majority in Parliament + 50% of state legislatures- Rigid- e.g. election of President, lists in 7th Schedule, Art. 368

Executive- Council of Ministers, including PM, are responsible to the Parliament, specially LS
 Question hour- 1st hour of assembly of the Parliament; members ask questions & ministers answer
 Adjournment motion- routine business is postponed to discuss a matter of urgent importance
 Censure motion- expresses disapproval of policy of an individual minister
 No Confidence motion- moved by 50 MPs or leader of the opposition in LS; to be discussed within 10 days;
if passed, the Executive resigns

Financial- LS controls the national finances

 All money bills, including the Budget, are 1st presented, debated, voted & passed in LS
 Sanctions/approves supplementary grants & contingency expenditure, as required
 Approves Vote on Accounts, a mini-Budget for part of the year till next government is in place
 Imposes, abolishes or alters any tax- Direct (income & corporation) or Indirect (GST & custom)
  Determines salaries & allowances of ministers, MPs, SC judges etc. & examine reports of CAG
Judicial- Impeach President, SC & HC judges, Election Commissioners (3), CAG

Electoral- participate in election of President & of Vice President; LS elects its Speaker & Deputy Speaker;
RS elects its Deputy Chairman

Exclusive for LS- PM is the leader of the largest party/coalition in the LS; Money bills originate in LS only;
No Confidence Motion & Censure Motion brought 1st in LS
Exclusive for RS- Can create a new all India service; Can declare a State subject of national importance & allow
Parliament to legislate on it

Advantages of RS-
 Permanent house, hence provides continuity in administration & policies
 Revision & amendment of bills passed in LS, relieving LS & keeping a check on it
 Permits necessary delay & thorough discussion on bills & amendments
 Utilise services of eminent nominated members in formulating policy

Privileges of MPs- each MP gets 5 crore/year as MPLAD fund for development works in their Constituencies
 Freedom to speak anything in the House
 Freedom from arrest in a Civil case
 Freedom from attendance as witness in a court
 Punish members or outsiders for contempt of the House

Leader of LS- Prime Minister

Leader of the opposition (the political party should have at least 10% members in the House) in LS & RS
enjoy the status & facilities equivalent to a Cabinet Minister

Speaker- elected from among the members of new LS, mostly unanimous, belongs to the majority party/coalition
 Presides over & conducts the proceedings in the LS and over joint sitting of both the houses of the Parliament
 May adjourn LS for lack of quorum, unruly members, death of a member, end of day’s business
 Can suspend or disqualify a member of LS under Anti Defection Act, 1985
 Decides upon the admissibility of a question or amendment in the LS
 Exercise a Casting vote in case of a tie in the House
 Constitutes Parliamentary Committees & nominates their Chairperson

Parliament is summoned & prorogued by the President

The President addresses the Parliament after General elections & for 1 st Session every year;
his speech is a policy statement of the PM & his/her Council of ministers (CoM)
The debate on Presidential address is called Motion of Thanks, a vote of confidence in PM & his CoM

Question Hour- begins the proceedings of the House for the day; members ask, ministers reply, Government acts
Zero Hour- follows Question Hour; allows members to express their opinions & concerns

Motion- a proposal to draw attention of the Government; requires consent of Speaker/Chairman

 Adjournment motion- routine business is postponed to discuss an urgent matter
 Motion of Thanks- debate on Presidential address, works as a vote of confidence in PM
 Censure motion- expresses disapproval of policies of a minister or the CoM; originates in LS
 No Confidence motion- originates in LS; if passed, the CoM, including PM, resign
 Confidence motion- moved by PM to get approval of LS in the functioning of the Executive

Process of legislation- through which a bill becomes a law; has 3 stages

1st- 3 readings- Bill is introduced in a House; Clause wise debate & voting; Debate & voting on the bill as a whole
2nd- If passed in one House, the bill undergoes the same procedure in the other House & passed
(In case of a deadlock in two Houses, a joint session of the Parliament is held, presided over by the Speaker)
3rd- President’s assent finally makes a bill a law
Union Executive- President, Vice President, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers

President- An elected President/Head of the State makes India a Republic

 Constitutional (nominal/titular) head of GoI; Chief Executive; Commander of the Armed Forces; 1 st Citizen
 Qualification- Citizen of India; Age >35 years; Eligible to be a member of Lok Sabha; Not hold office of profit
 Election- Indirect, to save expenditure & maintain supremacy of the Parliament; candidature proposed by &
seconded by at least 50 members of Electoral college; surety of Rs. 15000
 Electoral college- Elected MPs & MLAs; single transferable vote; proportional representation; secret ballot
 Oath of office administered by Chief Justice of India & disputes related to election settled by Supreme Court
 Term of office- 5 years; vacancy in case of death, resignation sent to VP, impeachment
 Powers- mostly on the advice of the PM who is the functional head of the Executive
 Executive- All communication of GoI in the name of the President;
appoints PM, CoM, EC, CAG, SC & HC judges; administers UTs through Lieutenant Governors &
in case of President Rule administers States through Governors
 Legislative- Summons & prorogues Parliament; dissolves LS at the end of the term; nominates 12 RS members;
addresses Parliament after General election & before Budget session; assent required for every legislation;
issues Ordinance
 Financial- Introduction of money bill needs Presidential assent; appoints Finance Commission every 5 years
 Judicial- Authority to modify punishment given by SC/Court Martial; consult/seek opinion of SC;
no criminal proceedings during term of office
 Military- Commander of the armed forces of India; declares war & concludes peace; appoints chiefs of military
 Diplomatic- Appoints & receives Ambassadors/High Commissioners; concludes international treaties
 Proclaims Emergency-
 National- Article 352; nationwide, recommended by Cabinet; incase of external war or internal armed rebellion;
to be approved by the Parliament within 1 month & every 6 months; only Parliament legislates;
fundamental rights, except Article 20 & 21, remain suspended; imposed in 1962, 1971 & 1975
 State- Article 356; also called President’s rule; imposed in case of breakdown of Constitutional machinery;
to be approved by the Parliament within 2 months & every 6 months for maximum 3 years;
state legislature is suspended, Governor administers & Parliament legislates
 Financial- Article 360; in case of national financial/credit crisis; needs approval by Parliament if continues
beyond 2 months; Government expenditure, including salaries, is curtailed

Discretionary powers-
 Appointment of PM in case of no party/coalition having majority after General election
 Hold assent to a bill, except money bill; can return a bill to Parliament for reconsideration once only
 May or may not dissolve the LS after the CoM loses the majority in LS/No confidence motion is passed in LS

Limitation on powers- Acts on the advice of the PM & CoM (Article 74);
Ordinance/Emergency need parliamentary approval; Impeachment for violation of Constitution
(Process of impeachment- A quasi-judicial process; brought forth by 1/4th members of either House of Parliament;
at least 14 day notice to President; debate & voting in both Houses separately; passed by at least 2/3 rd majority)

Vice President- Chairman of RS

 Qualification- Citizen of India; Age >35 years; Eligible to be a member of Rajya Sabha; Not hold office of profit
 Election- Electoral college consists of all MPs; voting by open ballot system
 Tenure- 5 years; can be removed by simple majority in RS, approved by LS
 Powers-
 Presiding officer of RS/Chairman of RS
 Acting President, in case of absence of the President, for maximum of 6 months
 Ceremonial functions- receive foreign dignitaries & take goodwill trips to foreign countries

Current incumbents-
President-Dropdi Murmu; Vice President-Jagdeep Dhankar; Prime Minister-Narendra Modi; Speaker-Om Birla;
Chief Justice-DY Chandrachud; CEC-Rajiv Kumar
Prime Minister-
 Leader of the largest party/coalition in LS after General election; Functional head of the executive; Leader of LS
 Tenure- commonly 5 years; actually not fixed as it depends on the pleasure of the Parliament
 Advises President to summon & dissolve LS; Link between President & Cabinet
 Ex-officio Chairman of CoM- selection, allocation of portfolios, resignation/removal, coordination
 Chairman of National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog & Atomic Energy Corporation
 Chief architect of India’s foreign policy

Checks on the authority of the PM-

 Legislature/Parliament- through various motions
 Opposition & coalition partners
 Media & Public opinion
 Masses- through elections every 5 years

Council of Ministers (CoM)-

 Either should already be a member of Parliament or become one within 6 months of appointment
 Size- maximum 15% of the strength of LS (91st Constitutional amendment, 2003)
 Chosen by PM; portfolios allotted by PM
 Oath to office- administered by the President
 Tenure- not fixed; depends on the pleasure of the PM & the Parliament
 Answerable to the PM & the Parliament- through Question hour & various motions
 Types-
 Cabinet Ministers- fewer, senior members, holding important portfolios, with independent charge,
whom PM consults to advise the President
 Minister of State- have independent charge or work under a Cabinet Minister
 Deputy Minister- work under a Cabinet Minister or a Minister of State
 Power-
 Formulate policies for the Nation
 Head of administration of respective departments
 Control national income & expenditure through money bills
 Draft, introduce & get bills & amendments passed
 Recommend summoning of Parliament, Ordinance to be issued, imposition of Emergency
 Responsibility-
 Collective- members of the CoM swim & sink together; every minister has to stand by the decision taken by the
Cabinet, both inside & outside Parliament; if No Confidence motion is passed in the Parliament, whole CoM resigns
 Individual- answerable to the PM & the Parliament-through Question Hour & Censure motion
Judiciary- needed to interpret Constitution, to protect Fundamental Rights & be the Guardian of the Constitution
India has single hierarchical judiciary- SC, HC, District Courts & Subordinate Courts

Supreme Court- 1, in New Delhi

 Judges- total 34, 33 + 1-Chief Justice of India, the most senior judge of the Supreme Court
(Constitutional bench has minimum 5 judges & other benches have 3/2 judges)
 Appointment- by the President, on the advice of the Collegium-CJI + 4 most senior judges of the SC
 Qualification- Citizen of India and a HC judge x 5 years or a HC lawyer x 10 years or a distinguished jurist
 Term- till 65 years of age; removal by impeachment, initiated by 100 LS or 50 RS members
 Oath of office- administered by the President
 Independence ensured by- appointment on the recommendation of the Collegium; removal by impeachment only;
salary paid from the Consolidated Fund of India; no practice after retirement; provision of contempt of Court
 Jurisdiction/Powers-
Original- dispute between GoI & state(s); determine constitutional validity of Union laws; disputes related to the
election of President & Vice President; enforcing Fundamental Rights through writs
Appellate- appeal regarding HC decisions or questions regarding interpretation of Constitution; discretionary SLP
Advisory- to the President (SC is not mandated to give advice & President is not mandated to follow the advice)
Guardian of Fundamental Rights through Writs, a written order of the court, SC or HC
 Habeas Corpus- against unlawful detention; produce a person
 Mandamus- do your job/perform your duty
 Quo Warranto- explain your position, in case of illegal occupation of an office
 Certiorari- remedial, transfer a case to appropriate court or authority
 Prohibition- preventive, stop the proceedings as it is beyond jurisdiction
Guardian of the Constitution- through the power of the Judicial Review can examine any law passed by the
Legislature or order passed by the Executive; quashed if not according to the Constitution
Court of record- all judgments are recorded & used as precedent by all courts in subsequent similar cases
Revisory- can review any previous judgment to correct any miscarriage of justice

High Court(s)- 25; principal courts of original jurisdiction in the State(s)

Differences from Supreme Court-
 Qualification- State judicial officer or High Court lawyer for at least 10 years
 Oath of office administered by the Governor of the respective State
 Age of retirement- 62 years (judges of the High Court are transferable to other High Courts)
 Post retirement can practice law in the SC or in a High Court not served
 Powers- appeal against death penalty or decisions of district courts;
Judicial Review of State laws or executive decisions; no advisory jurisdiction

Subordinate Courts- in judicial districts

Can be-
 Civil-Court of District Judge- matters related to land, property, marriage, dowry, divorce, will etc.
 Criminal-Court of Sessions Judge- matters related to murder, robbery/dacoity, accident, rape etc.
 Revenue-Court of District Collector- matters related to land records, revenue, taxation etc.
In a judicial district, the District Judge & the Sessions Judge are the same
Qualification- State judicial officer or a practicing advocate x >7 years

Lok Adalat- People’s Court- 1st in New Delhi in 1985- encourage settlement of disputes through compromise;
provide cheap & quick justice; reduce workload of Subordinate courts; promote social justice;
common matters settled- family disputes, labor disputes, bank recovery, traffic violations, consumer grievances

Family Court- 1 per district; provide speedy settlement of disputes related to marriage & family affairs

Public Interest Litigation-PIL- Judicial process initiated by individuals or organizations not directly affected by the
events, against the Government authority, to provide social justice to the poor & the marginalised;
entertaining the plea is Court’s privilege
The Contemporary World

World War I- 1914-1918; between Triple Alliance & Triple Entente

Causes- Long term
 Aggressive Nationalism- My country & culture is superior to yours, leading to enmity
 Militarism- Ideology of settling disputes through war leading to an armament race
 Colonialism- Industrialised nations of Europe looking for raw materials & market for industrial goods
 Secret Alliances- to protect territory & colonies against external aggression;
Triple Alliance-Germany, Austro-Hungarian empire & Ottoman empire and Triple Entente-England, France, Russia
(Italy initially sided with the Triple Alliance, but fought with Triple Entente after Treaty of London in 1915)
 Balkans peninsula- in SE Europe; people with multiple ethnic identities living in close proximity, open to occupation

Immediate cause- Sarajevo incident- Murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria, on
28 June, 1914 by Gavrilo Princep, a member of Serbian terrorist group Black Hand, in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia

Fierce & widespread War involving all European nations & their colonies worldwide, using deadly weapons like
aeroplanes, submarines, tanks, machine guns, chemical weapons, causing massive loss of life & property

1917-
 Russia exited the War following Bolshevik Revolution leading to communist government, led by VI Lenin, at home
& signing of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany
 USA joined the War following drowning of passenger ship, Lusitania, by German U boats killing 123 Americans

Consequences-
 Nearly 10 million people died- majority of soldiers died in trenches due to exposure to cold, malnutrition & disease
 Cost- nearly 56 billion pounds; ruined industries; contributed to the Great Depression in 1929-1939 worldwide
 USA emerged as a strong military & economic powerhouse, with weakened England & communism in Russia
 Democratic governments replaced monarchies in Germany-Weimar Republic, Austria, Turkey & Russia
 Emergence of new independent countries like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Baltic States
 Paris Peace Conference-1919-1920 & creation of League of Nations-1920, HQ-Geneva, Switzerland- decided by
Lloyd George of England, Georges Clemenceau of France, Woodrow Wilson of USA & Vittorio Orlando of Italy

Treaties signed during Paris Peace Conference-

 Treaty of Versailles- Germany
 Treaty of St. Germain- Austria
 Treaty of Trianon- Hungary
 Treaty of Neuilly- Bulgaria
 Treaty of Sevres/Lausanne- Turkey

Treaty of Versailles- between winning countries in WW I & defeated Germany; its terms were-
 Economic- Germany held solely responsible for War & to pay War reparations of $33 billion to England & France
 Military- Germany to have maximum of 100,000 soldiers in army with no air force or submarines
 Territorial- Mineral rich region of Alsace-Lorraine returned to France, also to get coal from Saar region for 15 years;
Rhine valley demilitarized; Danzig port corridor created through German territory
The terms of Treaty of Versailles were humiliating & discriminatory for Germany & led to World War II

League of Nations- 1920-1946; initially 42 & maximum 58 members

 Established to achieve international peace & security through cooperation, collective security, disarmament
 Organs- General Assembly; Executive Council (permanent members- England, France, Italy, Japan); Secretariat
 Failed because- USA never became a member; decisions required unanimity/consensus; had no standing army;
pacifism & policy of appeasement followed by England & France
Rise of Fascism-Italy, Benito Mussolini, Duce, 1922 & Nazism-Germany, Adolf Hitler, Fuehrer, 1933
 Both aimed to establish a totalitarian-1 leader, 1 party- State that was anti-democratic, anti-communist & racist
(Hitler was anti-Semitic; resulted in Holocaust, genocide of nearly 6 million Jews in Europe, in concentration camps)
 Arose due to unfair treatment of Italy & Germany at Paris Peace Conference, unstable democratic governments at
home, economic crisis worsened by the Great Depression, charismatic leaders-Mussolini & Hitler
 Believed in militarism to achieve power & recognition, aggressive nationalism & expansionism/imperialism
(Italy-Spazio vitale-occupied Albania & Abyssinia; Germany-Lebensraum-occupied Austria & Czechoslovakia)
 Strengthened by the policy of appeasement followed by England & France and ineffective League of Nations
 Used violence & propaganda to establish & maintain their rule
 Supporters, violent & disruptive, were called Black Shirts & Brown Shirts respectively

World War II- 1939-1945- between Allies-England, France, USSR, USA & Axis powers-Germany, Italy, Japan
Causes-
 Unfair treatment at Paris Peace Conference in 1920 after WW I
 Rise of Fascism & Nazism in Italy & Germany respectively, following policy of militarism & expansionism
 Policy of appeasement followed by England & France with ineffective League of Nations
 Conflict between the liberal democratic & totalitarian ideologies

Immediate cause- Germany invading Poland on 1st September, 1939

Events in War-
 3 theatres- Europe, MENA (Middle East, North Africa), Pacific
 Initially Germany gained an upper hand due to its policy of ‘Blitzkrieg’-lightening strike
 2 mistakes by Axis powers in 1941- Germany attacked USSR on three fronts in Operation Barbarossa-defeated;
Japan attacked US naval base in Pearl Harbor-brought USA into the War
 Final defeat of Hitler following Operation Overlord in 1944 with amphibious Normandy landing and
of Japan following the Battle of Midway-1942 & later by island hopping by General McArthur
 In 1945, Mussolini caught & executed in Italy; Hitler committed suicide after fall of Berlin;
Japan surrendered to General McArthur on 15 August following dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima & Nagasaki

Consequences-
 Nearly 80 million people died; the War cost $1-2 trillion
 Rise of two superpowers- Capitalist USA & Communist USSR, both with nuclear weapons, beginning Cold War
 Division of Germany into capitalist western FRG & communist eastern GDR
 Establishment of United Nations (UN) to maintain world peace
 Beginning of decolonization, starting with independence of India in 1947

Cold War- 1945-1991- War of ideology between Capitalism (USA) & Communism (USSR)
 Mutual suspicion & distrust led to arms race, space race & militarization
 Military alliances formed- NATO-1949-USA & Western Europe and Warsaw Pact-1955-USSR & Eastern Europe
 Proxy wars fought in Korea-1950-53; Vietnam-1955-75; Afghan War-1979-1989; Iran-Iraq War-1980s
 Led to emergence of NAM-Non-Aligned Movement- group of newly independent nations
 President Gorbachev brought reforms- Glasnost-openness, permitting freedom to individuals & media and
Perestroika-restructuring, of economy- in USSR beginning in 1985
 Reunification of Germany following the fall of Berlin Wall in 1989 marked the beginning of end of Cold War
 Soviet Union collapsed & disintegrated in 1991 into 15 independent nations, marking the end of Cold War
United Nations-UN- successor to the League of Nations; formed on 24 October, 1945; HQ- New York, USA
 Membership- currently 193 (last- South Sudan, 2011); admission/expulsion by General Assembly
 Flag- light blue; Emblem- Globe embraced by 2 olive branches; Languages- 6- CASFER
 Current Secretary General-Chief Administrative Officer- Antonio Guterres
 Principles-
Sovereign equality of member States
Equal rights & self-determination of people
Respect territorial integrity
Solve mutual disputes peacefully
Member States to offer services for preventive & enforcement actions of UN
 Objectives- 3 Ds- Disarmament, Decolonization, Development
Maintain international peace & security
Protect human rights
Support sustainable development
Uphold international law
 Organs of UN- also Secretariat, ECOSOC, Trusteeship Council
 General Assembly- Parliament of Nations
 All member nations are represented with 1 member, 1 vote; Decisions taken by simple or 2/3 rd majority
 Meets once a year in September in New York; Emergency meet may be called by SC or majority of members
 Elects its President- rotating between Asia, Africa, Western Europe, Eastern Europe & Latin America
 Functions- admit new members; elect Secretary General, members of ICJ & temporary members of SC; pass annual
budget & determine share of member States
 Security Council- Enforcement agency of UN
 15 members- 5 permanent- USA, UK, Russia, France, China- Have VETO power-power to say NO
 Presidency rotates among non-permanent members; Meet every month in New York
 Functions- maintain international peace, deploy peacekeeping force in conflict zones; monitor elections
 International Court of Justice- since 1946; HQ-Hague, Netherlands
 15 judges from various countries; Term- 9 years with 1/3rd retiring every 3 years
 Bench- at least 9 members & decisions taken by majority
 Functions- solve bilateral disputes, trial of crimes against humanity, codifies international law
 Agencies of UN- also UNDP, ILO, FAO, UNHCR, WFP, IMF, UNEP, IAEA
 UNICEF-United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (now United Nations Children’s Fund)
 Established- 1946; HQ- New York
 Functions- overcome obstacles placed by poverty, violence, disease & discrimination in a child’s path;
universal immunization, monitor growth & nutrition, encourage breast feeding, promote oral rehydration
 WHO-World Health Organization
 Established- 7 April, 1948; HQ- Geneva, Switzerland
 Functions- primary healthcare, eradication of communicable diseases, control of lifestyle diseases
 UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization
 Established- 1946; HQ- Paris, France
 Functions- educational-primary, adult, women, distance-advancement, scientific development & research,
cultural preservation & exchange

Non Aligned Movement-NAM

 Established- 1955, following Bandung Conference in Indonesia; 1st Conference- Belgrade, Yugoslavia in 1961;
18th- 2019- Baku, Azerbaijan; 19th- 2023- Kampala, Uganda
 Members- 120, largely from Global South
 Architects- JL Nehru, India; Sukarno, Indonesia, JB Tito, Yugoslavia; GA Nasser, Egypt; K Nkrumah, Ghana
 Factors- Cold War, struggle against colonialism & racism, economic development
 Principles- Panchsheel- Mutual non-interference, non-aggression, respect, benefit & peaceful coexistence
 Current priorities- reform of UNSC, promote multilateralism, fight neocolonialism,
sustainable equitable development, crush international terrorism