AMC10 Preparation

Content

Course 1. Functions and Equations

Course 2. Trigonometric Functions and Identical Transformation

Course 3. Law of Sin and Cos

Course 4. Complex Numbers

Course 5. Vectors

Course 6. Number sequence

Course 7. Inequalities

Course 8. Algebra Expressions Identical Transformation

Course 9. 2D Geometry

Course 10. 3D Geometry

Course 11. Analytic Geometry

Course 12. Number Theory

Course 14. Counting and Probability

Course 15. Combinations

Course 16. Polynomials

Course 17. Mathematical Induction

Course 18. Combination of Numbers and Shapes

 Course 16 Polynomials
16.1 Introduction of Polynomials

What is a Polynomial?

Polynomial is made up of two terms, namely Poly (meaning “many”) and Nominal

(meaning “terms.”). A polynomial is defined as an expression which is composed of

variables, constants and exponents, that are combined using mathematical operations

such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (No division operation by a

variable). Based on the number of terms present in the expression, it is classified as

monomial, binomial, and trinomial. Examples of constants, variables and exponents

are as follows:

 Constants. Example: 1, 2, 3, etc.

 Variables. Example: g, h, x, y, etc.

 Exponents: Example: 5 in x5 etc.

Standard Form of a Polynomial

P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 +an-2xn-2 + ………………. + a1x + a0

Where an, an-1, an-2, ……………………, a1, a0 are called coefficients of xn, xn-1, xn-2, ….., x and

constant term respectively and it should belong to real number (⋲ R).

Notation

The polynomial function is denoted by P(x) where x represents the variable. For

example,

P(x) = x2-5x+11

If the variable is denoted by a, then the function will be P(a)

Degree of a Polynomial

The degree of a polynomial is defined as the highest exponent of a monomial within a

polynomial. Thus, a polynomial equation having one variable which has the largest

exponent is called a degree of the polynomial.

Polynomial Degree Example

Zero Polynomial Not Defined 6

Constant 0 P(x) = 6

Linear Polynomial 1 P(x) = 3x+1

Quadratic Polynomial 2 P(x) = 4x2+1x+1

Cubic Polynomial 3 P(x) = 6x3+4x2+3x+1

Quartic Polynomial 4 P(x) = 6x4+3x3+3x2+2x+1

Example: Find the degree of the polynomial P(x) = 6s4+ 3x2+ 5x +19

Solution: The degree of the polynomial is 4 as the highest power of the variable 4.

Terms of a Polynomial

The terms of polynomials are the parts of the expression that are generally

separated by “+” or “-” signs. So, each part of a polynomial in an expression is a term.

For example, in a polynomial, say, 2x 2 + 5 +4, the number of terms will be 3. The

classification of a polynomial is done based on the number of terms in it.

Polynomial Terms Degree

P(x) = x3-2x2+3x+4 x3, -2x2, 3x and 4 3

Types of Polynomials

Depending upon the number of terms, polynomials are divided into the following

categories:

 Monomial

 Binomial

 Trinomial

 Polynomial containing 4 terms (Quadronomial)

 Polynomial containing 5 terms (pentanomial ) and so on …

These polynomials can be combined using addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division but is never divided by a variable. A few examples of Non Polynomials are:

1/x+2, x-3

Monomial

A monomial is an expression which contains only one term. For an expression to be a

monomial, the single term should be a non-zero term. A few examples of monomials

are:

 5x

 3

 6a4

 -3xy

Binomial

A binomial is a polynomial expression which contains exactly two terms. A binomial

can be considered as a sum or difference between two or more monomials. A few

examples of binomials are:

  – 5x+3,

 6a4 + 17x

 xy2+xy

Trinomial

A trinomial is an expression which is composed of exactly three terms. A few

examples of trinomial expressions are:

 – 8a4+2x+7

 4x2 + 9x + 7

Monomial Binomial Trinomial

One Term Two terms Three terms

Example: x, 3y, 29, x/2 Example: x2+x, x3-2x, y+2 Example: x2+2x+20

Properties

Some of the important properties of polynomials along with some important

polynomial theorems are as follows:

Property 1: Division Algorithm

If a polynomial P(x) is divided by a polynomial G(x) results in quotient Q(x) with

remainder R(x), then,

P(x) = G(x) • Q(x) + R(x)

Where R(x)=0 or the degree of R(x) < the degree of G(x)

Property 2: Bezout’s Theorem

Polynomial P(x) is divisible by binomial (x – a) if and only if P(a) = 0.

Property 3: Remainder Theorem

If P(x) is divided by (x – a) with remainder r, then P(a) = r.

Property 4: Factor Theorem

A polynomial P(x) divided by Q(x) results in R(x) with zero remainders if and only if

Q(x) is a factor of P(x).

Learn More: Factor Theorem

Property 5: Intermediate Value Theorem

If P(x) is a polynomial, and P(x) ≠ P(y) for (x < y), then P(x) takes every value from

P(x) to P(y) in the closed interval [x, y].

Learn More: Intermediate Value Theorem

Property 6

The addition, subtraction and multiplication of polynomials P and Q result in a

polynomial where,

Degree(P ± Q) ≤ Degree(P or Q)

Degree(P × Q) = Degree(P) + Degree(Q)

Property 7

If a polynomial P is divisible by a polynomial Q, then every zero of Q is also a zero of

P.
Property 8

If a polynomial P is divisible by two co-prime polynomials Q and R, then it is divisible

by (Q • R).

Property 9

If P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + …… + anxn is a polynomial such that deg(P) = n ≥ 0 then, P has

at most “n” distinct roots.

Property 10: Descartes’ Rule of Sign

The number of positive real zeroes in a polynomial function P(x) is the same or less

than by an even number as the number of changes in the sign of the coefficients. So,

if there are “K” sign changes, the number of roots will be “k” or “(k – a)”, where “a” is

some even number.

Property 11: Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least

one complex zero.

Property 12

If P(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients and has one complex zero (x = a – bi),

then x = a + bi will also be a zero of P(x). Also, x 2 – 2ax + a2 + b2 will be a factor of

P(x).
Polynomial Equations

Polynomial equations are those expressions which are made up of multiple constants

and variables. The standard form of writing a polynomial equation is to put the

highest degree first and then, at last, the constant term. An example of a polynomial

equation is:

0 = a4 +3a3 -2a2 +a +1

Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function is an expression constructed with one or more terms of

variables with constant exponents. If there are real numbers denoted by a, then

function with one variable and of degree n can be written as:

f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2 + ….. + an-2x2 + an-1x + an

Warm Up Polynomial Problems in MAA contests

Problem 1 (2016 AIME I Problem 11) Let P(x) be a nonzero polynomial such that (x -
7 m
1)P(x + 1) = (x + 2)P(x) for every real x, and (P(2))2 = P(3). Then P( ) = , where m
2 n

and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n.

Problem 2 (1984 AIME Problem 15) Determine w 2 + x 2 + y 2 + y 2 if

16.2 Examples

16.2.1 (AMC 12A 2017 P23)For certain real numbers a, b, and c, the polynomial

g(x) = x 3 + a x 2 + x + 10

has three distinct roots, and each root of g(x) is also a root of the polynomial

f(x) = x 4 + x 3 + b x 2 + 100x + c

What is f(1)?

16.2.2 (2018 AIME I Problem 1). Let S be the number of ordered pairs of integers

(a, b) with 1 ≤ a ≤ 100 and b ≥ 0 such that the polynomial x 2 + ax + b can be factored

into the product of two (not necessarily distinct) linear factors with integer

coefficients. Find the remainder when S is divided by 1000.

16.2.3 (2007 AIME I Problem 8). The polynomial P(x) is cubic. What is the largest

value of k for which the polynomials Q1(x) = x 2 + (k - 29)x - k and Q2(x) = 2 x 2 + (2k -

43)x + k are both factors of P(x)?

π 3
16.2.4 (AIME I 2011/9) Suppose x is in the interval [0, ] and log 24 sinx 24 cosx = .
2 2

Find 24 cot 2 x.
16.2.5 (2018 AIME II Problem 6). A real number a is chosen randomly and uniformly

from the interval [􀀀20; 18]. The probability that the roots of the polynomial x 4 + 2a
m
x + (2a - 2) x + (-4a + 3)x – 2 are all real can be written in the form , where m and
3 2
n

n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m+ n.

16.2.6 (1988 Canadian Mathematical Olympiad Problem 1). For what real values of k

do 1988 x 2 + kx + 8891 and 8891 x 2 + kx + 1988 have a common zero?

16.2.7 (AIME I 2001/3) Find the sum of the roots, real and non-real, of the equation
2001
1
x
2001
+ ( −x) = 0, given that there are no multiple roots.
2

16.2.8 (2014 AIME I Problem 5). Real numbers r and s are roots of p(x) = x 3 + ax + b,

and r + 4 and s - 3 are roots of q(x) = x 3 + ax + b + 240. Find the sum of all possible

values of |b|.
16.2.9 (AIME 1996/5) Suppose that the roots of x 3 +3 x 2 + 4x - 11 = 0 are a, b, and c,

and that the roots of x 3 +r x 2 +sx + t = 0 are a + b, b + c, and c + a. Find t.

16.2.10 (1993 AIME Problem 5). Let P0(x) = x 3 + 313 x 2 - 77x - 8 . For integers n ≥ 1 ,

define Pn(x) = Pn−1(x - n) . What is the coefficient of x in P20(x) ?