Climate of India

Tropical Monsoon-

 Tropical because Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country, hence large part lies in tropical or
subtropical zone having climate with high average temperature
 Monsoon because India receives majority of rainfall due to advancing Southwest monsoon winds

Seasons- for the country as a whole

 Summer- March-May
 Advancing monsoon- June-September
 Retreating monsoon- October-November
 Winter- December-February

Factors affecting climate of India-

 Latitude- Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country, hence southern part lies in tropical zone
and has higher average temperature as it is closer to the Equator e.g. Chennai is hotter than Delhi
 Altitude- due to normal lapse rate temperature drops as we go up in the atmosphere, hence hill stations are
colder e.g. Shimla is colder than Delhi, Ooty is colder than Chennai, Mount Abu is colder than Jaipur
 Himalayas- obstruct cold winds from the north, thus prevent northern plains from freezing in winters; act as a
barrier for SW monsoon winds resulting in rainfall in northern plains; have higher altitude, hence colder hill
stations
 Distance from sea- coastal areas have moderate maritime climate characterized by lower range of temperature
due to sea breeze, while areas far from sea have extreme continental climate e.g. Chennai/Mumbai vs
Delhi/Kanpur
 Monsoon winds- cause majority of rainfall in our country; advancing SW monsoon causes rainfall in monsoon
season across India while retreating NE monsoon winds cause winter rainfall in Coromandal coast/Tamil Nadu
 Relief features- cause orographic rainfall; moisture bearing winds are obstructed by mountains causing plenty of
rainfall on windward side while leeward side receives relatively less rainfall e.g. Western Ghats obstructing
Arabian Sea branch of SW monsoon causing more rainfall in western coastal plains; Garo, Khasi, Jaintia hills
obstructing Bay of Bengal branch of SW monsoon causing excess rainfall in Mawsynram; Himalayas obstructing
western disturbances causing winter rainfall in Haryana, Punjab & western UP (good for rabi/wheat crop)

Monsoon- moisture bearing periodic winds causing majority of rainfall across India

 Caused by low pressure area over Indian landmass due to high temperature in Summer season and due to jet
stream in the upper layers of troposphere; both deflect SE trade winds blowing over water bodies, hence loaded
with moisture, to be deflected to blow in SW direction over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal
 Due to monsoon winds Western coastal plains & Northeast India receive plenty of rainfall in advancing monsoon
season while Coromandal coast receives winter rainfall due to retreating monsoon
 Western Rajasthan/Thar is a desert, characterized by scanty i.e. <50 cm/year rainfall, due to Aravalli hills lying
parallel to Arabian Sea branch of SW monsoon, little humidity in atmosphere due to absence of water bodies &
vegetation, it lying on the leeward side of Aravallis for Bay of Bengal branch of SW monsoon

Local winds- all in summer- Loo, Kal Baisakhi, Mango showers, Cherry Blossom

Data interpretation-

 Annual rainfall-add all values/readings

 Average/mean monthly rainfall-add all & divide by 12
 Range of temperature-difference between maximum & minimum temperatures
Soils of India

Alluvial- commonest soil in India found in Indo-Gangetic plains & river deltas in South India; loamy and very fertile

 Formed by erosion of sedimentary rocks by water/rivers with transportation & deposition of soil in river plains
 Two types- Khadar- new alluvium, found closer to river banks, finer, more fertile &
Bhangar- older alluvium, found away from river banks, coarser, less fertile
 Good for growing wheat, rice, mustard, pulses, cotton, sugarcane

Black- found in Gujarat & Maharashtra; clayey and fertile

 Formed by weathering of igneous rocks

 Characteristics- clayey hence sticky when wet & moisture retentive,
self-ploughing property due to deep cracks that develop in summer
 Good for growing cotton, sugarcane, ground nut, banana/orange/grapes

Red- found in Deccan plateau on the eastern side (Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

 Formed by weathering of metamorphic rocks; Red due to relative excess of iron/iron oxides
 Rich in potash, poor in other minerals and in humus
 Good to grow millets, tobacco

Laterite- found in hilly regions of Kerala & the Northeast India

 Formed by leaching where essential nutrients are washed away leaving the soil less fertile
 Good for plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, coconut

Soil erosion- removal of top fertile soil by wind and water

 Causes- Deforestation; Faulty agricultural methods like shifting agriculture, deep ploughing, excessive irrigation;
Overgrazing-animals loosen soil by pulling out roots of grasses & by walking on hooves; Animals-burrow or
loosen soil by walking on hooves; Man-deforestation, mining etc.
 Types- Sheet-horizontal, Rill-vertical narrow grooves, Gully-deep & wide valleys creating badlands/ravines

Soil conservation- efforts to prevent soil erosion to maintain soil fertility

 Methods of soil conservation- (Crop rotation improves soil fertility, does not prevent soil erosion)
 Afforestation-planting trees prevents soil erosion by slowing speed of wind/water & roots holding soil
 Correct agricultural methods- contour ploughing, step/terrace farming, planting cover crops/mixed farming
 Building barrages/dams to check flow of water
Natural Vegetation/Forests of India- grow without human intervention

Tropical evergreen- also called ‘Rain forest’; all trees do not shed their leaves at the same time

 Found in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall (>200 cm/year)
i.e. western coastal plains & NE states of India
 Characterized by dense forest, tall trees, thick canopy, thin undergrowth, creepers & climbers
 Difficult to exploit commercially due to dense forest with trees of mixed variety
 Trees found- Ebony, Mahogany, Rosewood- all providing costly hardwood used to make furniture

Tropical monsoon/Deciduous- commonest forest in India; all trees shed their leaves in dry winter season

 Found in areas with rainfall 50-200 cm/year i.e. MP, Chattisgarh, Bihar, UP
 Trees found in single strand/variety- Teak-furniture; Sal-railway sleepers,ship building;
Sheesham-doors & windows; Sandalwood-handicraft; Mango, Neem

Mountain/Coniferous-

 Found in hilly areas with lower temperature and snowfall i.e. Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim
 Characterized by cone shaped trees with needle shaped leaves; provide softwood
 Trees found in single strand/variety- Pine, Fir, Spruce, Chir, Deodar - used to make paper, matchboxes &
matchsticks and Willow-cricket bat

Desert/Thorn- Xerophytes; sparse

 Found in areas with scanty rainfall (<50 cm/year) i.e. Rajasthan, Kutch, SW Punjab
 Characterized by long roots, thick fleshy stem with thick bark, spiny leaves- modifications to conserve water &
prevent loss of water by transpiration
 Trees found- Babul/Acacia-firewood, Khair-tannins, Date Palm, Cactus

Tidal/Littoral/Mangrove- thick, dense forest

 Found in coastal areas and river deltas e.g. Sundarbans in West Bengal
 Characterized by ability to survive in both fresh & salt water, breathing roots-Pneumatophores, stilt roots
 Trees found- Sundari, Rhizophora, Hintal- provide hardwood to make boats, furniture & houses

Need of Forest-

 Direct use- provide fruits, firewood, honey, timber, bamboo with employment & income to tribal people
 Indirect use- clean air, increase rainfall, prevent soil erosion, improve soil fertility, shelter wildlife

Causes of forest depletion-

 Recommended forest cover- 33%; Actual forest cover in India- 21%

 Rising population needing space for housing, agriculture & industrial raw material, practice of shifting agriculture

Forest conservation-

 Afforestation/Reafforestation; Silviculture-timber farming

 Van Mahotsava
 Social Forestry
 Chipko Andolan
 Classification of forest-Reserved/Protected/Village forest
Water Resources in India

 India has 16% of world’s surface area & population, but only 4% of world’s water resources
 Water essential for survival, agriculture-irrigation, industry, waste disposal, navigation-international trade

Need for irrigation in India-

 Seasonal rainfall- largely during monsoon season

 Variable rainfall- heavy in western coastal plains & scanty in western Rajasthan
 Need of different crops of water is different- rice plenty & millets lesser

Methods of irrigation- Rain water is most commonly used for irrigation in India

Well- shallow hole dug to extract ground water, dug in areas with soft ground & high water table

 Advantage- cheaper to dig & maintain, farmer constructs & operates independently
 Disadvantage- may run dry, requires manual labour to construct & to operate

Tube well- deeper hole dug to extract ground water

 Adv.- perennial, irrigates larger area

 Disadv.- costlier to construct & to operate, needs machines/electricity to dig & to extract water

Canal- as with well & tube well, common method of irrigation in North India i.e. Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar

 Adv.- cheapest source of irrigation for the farmer, irrigate large area
 Disadv.- costly to construct, require lots of land to construct, loss of water by evaporation
 Types-
 Inundation-have water only when the river is flooded, cheaper to construct & to operate
 Perennial-have water at all times, costlier to construct & to operate

Tank- common method of irrigation in South/peninsular India

 Adv.- rain water is stored in natural depressions, cheaper to construct

 Disadv.- run dry in summer season, use lots of land, loss of water by evaporation

Modern methods- save water- Sprinkler irrigation, Drip irrigation- costlier to install & to operate

Rainwater Harvesting- conserving rain water for future use

 Recharges ground water, prevents soil erosion, prevents loss of rain water
 Methods-
 Surface RWH- by building ponds, barrages & dams to regulate flowing water; common in rural areas
 Rooftop RWH- by collecting clean rain water on roof tops & channelizing it for storage in underground tanks or
sent directly to the ground water; common in urban areas
Transport in India- movement of goods & people for economic activity, provides employment

Modes of transport-

Roadways- connect rural & urban areas, provide link to rail & air hubs

 Advantages- widest network, cheapest to construct, door-to-door connectivity,

used according to one’s convenience
 Disadvantages- accident prone, maximum wear & tear-frequent repair & maintenance

Railways- 1st passenger rail in India between Bombay & Thane in 1853; 16 rail zones across India

 Adv.- bulk movement of freight & people inland, cheaper to use, comfortable to travel over long distances
 Disadv.- requirement of lot of land, costly to construct & operate, poor service in hilly/forest/desert regions

Airways- nationalised in 1953 (Air India), privatized in 1990s (Indigo, Spicejet, Goair)

 Adv.- quick/fast i.e. saves time, comfort/convenience, transport of perishable goods,

to provide relief in times of disasters
 Disadv.- costly to construct, to run & to use; connects fewer places

Waterways-

 Adv.- cheapest, bulk good transport, international trade

 Disadv.- slowest, available in coastal hubs only, ports require desilting/dredging

Other-

 Expressways/Highways- multi-lane paved all weather roads permitting safer & faster one way travel
 CPWD-Central Public Works Department- central department responsible for maintenance of highways
 NHAI-National Highways Authority of India- central authority responsible for construction and maintenance
of expressways/highways
 BRO-Border Roads Organization- central authority responsible for construction and maintenance of roads in
border areas permitting transport of troops and trade
 GQ-Golden Quadrilateral- expressways connecting Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata for
cheaper, faster, safer travel (similar is the NSEW corridor)
 Rail gauge- distance between two parallel rail tracks; can be-
 Broad gauge- width 1.676 m., most common in use in India
 Meter gauge- width 1 m., common in metro services
 Narrow gauge- width 0.762 m., use in toy trains in Kalka/Shimla, Darjeeling, Ooty, Matheran
 DFC-Dedicated Freight Corridor- rail tracks laid to carry goods/freight only;
will permit faster movement of both goods & passenger trains
 Eastern freight corridor from Ludhiana, Punjab to Dankuni, WB
 Western freight corridor from Dadri, UP to JNPT, Mumbai
 AAI-Airports Authority of India- central authority responsible for construction & maintenance of airports
 IWAI-Inland Waterways Authority of India- central authority responsible for construction & maintenance of
inland waterways (portions of rivers that are navigable by container ships) e.g. NW1-Ganges-Haldia to Prayagraj,
NW2-Brahmaputra-Dhubri to Sadiya (in Assam), NW4-Godavari/Krishna-Kakinada to Puduchery etc.
 Coastal States-Ports- Gujarat-Kandla, Jamnagar; Maharashtra-Mumbai, JNPT; Goa-Marmagao;
Karnataka-Mangalore; Kerala-Kochi; Tamil Nadu-Chennai, Ennore, Tuticorin;
Andhra Pradesh-Vishakhapatnam/Vizag; Odisha-Paradeep; West Bengal-Haldia
India Agriculture- agriculture provides income, employment, raw material for industries

Problems- small landholdings; poverty; traditional/old technology; poor value addition & marketing

Types-
Shifting Intensive Extensive Plantation
Size of field Small Small Large Large
Action/work Manual Manual Mechanised Manual
Farmer Poor Poor Rich Rich
Crops grown Food crops, single Food/Cash crops, multiple Food/Cash crops, single Cash crops, single
Purpose Subsistence Subsistence Sell to get cash Sell to get cash
Others Deforestation & Mixed farming includes e.g. wheat, cotton, Common crops are
soil erosion animal rearing for protein sugarcane tea, coffee, rubber,
& income supplement spices, fruits

Crop seasons-
 Kharif- monsoon season; sowing June, harvesting October/November; temp. >250C, rainfall >100 cm.; crop rice
 Rabi- winter; November-March/April; <200C, <100 cm.; wheat
 Zaid/Zayad- summer; April-May/June; >250C, <100 cm., irrigation required; summer fruits & vegetables

Crops-

Crops State Crop season Climate & soil Miscellaneous

Rice West Bengal, Tamil Kharif High temp. & heavy Cultivation- Transplantation
Nadu, Punjab, UP rainfall; stagnant water; & Japanese methods
alluvial loamy soil
Wheat Punjab, Haryana, UP Rabi Winter crop with rising Sowing by Broadcasting or
temp. near harvest; Drilling; Harvesting-
alluvial loamy soil Thrashing-Winnowing
Maize/Corn Karnataka, AP, Late kharif Well drained soil, no frost Provides corn starch &
Maharashtra fodder
Millets UP, MP, Rajasthan, Kharif Kharif crops requiring Coarse cereals rich in fiber;
Telangana, AP, TN lesser rainfall Jowar, Bajra, Ragi
Pulses UP, MP, Bihar T.U.M-Kharif Kharif or Rabi crops Leguminous crops,
Gra.M.Pea-Rabi rich in protein
Oilseeds Telangana, AP, MP, Mustard-Rabi, Mustard in North, Leguminous crops; oilcake
Maharashtra, UP Others-Kharif Soyabean & Groundnut in used in animal feed; oil used
West (Non-edible- Castor for cooking & in making
& Linseed) paint/varnish
Sugarcane UP, Bihar, Maharashtra Kharif Doesn’t like frost hence Sowing by Rattoon or Sett
cultivation shifting to method
South
Cotton Gujarat, Maharashtra Kharif No frost or stagnant water Ginning
Jute WB, Assam, Odisha Kharif Replenished alluvial soil Retting
Tea WB, Assam, Nilgiris - No stagnant water, grown Pruning, Flush, Processing-
in hills CTC-Crush,Tear,Curl
Coffee Karnataka - No stagnant water, Berries fermented &
requires shade hence trees roasted; sowing by cloning
grown in plantation or transplantation
Rubber Kerala - - Tapping , Vulcanization
Minerals & Energy- raw materials for any industry

Classification- Minerals-Metallic/Non-metallic; Energy sources-Conventional/Renewable

Mineral Mined in Uses Miscellaneous

Iron ore Mayurbhanj & Koraput, Odisha;
Kudremukh & Bababudan hills,
Karnataka; Goa; Bailadila & Dalli-
Rajhara, Chattisgarh; Singhbhum,
Jharkhand
Manganese Odisha, Karnataka, MP
Bauxite (Aluminium) Odisha, Jharkhand, MP
Copper MP-Balaghat, Rajasthan-Khetri,
Karnataka
Coal Jharkhand-Jharia, Odisha-Talcher,
WB-Ranuganj, MP-Singrauli,
Chattisgarh-Korba, TN-Neyveli
Petroleum Onshore-Rajasthan-Barmer, Assam-
Digboi, Gujarat-Ankleshwar
Offshore-Maharashtra-Bombay
High & Bassein, Gujarat-Aliabet
Making steel-infrastructure
Making steel, paint, glass
Wires, utensils, cans,
aircrafts/cars, foil
Wires, utensils, electronics
Generate electricity
Refined to get fuels-petrol,
diesel, kerosene, ATF and
PVC, PU, polystyrene,
polyethylene/propylene
Reducing iron content-
Magnetite-Karnataka,
Haematite-Odisha,
Lemonite, Siderite
-
-
-
Reducing Carbon content-
Anthracite-J & K;
Bituminous-commonest;
Lignite-TN,Rajasthan; Peat
Refineries in Mathura,
Mumbai, Jamnagar,
Chennai, Bongaigaon

Energy sources-

 Conventional- Coal- non-renewable/exhaustible fossil fuels; cheap; pollution-air, soil, water;

greenhouse gas emission resulting in global warming; large stores in India, produces 55% electricity in India
 Non-conventional- Solar-10%, Wind-10%, Biomass-2.7%, Nuclear-1.8%, Tidal, Geothermal- less pollution;
mostly renewable; gradually becoming cheaper; power plants require large area to set up

Problems-

 Conventional- polluting, exhaustible

 Non-conventional- Solar-intensity of sunlight, costly panels; Wind-speed, open spaces/coastal areas;
Biomass (human, animal, agricultural waste)-pollution; Nuclear-available reserves of Uranium/Plutonium,
potential accidents-Three mile, Chernobyl, Fukushima & waste disposal

Multipurpose River Projects-

 Generate electricity-13.5% hydroelectricity in India, provide water for irrigation & human consumption, control
floods & soil erosion, used for fishing/pisciculture & tourism
 Examples- Bhakra Nangal-Sutlej, Hirakud-Mahanadi, Sardar Sarovar-Narmada, Nagarjunsagar-Krishna
Industry- employment, use of natural & agricultural raw material for value addition, income

Factors affecting location of Industry- Manpower, (Raw) Material, Money/Capital, Market

Problems- Obsolete machinery/technology, Scale, Ready availability of raw material, Competition-local & global

Classification, based on-

 Raw material used- Agro based-Sugar; Mineral based-Steel; Animal based-Woolen; Forest based-Paper
 Investment made- Large scale-steel; Medium scale-cycle; Small scale-bakery
 Finished product- Heavy-Aircraft/Truck production, Light-Bicycle/Helmet/Electronics production
 Ownership- Public (Government) sector-NTPC/ONGC/SAIL; Private sector-Reliance/Tata Steel;
Joint sector-road construction; Cooperative-AMUL

Industry Location Why? Miscellaneous

Woolen textile Ludhiana, J&K
Cotton textile Mumbai, Surat, Tirupur
Silk textile Mysore, Varanasi, Kanchipuram
Sugar UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
TN
Iron & Steel In/around Chota Nagpur
plateau-Durgapur-UK, Bhilai &
Bokaro-Russia, Rourkela-
Germany (all Public sector)
Tata steel, Jamshedpur (oldest,
private sector)
Vishakhapatnam-coastal
Petrochemical Jamnagar-Gujarat,
Haldia-WB (located close to
refineries)
Electronics Bengaluru-Silicon Valley of
India, NOIDA, Hyderabad
Automobile Cars/Motorcycles- Gurugram-
Haryana, Pune-Maharashtra,
Chennai-TN; Bicycles- Ludhiana
Tractor- Faridabad-Haryana
Cold climate generating
demand, Raw material,
Skilled labour
Raw material-cotton,
Money, Market-hot &
humid climate
Raw material, Skilled
labour, Market
Sugarcane grown,
Demand/market
Availability of iron ore, coal
& water; Unskilled labour;
Market-local & global
Crude imported,
Market/demand for
products
Skilled labour,
Developed infrastructure,
Proper connectivity,
Suitable climate
Rail engines- Chitaranjan-
WB, Perambur-TN,
Varanasi-UP
-
-
Silk types-Mulberry, Muga, Tassar,
Eri; Karnataka largest producer of
silk (other-Bihar, Assam, WB, J&K)
Shifting South- longer growing &
crushing season, cooperative
system
By-products- Bagassae, Molasses,
Press mud
Mini steel plants- smaller area, less
capital required, use scrap iron &
electricity, produce speciality steel,
located near markets
Products-
Polyethylene/polypropylene-
polyester, Polyurethane/PU-soles,
PVC-pipes, Polystyrene-packaging
Uses- telecom, defence, space,
banking, media, tourism/transport,
education
Ship- Goa, Kochi, Vizag, Kolkata
Aeroplanes- Bengaluru, Nasik,
Kanpur
Waste management-

Sources- Domestic, Municipal, Agriculture, Industry, Hospitals (Biomedical waste)

Classification-

 Nature- Solid-garbage, Liquid-sewage, Gas-smoke

 Biodegradable or Non-biodegradable; Recyclable or Non-recyclable

Effects-

 Spoils landscape- heaps of garbage, stench, breeding insects

 Pollution- air, water, soil
 Global warming- gradual rise in temperature of Earth’s atmosphere due to increasing greenhouse gases like
Carbon dioxide & Methane, resulting in climatic changes, melting of glaciers, rising sea levels
 Acid rain- oxides of sulphur & nitrogen mixing with humidity in the atmosphere, producing sulphuric & nitric
acids that come down on Earth with rain, damaging plants & human skin
 Smog- thick mixture of smoke & fog, increasing respiratory diseases & reducing visibility for traffic
 Eutrophication- excessive algal growth in water bodies due to drainage of agricultural chemicals,
harming aquatic life by decreasing sunlight & dissolved oxygen
 Biomagnification- accumulation of pollutants along the food chain, harming 30/20 consumers
 Oil spill- of petroleum following accident, damaging aquatic birds & fishes

Solution-

 Solid waste- segregation, closed dumping, composting, recycling

 Liquid waste- 3 stage treatment (physical, chemical, biological) to get clean potable water
 Smoke- air scrubber, electrostatic precipitator, catalytic converter
 Biomedical waste- incineration/burning
 Nuclear waste- dumping deep in land/ocean in lead containers to prevent spillage & irradiation
 3 Rs-
 Reduce- don’t waste food, think before shopping
 Reuse- old books & clothes, plastic bags
 Recycle- paper, plastic, glass, metal

Unsolved problems-

 Plastic waste
 Electronic or e-waste