Rough Draft Vallejos

An Architectural Strategy for Virtual Reality Art Exhibitions 2
Abstract There are spatial characteristics of the physical museum architectural

experience that prime the visitor for the experience of art. Through
empathy, architectural elements activate the brain prior to the experience
with art. Because of this, architecture is necessary in the experience of art
both physically and virtually. It is not the same to view artwork in a two-
dimensional slideshow than viewing art in a three-dimensional space.
In museums, exhibition designers adapt the artworks to the existing
architecture, virtual reality exhibitions could instead adapt the architecture
to the art. The work explores the nine components of architectural quality
laid out by Peter Zumthor in the lecture ‘Atmospheres’ in relationship with
the programmatic spaces that are necessary in a virtual reality museum
scenario, and the artworks to be displayed in the exhibition spaces. This
thesis project proposes a design for a virtual reality museum exhibit for a
collection of artworks from the Manhattan Kansas Beach Museum of art
from an nested perspective of architecture.
3 An Architectural Strategy for Virtual Reality Art Exhibitions
Sincere Gratitude to Prof. Robert Condia, Linda Duke, and Prof. Kutay Guler. (so far)
Acknowledgements
Abstract 01
Contents Aknowledgments 03
Contents 04
List of Figures 06
Executive Summary 08
1.0 Introduction 14
2.0 Site Analysis 23
3.0 Strategy 36
4.0 Space List 72
5.0 Precedents 74
6.0 Bibliography 82
7.0 Appendix 85
List of Figures  Figure 1. United States. Map of the Midwest. P. 24

“Midwest | History, States, Map, & Facts,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed
December 11, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/place/Middle-West.
 Figure 2. The State of Kansas. P. 25
“Kansas | Flag, Facts, Maps, & Points of Interest,” Encyclopedia Britannica,
accessed December 11, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/place/Kansas.
 Figure 3. The Contours of the State of Kansas. P. 26
“Kansas | Flag, Facts, Maps, & Points of Interest,” Encyclopedia Britannica,
accessed December 11, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/place/Kansas.
 Figure 4. The Flit Hills Region. P. 26
 Figure 5.Terry Evans Prairie Images of Ground + Sky. P.27
 Figure 6.Kansas. Riley Country. The City of Manhattan. P. 27
“Manhattan, Kansas,” in Wikipedia, November 28, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?title=Manhattan,_Kansas&oldid=991147133.
 Figure 7.Manhattan Climate Graph. U.S. Climate Data. P. 28
“Weather Averages Manhattan, Kansas,” accessed December 11, 2020, https://
www.usclimatedata.com/climate/manhattan/kansas/united-states/usks0358.
 Figure 8.Manhattan Kansas Zoning. P. 28
“Manhattan Zoning Map | Manhattan, KS - Official Website,” City of Manhattan
Kansas, accessed December 11, 2020, https://cityofmhk.com/644/Manhattan-
Zoning-Map.
 Figure 9.Konza Prairie Location in relationship with Manhattan KS. P. 29
“Locations and Habitats | KPBS | Kansas State University,” Konza Prairie Biological
Station, accessed December 11, 2020, https://kpbs.konza.k-state.edu/location/.
 Figure 10. Konza Prairie Tall-grass. P. 30
“Mission | KPBS | Kansas State University,” Konza Prairie Biological Station,
accessed December 11, 2020, https://kpbs.konza.k-state.edu/mission.html.
 Figure 11.Kansas State University . Anderson Hall. P. 31
“K-State Campus Map: Anderson Hall,” Kansas State University, accessed
December 11, 2020, https://www.k-state.edu/maps/buildings/A/.
 Figure 12.The Beach Musum at Kansas State University. P. 32

“| Kansas State University | News and Communications Services,” Beach
Museum of Art offers online interactive tools for fun and thought-provoking art
experiences, accessed December 11, 2020, https://www.k-state.edu/media/
newsreleases/2020-07/beach-interactive-tools7720.html.
 Figure 13. Site Analysis Map of areas surrounding the Beach museum. P. 33
By Author
 Figure 14. The Meadow at Kansas State University. P. 34
“The Meadow,” Kansas State University, accessed December 11, 2020, https://
blogs.k-state.edu/meadow/.
 Figure 15. Preliminary sketch of Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier. P. 38
By Author
 Figure 16. Steel Stair intervention in Castelvecchio , Verona, Italy. Carlo
Scarpa. P. 39
By Author
 Figure 17. Quiet passage from street into living spaces. Orvieto, Italy. P. 40
By Author
 Figure 18. Maxii Museum of art. Rome, Italy. Zaha Hadid. P. 41
By Author
 Figure 19. Sketch of Michael Burt Studio painting in Asunción, Paraguay.
Michael Burt. P. 42
By Author
 Figure 20.Sketch of hallway leading to atrium in the Royal Palace of Caserta,
Italy. P. 43
 Figure 21. Sketch of window overlooking bridge in Castelvecchio , Verona,
Italy. Carlo Scarpa. P. 44
By Author
 Figure 22. Floating room. Brion Tomb, San Vito d’Altivole near Treviso, Italy.
Carlo Scarpa. P. 45
By Author
 Figure 23. Daylight passing through the Oculus and hitting the dome in The
Pantheon. Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. P. 46
By Author
 Figure 24. Vitruvian man meets VR. P.50
Collage By Author.
 Figure 25. Ergonomics of the virtual. P. 51
Roberto Antonio Montaño Murillo, “Erg-O: Ergonomic Optimization of Immersive
Virtual Environments,” October 2017, 13.
 Figure 26. Ergonomics of the virtual. P.51
 Figure 27. Ergonomics of the virtual. P. 51
 Figure 28. Red Prairie With Bison. P. 53
“Label List with Dimensions” (Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, November 30,
2020).
 Figure 29. Gordon Parks at Konza Prairie. P. 54
2020).
 Figure 30.Mrs. Jefferson. P. 55

2020).
 Figure 31.Post. P. 56
2020).
 Figure 32.Title unknown (bowl). P. 57
2020).
 Figure 33.To Love Madrid. P. 58
2020).
 Figure 34.Title unknown (dancer). P. 59
2020).
 Figure 35.Soft Landing. P. 60
2020).
 Figure 36. Pinwheel of Growth and Development. P. 62
2020).
 Figure 37. Title unknown (tower with figure). P. 63
2020).
 Figure 38. Big Bluestem (andropogon gerardi). P. 65
2020).
 Figure 39. Western Wheatgrass (Kernza). P. 66
2020).
 Figure 40. Spring: Evolving Fishes. P. 67
2020).
 Figure 41. Energy. P.68
2020).
 Figure 42. Emerging Man. P. 69
2020).
 Figure 43. The Vitruvian men experience of the virtual reality. P. 72
2020).
 Figure 44. Kaufmaan dessert House Floor plan. [Placeholder for sketch and
watercolor study] . P. 74
Karina Duque, “Clásicos de Arquitectura: Casa Kaufmann / Richard Neutra,”
Plataforma Arquitectura, October 1, 2014, https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/
cl/627978/clasicos-de-arquitectura-casa-kaufmann-richard-neutra.
 Figure 45. Kaufmaan dessert House mountain view [Placeholder for sketch
and watercolor study]. P. 74

 Figure 47. Kaufmaan dessert House mountain view [Placeholder for sketch
and watercolor study]. P. 75
 Figure 48. Bruder Klaus Field Chapel / Peter Zumthor plan and sections
[Placeholder for sketch and watercolor study]. P. 76
“Bruder Klaus Field Chapel / Peter Zumthor plan,” Pinterest, accessed December 11,
2020, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/496029346430891269/.
 Figure 49. Bruder Klaus Field Chapel - Peter Zumthor inside the Chapel
Ariana Zilliacus, “Peter Zumthor’s Bruder Klaus Field Chapel Through the Lens of
Aldo Amoretti | ArchDaily,” accessed December 11, 2020, https://www.archdaily.
com/798340/peter-zumthors-bruder-klaus-field-chapel-through-the-lens-of-
aldo-amoretti.
 Figure 50. Bruder Klaus Field Chapel - Peter Zumthor inside the Chapel
Tina Euichin, “Bruder Klaus Field Chapel (Peter Zumthor, 2007),” Project Artist X
(blog), July 17, 2018, http://projectartistx.com/bruder-klaus-field-chapel-peter-
zumthor-2007/.
 Figure 51.John Hejduk - Wall House 2 [Placeholder for sketch and
watercolor study]. P. 79
Megan Sveiven, “AD Classics: Wall House 2 / John Hejduk, Thomas Muller/van
Raimann Architekten & Otonomo Architecten,” ArchDaily, February 6, 2012, https://
www.archdaily.com/205541/ad-classics-wall-house-2-john-hejduk.
 Figure 52.John Hejduk - Wall House 2 [Placeholder for sketch and
watercolor study]. P. 80
“John Hejduk. Wall House 2 (A. E. Bye House) Project, Ridgefield, Connecticut
(Combined elevation and plan). 1973 | MoMA,” The Museum of Modern Art,
accessed December 11, 2020, https://www.moma.org/collection/works/812.
“The quest for an aesthetics of nature as an aesthetic theory of nature

requires that we reformulate the theme of aesthetics as such. The new
resulting aesthetics is concerned with the relation between environmental
qualities and human states. This “and”, this in-between, by means of which
environmental qualities and human states are related, is atmosphere.”
Gernot Böhme
An An Architectural Strategy for Virtual Reality Art Exhibitions
Maria Laura Vallejos Barriocanal
Executive Summary Art museums are incorporating new technologies for the display and
visualization of art. Virtual Reality offers promising resources for exploring
the spatial-architectural experience with art. The added value of the virtual
experience is related to affordances that are not possible in physical
museums. This thesis project proposes a design for a virtual reality museum
exhibit for a collection of artworks from the Manhattan Kansas Beach
Museum of art from an embodied perspective of architecture.
In architecture, efforts for incorporating Virtual Reality today lean towards

architectural visualization for a more accurate feedback from project
stakeholders. Amidst the pandemic, some effort has been directed toward
providing virtual experiences that more closely mimic the architectural cues
that are important in our daily activities. Space Popular is an architectural
firm that has designed virtual spaces for galleries, installations, and more
recently, for the architectural conference “Punto de Inflexion,” attempting to
more closely mimics real-world conference interactions. This effort would be
of great significance for museums like the Marianne Beach museum of Art
that, eager to continue their purpose of making art available to their public,
have created two dimensional on-line exhibitions with limited capacity for an
embodied experience of art. There are spatial characteristics of the physical
museum architectural experience that prime the visitor for the experience
with art. Through empathy, these characteristics like scale, light, entry, and
boundary activate the brain prior to the experience with art. Because of
Affordances: property of design this, architecture is necessary in the experience of art both physically and
allows certain experience. virtually. It is not the same to view artwork in a two-dimensional slideshow
than viewing art in a three-dimensional space.
In museums, art is nested within architecture in turn is nested withing

Embodied: of the body within
larger scales. Virtual Reality experiences also happen withing nested
relationships of itself and its place. realities that come before the immersive experience but are present to a
certain extend during the virtual experience. Virtual Reality allows for an
architectural experience that is born from the interpretation of the artwork.
Exhibition designers adapt the artworks to the existing architecture, virtual
Nested: perceive extension of the reality exhibitions could instead adapt the architecture to the art. Exhibition
human body into larger scales
designers explore the necessary contrast, temperature, color, and quantity
of lighting an ambiance needs to ensure the best experience for the
museum visitor. Virtual reality exhibitions could provide lighting qualities
different from the ones in physical gallery spaces. Architecture operates
beyond the material qualities of space. In other to incorporate atmospheric
Atmosphere: non-material qualities of architecture into virtual reality the work explores the nine
multisensory quality of a space.
components of architectural quality laid out by Peter Zumthor in the lecture
‘Atmospheres’. These atmospheric qualities are explored in relationship with
the programmatic spaces that are necessary in a virtual reality museum
scenario. Architects like Peter Zumthor, Carlo Scarpa, Richard Neutra,
and John Hejduk instill ways of thinking about space that still inspire
architecture today. The work explores how the qualities they were able to
achieve in the physical world can be translated to the virtual reality realm for
the display of art.
Museums have the important role of preservation of our culture’s heritage.

The task of architecture is to create the atmosphere and mood of museum
spaces for the experience with art. Architects today are challenged to
provide multisensorial experiences in the physical museums but also in
the virtual museums. Virtual Reality is a promising resource to create
architectural propositions for the display of art beyond physical constrains.
Spaces List 1.0 Transition

2.0 Entry
3.0 Threshold
4.0 Circulation
5.0 Gallery
5.1 Type 1
5.2 Type 2
5.3 Type 3
5.4 Type 4
6.0 Exit
7.0 Site 1
8.0 Site 2
1.0 Introduction Virtual Reality has experience the ultimate boom as more academic and
professional fields seek the benefits of incorporating this visualization
techniques for studies and other applications. According to Portman et.
all there is a wide variety of academic papers in multiple fields which
confirms the widespread of the Virtual Reality.1 Art museums is one field
that is incorporating new technologies for the display and visualization
of art. Virtual Reality offers promising resources for exploring the
spatial-architectural experience with art incorporating the added value
of affordances that are not possible in physical museums. However,
architecture has not caught up with the visualization expertise imparted bin
some Virtual Reality games.2
1 Portman, M.E., Natapov, A., and Fisher-Gewirtzman, D. (2015). To go where no man has gone
before: Virtual reality in architecture, landscape architecture and environmental planning. Computers,
Environment and Urban Systems 54, pp. 376-384
1.1 The task of Virtual Reality environments simulate three-dimensional space. Therefore,
these experiences are spatial. Architects expertise resides in the spatial
architecture experience because it is the task of architecture to thrive beyond the
material qualities of space. Neurosciences have opened the doors for
understanding more broadly how the mind perceives architecture. Informed
by such advances in the biological sciences the task of architecture has
been expanded and revisited by architects and neuroscientists. There is
increasing interest in redirecting efforts towards definitions of the tasks
of architecture that include the knowledge of how the body and mind
experiences of architecture. Surprisingly as it may seem, the answer to how
the body experiences architecture is not new, it has just been abandoned.3
The literature on the neurosciences and architecture suggest that the task
of architecture involves not only the material qualities of space, nor is solely
visual. The body and mind experience material architecture as much as the
intangible atmosphere of the space perceived by all the senses. The task
of architecture is “to infuse life,”4 and to enact and transform meaning in a
qualitative experience.5 The task of architecture extends beyond material
qualities into mental and existential aspects of life to expand our mental and
functional capacities, it is to mediate between the body and the universe, to
strengthen our sense or the real, and liberate our imagination.6 The research
agrees that the task of architecture is both physical and metaphysical.
The realm of virtual reality operates in imagined space where the user can
experience by perceived three dimensions. According to the research above,
this is part of the task of architecture. Therefore, the job of an architect in
the virtual reality scenario is to infuse it with life, demonstrate the magic of
the real, to operate in one of the realms of architecture.
1.2 Intangible There are spatial characteristics of the physical museum architectural
experience that prime the visitor for the experience with art. These
Architecture characteristics are present in material forms, and atmospheric qualities of
the space. The action of design evokes a reaction in the people. Architecture
can evoke emotional and empathic reactions.
The spatial characteristics of the architectural experience set the emotion
for the experience of art. Harry Mallgrave argues that present day research
in cognitive sciences show a clear relationship between the environment
and our cognitive and organic development.7 The response to space, says
3 Pallasmaa, Juhani. “Body, Mind, and Imagination: The Mental Essence of Architecture.”
Essay. In Mind in Architecture, edited by Sarah Robinson and Juhani Pallasmaa, 51–74. MIT Press,
2017.
4 Mallgrave, H.F., (2015) “Know Thyself: Or What Designers Can Learn From The Contemporary
Biological Sciences,” in Robinson and Pallasmaa, ed. Mind in architecture (pp. 09-31). Cambridge: The
MIT Press.
5 Jonhson, Mark. “The Embodied Meaning of Architecture” Chapter. In Mind in Architecture
Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design, edited by Sarah Robinson and Juhani
Pallasmaa, 33–50. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 2015.
6 Pallasmaa, Juhani. “Body, Mind, and Imagination: The Mental Essence of Architecture.”
Essay. In Mind in Architecture, edited by Sarah Robinson and Juhani Pallasmaa, 51–74. MIT Press,
2017.
7 Harry Mallgrave, “Know Thyself: Or What Designers Can Learn From The Contemporary
Biological Sciences,” in Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design, ed.
Mallgrave, is emotional, immediate, and multisensorial. Emotional responses

are prior to the development of feelings. Emotions can condition our reaction
to certain stimuli and set the tone for what and how we feel. His research
implies great responsibility for Virtual Reality museum design. Architecture
gives way to emotional responses. This means that the “wow” effect can
be designed for, but it must be in balance with the environment. Even when
utopian fantasies might be attainable in Virtual Reality, architecture must
provide the right emotional atmosphere for the experience with art. It must
be loud enough to awaken our senses, while quiet enough not to distract
from the experience of art.
Another intangible aspect of the architectural experience is empathy.
Through empathy, architectural characteristics activate the brain prior to
the experience with art. In the words of Prof. Mallgrave, “people primarily
evaluate their ecological environments through the ensemble of stimuli
generated by the materials selected, spatial relations, formal proportions,
scale, patterns, rhythms, tactile values, and creative intentions—not to
mention those more arcane matters of comfort, convenience, craftsmanship,
presence, warmth, and beauty.”8 Over time, architecture becomes a system
of elements that inform a pattern of behavior. For the experience of art then,
it is necessary to manipulate the ensemble of stimuli in the spaces where the
art is placed.
The intangible forces that awaken the mind and the body are essential for
a memorable experience of art. The experience of art in relationship to
architecture is emotional and empathic.
1.3 Nested The perception of our bodies stretches far beyond the boundaries of our skin
and encompass much larger scales. Sara Robinson argues that we cannot
Perspective consider our bodies as independent entities.9 Multiple perspectives including
physics and neurosciences have incorporated a lose boundaries between
the body and its environment. Externally, the ‘body schema’ incorporates the
relationship of the body and its immediate surrounding. The peri-personal
space refers to the area surrounding the body and extra-personal space
refers to the area beyond peri-personal space. The body is nested in the
notions of ‘body schema,’ peri-personal and extra-personal. Boundaries
between one are and the other are not set on stone but rather loosely
defined within the notion of our surroundings. The brain and body apprehend
multisensory information from the perception of objects in these areas. The
dynamic multisensorial process activates multiple areas of the brain and
body.
Human bodies have the ability of spatial cognition and spatial mapping
which in turn influences our behavior. Spatial mapping capacities are unique
and related to our experiences. In “Nested Bodies,” Sarah Robinson lays
out the links between the ‘body’ (as comprising of the physical, mental,
Sarah Robinson and Juhani Pallasmaa (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2017), pp. 9-31.
8 Harry Mallgrave, “Know Thyself: Or What Designers Can Learn From The Contemporary
Biological Sciences,” in Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design, ed.
Sarah Robinson and Juhani Pallasmaa (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2017), pp. 9-31.
9 Sarah Robinson, “Nested Bodies,” pg. 137-159, in Mind in Architecture.
emotional, and social body) and our perceptual systems (consisting in five
modes of perception: externally oriented attention, the auditory system,
the haptic system, the tasting-smelling system, and the visual system). By
doing so, the author considers that we get a broader understanding for the
interaction that occurs between the body and architecture. Her research
implies that architecture is a multisensorial experience. The body absorbs
multisensorial information from the architecture through the perceptual
systems and this information has an impact in the physical, mental,
emotional, and social body. Because of this, architecture is necessary in
the experience of art both physically and virtually. It is not the same to
view artwork in a two-dimensional slideshow than viewing art in a three-
dimensional space.
Architects shape space, and in doing so they shape emotion, and behavior.
The crossover of the senses and the bodies in an embodied approach to
architecture can inform the design decisions. This has implications in the
perception of the objects in our surroundings. In museums, this means
that the spaces where art is nested will influence the perception of the
objects. In other words, people can perceive art in differently according to
the space where the art is. The experience of art in museums is spatial and
multisensorial.
In museums, art is nested within architecture, architecture in turn is nested
withing larger scales. Even though the experience of Virtual Reality is not
anchored to a particular location the experience happens somewhere
in physical space as much as it does in Virtual Space. Virtual reality
experiences also happen withing nested realities that come before the
immersive experience but are present to a certain extend during the virtual
experience in the form of affordances.
In “Getting out of our Heads,” Alva Noë also argues for a new perspective
for understanding presence and consciousness. He believes that presence
and consciousness cannot be constricted to the brain as an isolated entity
that only absorbs and processes focused vision and retinal correlations.10
Instead, he proposes to analyze consciousness and presence in a brain-
body-world-culture dynamic. He argues that humans can experience more
than can be seen with focal vision. Humans are aware of the front and back
of objects while looking at them from any of each side. What escapes the
scope of the eye can still be perceived in a relationship of visual availability.
He argues that this new method of looking at presence includes not
only what we see, but what is available for us to see by means of motor
adjustments. Presence is possible before the activity of seeing trough
visualization and mental imagery. In other words, what we see is linked with
what we cannot see by the actions that allow visualization. Awareness of the
conscious reach of our senses is a skill that can further our knowledge of the
world. The experience of the world is not passive; it requires an active use of
our skills to engage with the world around us.
The research of Robinson and Noë suggest that even visual experiences
can contain multisensorial information. For Virtual Reality experiences
10 Alva Noë (2013, January) “Getting out of our Heads,” [Video file] Retrieved from: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xhk9MkTkSPA . Accessed September 7, 2020.
this implies that the architecture will have an impact in the experience of
art because architecture requires active engagement of our bodies. The
experience of bidimensional virtual exhibitions is the other hand is passive.
Virtual Reality environments present an active immersive experience where
the user has more opportunities for motor adjustment that will change their
perspective and their experience of the art. This research also implies that
the physical world is also present to a certain extent in the experience of
virtual reality.
The nested perspective or architecture offers a framework for understanding
the nested condition of the collection of artworks in t provided by the beach
museum. The relationship between the artist and the environment is further
understood by the research developed by both Robinson and Noe. The
human interdependence with the environment provides the framework for
the Site Analysis of this thesis project. The artwork is understood from the
larger scales that impact and form the perspective of the artists.
The Beach Musuem of art is located in the Kansas State University, in the
city of Manhattan, The State of Kansas, the Midwest and the United States.
The influences particular to each of these scales are studied in the Site
Analysis portion of the thesis.
1.4 Visual technologies Architects are known for incorporating new technologies for architectural
visualization in a long historical quest to present the atmosphere of an
architectural design to project stakeholders. Because of this, architects
embraced the virtual environments for presenting design concepts, and
it has empowered designers to explore design freely.11 Many efforts for
incorporating Virtual Reality in architecture lean towards architectural
visualization for a more accurate feedback from clients.
Virtual reality has only recently entered the world of architecture. Even
though the beginning of Virtual Reality can be traced to 1935 with the
invention of the “Pygmalion spectacles” by Stanley G. Weinbaum according
to Anisha Sankar. 12 In her thesis work Design Architecture in Virtual Reality,
Sankar addresses the efficacy of virtual reality technology for architectural
practices. Her thesis focuses the software and design characteristic for
virtual reality experiences of architectural projects. Sankar argues that
the Virtual reality is an appropriate technology for attaining user feedback
and promote design iterations. Her research also suggests a that virtual
design experiences could in turn start informing design decisions in the
physical world. Amidst the pandemic, some effort has been directed toward
providing virtual experiences that more closely mimic the architectural
cues of psychological and physiological importance. An architecture firm
that interested in the social aspects of spaces is Space Popular.13 The firm
Environment and Urban Systems 54, pp. 376-384.
12 Anisha Sankar, “Design Architecture in Virtual Reality” (Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, University
of Waterloo, 2019), https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/14751.
13 Marcus Fairs, “Space Popular Designs World’s First Virtual Architecture Conference,” Dezeen,
November 3, 2020, https://www.dezeen.com/2020/11/03/space-popular-worlds-first-virtual-
architecture-conference/.
designed a Virtual Reality platform for the “Punto de Inflexión” conference

that was planned to happen in Barcelona this year but was cancelled due
to the pandemic for Covid-19. The firm was looking for a model that gave
place to architectural features like ‘entry’ and ‘room’ which are not possible
in virtual conference platforms available. The firm argues that the design of
the virtual space makes the interactions between participants more natural
than in the virtual conference setting. Other architectural elements included
amphitheaters for the visualization of conference speakers, circulation
routes, and facades that reference the architectural typology of Barcelona.
They focus also on the sense of arrival, which they claim is lost in the virtual
meeting setting where you click a link, and you are in immediately. According
to the designers’ sound was indispensable for orienting the participants.
Simple navigation tools were essential to the success of the conference as
people have different levels of technology expertise.
Punto de inflexion represents a good example of the use of architectural
cues for Virtual Reality experiences. As the need for Virtual platforms
for interaction and visualization arises, architecture must find its way
into virtual experiences for making these experiences more dynamic. In
the case of museums, it is important to emphasize that the experience
should not extract the value of the aesthetic experience of art or direct the
interest towards the virtual architectural proposal instead of the art piece.
Architecture in virtual reality experiences must assume a background
character only to emphasize the experience of art under new light.
Harry Mallgrave suggest that in our intrinsic interdependence with our
environment, novelty gives way to pleasure “especially when it informs
us with a new perspective.” Virtual Reality offer a new medium for the
experience of art and architecture that has the potential for creating new
perspectives for art experiences.
1.5 Atmospheres The study of atmospheres has significant implications for architecture of
any kind (physical, virtual). But the term ‘atmospheres’ escapes definition
specificity within the architectural scene. Peter Zumthor decomposed
architectural atmospheres in 9 components and 3 appendixes.14 Elisabetta
Canepa et. all. found that the wide range of definitions for atmospheres in
relation to architecture specifically, at minimum concedes eleven categories
of sense.15 Torino Griffero also addresses the qualities of the term in the
form of atmospheric affordances, but he also refers to the struggle of
defining what atmosphere is.16 Understanding what atmosphere is might
reside more in what it is not than in what it is. Atmosphere is a non-material
quality of space.
14 Zumthor, Peter. Atmospheres: Architectural Environments, Surrounding Objects. Basel:

Birkhäuser, 2006.
15 Canepa, Elisabetta, et al. “Atmospheres: Feeling Architecture by Emotions.” Ambiances.
Environnement Sensible, Architecture Et Espace Urbain, Ambiances Architectures Urbanités, 20 Dec.
2019,
journals.openedition.org/ambiances/2907.
16 Griffero, Torino. “Architectural Affordances: The Atmospheric Authority of Spaces.” Chapter.
In Architecture and
Atmosphere, edited by Philip Tidwell, 14–40. Espoo, Finland: Tapio Wirkkala-Rut Bryk
Foundation, 2014.
Peter Zumthors Atmospheres present an ideal scenario to prove the success

of architectural proposals in Virtual Reality. The nine components include
the body of architecture, material compatibility, the sound of space, the
temperature of space, surrounding objects, between composure and
seduction, the tension between interior and exterior, levels of intimacy,
and the light on things. The appendixes are architecture as surroundings,
coherence, and the beautiful form. These qualities provide a good framework
for attempting to incorporate atmospheric quality of architecture in virtual
reality experiences.
Virtual Reality has been used for neurological studies involving the study
of architectural atmosphere in relationship to architecture. Elisabetta
Canepa et all developed a framework for defining architectural atmosphere
within neuroscientific background. 17 Neurosciences provide a biological
perspective on how humans perceive atmosphere and adapt to physical
space continuously. Mirror neurons allow humans to store multisensorial
interactions with observed objects and actions performed by other subjects.
This means that humans somewhat practice actions in the brain through
observation. This is why mirror neurons are thought to be the neurons
of empathy, the research hypothesis is that there is correlation between
people’s empathy for animated subjects, and empathy with inanimate matter
(e.g. architecture). Understanding this relationship is of great significance
because it would be proof that the architecture can evoke sensorimotor
reactions. The authors used virtual reality in a residential corridor-like
space. They design 21 different set-ups for the experience divided into 5
categories: varying the space’s floor plan, section, horizontal and vertical
surfaces, and light condition, and 4 subcategories of variations within those.
The participants described the immediate response to the presented spaces
in terms of arousal and appeal. The research and experimentation confirm a
relationship between the atmospheric qualities of the space and empathy.
An immersive virtual reality experience of museum architecture differs from
other virtual experiences in the use of spatial characteristics necessary for
the experience of art.
Artworks in museums are purposely display in specific arrangement

1.6 Exhibition Design designed by exhibition designers to tell a story and evoke meaning.
Understanding the exhibition design process is essential to manipulate
this scale of museum design. Exhibition design is a multidisciplinary field
that includes design for multiple exhibition types. In the second chapter of
Simulating Visitor Behavior Kutay Guler addresses the exhibition design
process.18 Guler says exhibition design is the organization of exhibit
elements and its environment to tell a story, share an idea, or introduce a
brand. The visitor and the experience are the heart of exhibition design.
Guler addresses the multirange of the exhibition designer responsibilities,
including expertise from various fields. The exhibition designer is like a
“film director” says Guler, referring to the articulatory role of the designer

2019, journals.openedition.org/ambiances/2907.
18 Guler, K. (2016). Chapter 2: Exhibit Design Process. In Simulating Visitor Experience (pp.
5-19). UK: Cambridge Publishing Scholars.
fulfills. Experts from other fields are usually participatory of the design
exhibition experience. The exhibition designer articulates the participation
of each discipline to conduct the exhibition toward a common goal and
story. Prof. Guler highlights that the multidisciplinary nature of the design
exhibition enriches the process of exhibition design. The context of the
exhibition demands unique design approaches, each of them requires a
different response and affords a particular audience profile. Understanding
context, audience, and exhibition needs can enhance visitor satisfaction. The
properties of the exhibit elements vary upon the context of the exhibition.
Context, target-audience, and properties of the exhibit are all subject to the
variable of time. Prof. Guler says exhibitions can be permanent, temporary,
or traveling. This will also affect the design requirements and process
affecting the construction, dismantling, transportation, and location of
the exhibition. Guler introduces the exhibition design process and its four
phases including: preparation process, design process, realization process,
and life cycle of the exhibition.
The introduction to the exhibition design process serves as a substantial
framework for understanding the many layers and scales of a virtual reality
architectural strategy design. The artwork is nested within the world, the
country, the state, the city, the museum architecture, and yet another layer
is the exhibition in which it is displayed. The exhibition design input serves
to understand how exhibition designer creates meaning from programming,
research, design, construction, and life of the project. However, contrary
to the exhibition design, where exhibition designers adapt the artworks to
the existing architecture, virtual reality exhibitions could instead adapt the
architecture to the art. Understanding how exhibition designers manipulate
the space can inform the Virtual Reality architectural experience that is born
from the interpretation of the artwork. For example, from understanding
exhibition design, architects learn that the essence of exhibition design is
lighting design. Through lighting, exhibition designers explore the necessary
contrast, temperature, color, quantity, of light this information contributes to
ensure the best ambience for the museum visitor even in virtual reality.
1.7 Lighting Design One of the most essential aspects of exhibition design is lighting design.19
Lighting design serves multiple purposes in museums.20 Lighting designers
need to be consider lighting principles, lighting the display area, lighting
the exhibits, consider material degradation, daylight, and electric light,
showcase lighting, specific object lighting requirements, and lighting
controls.21 Even though not all of them are applicable to the design of virtual
reality exhibitions spaces, there is a lot of information that could inform the
experience since lighting design for physical museums has a long history.
20 Elizabeth Gay Hunt, “Study of Museum Lighting and Desing” (San Marcos, TX, Texas State
University, 2009).
21 Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers and Society of Light and Lighting,
Lighting Guide 8: Lighting for Museums and Art Galleries. (London: Society of Light and Lighting :
CIBSE, 2015).
1.8 Virtual Affordances Virtual reality allows for exploration of the limitations that physical
museums face amidst a pandemic. Virtual exhibitions could benefit from
the spatial expertise of architects for innovation in virtual art experiences.
The task of architecture is to create the atmosphere and mood of a space.
Architects operate beyond the boundaries of the physical world. Lighting
design in physical museums face constrains related to maintenance, and
preservation of the artwork. Virtual reality could explore lighting conditions
related to the contextual understanding of the artwork beyond the limitations
of the physical museums. In other words, virtual reality allows the designer
to include lighting qualities beyond those possible in a gallery space.
2.0 Site Analysis Site analysis for the virtual environment is an endeavor that includes very
different pieces of information. This thesis explores virtual architecture
for the Marianne Beach Museum of art in Manhattan Kansas. The Virtual
Reality Architectural Design will be initially a part of the Museum’s
initiative “Technologies of the visual” and presented in one of the
Museum’s galleries.22 Because of this, the Site Analysis is focused first in
understanding the nested reality of the virtual experience first, and second
the site conditions designed as a programmatic need for the museum
experience.
Architecture is always nested. Our bodies extend far beyond the boundaries
of our skin and encompass much larger scales. In “Nested Bodies,” Sarah
Robinson provides a nested perspective of embodiment.23 Bodies absorb
the ever presence of immediate and non-immediate surroundings through
multi-sensory perception. Robinson urges architects to remarry space and
multi-sensory experience to cover the needs of our whole bodies more fully.
In other words, she overlays the notion of the nested bodies and the senses.
Human bodies have the ability of spatial cognition and spatial mapping
which in turn influences our behavior. Spatial mapping capacities are unique
and related to our experiences. The body experiences space through 5
modes of perception related to our 5 senses. The nested reality of spaces
goes beyond its location on a map viewed in different scales. Architecture
is nested in the context of communities with a specific history and culture.
Therefore, it is important to evaluate the historical and cultural components
of the locations where projects are situated. This analysis reveals the
character of the potential audience that will be in contact with the project.
22 Interview with Linda Duke.

23 Sarah Robinson, “Nested Bodies,” in Mind in Architecture Neuroscience,
Embodiment, and the Future of Design, ed. Sarah Robinson and Juhani Pallasmaa
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017), 137–59.
It is important to consider that Virtual Reality experiences always happen in

nested scenarios. A nested perspective of architecture must be considered
when creating site analysis for Virtual Reality Experiences.
The virtual reality experience of this thesis is nested in the Midwest of the
United State, the State of Kansas, the City of Manhattan, the Kansas State
University, the Marianne Beach museum of art, the Ruth Ann Wefald Gallery.
Not only in a physical location scenario but also located in the culture,
art, customs, and history of this places. Because of this, the Site Analysis
will comprehend the reality of the city of Manhattan, KS, the history of the
museum, the surrounding areas, and the trends that will affect the museum
in the future.
The Site Analysis is organized from the scale of the museum into larger
sacles. Two types of data where collected at each scale. Soft and Hard
2.1 Organization & data. The hard data corresponds to the quantitative information about the
location. The Soft Data analyses the qualitative infomation that corresponds
Purpose to the artistic influences of the Site.
The purpose of this site analysis is to understand the contextual scenario
of midwestern artists so that the site conditions of the virtual experience
can reflect the landscape that inspire the work that was produced. As Sara
Robinson describes in “A Conversation on Empathy,” we are one with the
environment.24 Our environment fundamentally shapes how we experience
the world. Sitting the Virtual experience in the environment that shape the
experiences of the artists at least for a brief period of their time, may provide
insight into the way they experience the world and what call them to produce
the work they produced.
It is important to mention as well that the work focuses on Midwestern
territory in the absence of virtual reality experience that do so. Experiences
that focus on main cities of the world populate the Virtual Reality platforms
but the content of the Midwest art is scarce.
The scales from which information will be collected are: the Midwest, the
State of Kansas, the city of Manhattan, the Kansas State University, and the
beach museum of art.
24 Harry Francis Mallgrave et al., “A Conversation on Empathy,” in Architecture and

Empathy: a Tapio Wirkkala-Rut Bryk Design Reader (Espoo, Finland: Tapio Wirkkala-Rut
Bryk Foundation, 2015), pp. 80-88.
2.3 The Midwest
Figure 1. United States.

Map of the midwest
2.3.1 Hard Data Location: North Central United States

Size: 12 States
Population: 65,377,684
2.3.1 Soft Data The Midwest is an area in North Central United States that comprised by
the states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri,
Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. The area
comprehends great diversity but represents the “national average”25 The
area is further subdivided in 2 regions: Northwest Territory, and the Great
Plains. The Midwest entered the United States in 2 moments. The Northwest
territory entered in 1783 after the American Revolution, and Great Plains in
1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase plains where developed primarily in
agriculture while the Northwest both industrially and agricultural.
The history of the Midwest has been significantly shaped by a one-sided

vision. Novels, movies, and television often leave out the voices of the
region’s Indigenous inhabitants, women, and other groups.26 The Marianne
Beach Museum of art has concentrated their efforts to collect and display
artworks from a more complete and diverse list of artists. These artist
address parts of the stories that do not appear in other mediums.
25 “Midwest | History, States, Map, & Facts,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed December 10,
2020, https://www.britannica.com/place/Middle-West.
26 “Voices of the West” (The Marianne Beach Museum of Art, February 4, 2020), https://
beach.k-state.edu/explore/exhibitions/voices-of-the-west.html.
2.4 Kansas
Figure 2. The State of Kansas.
Location: The State of Kansas is in the Great Plains of the United States of
America. The State is bounded by Nebraska to the north, Missouri to the
2.4.1 Hard Data east, Oklahoma to the south, and Colorado to the west (Fig.1).27
Dimensions: 82,278 square miles (213,100 square km).28
Climate: Kansas has an overall temperate climate, but it experiences

extremes between summer and winter temperatures.29 The average
temperature is 55 °F (13 °C). Annual precipitation statewide average is
approximately 25 inches (635 mm).
Contours: The State is characterized as being mostly flat, but it has a varied
topography. Featuring dams and high plains (Fig.3). 30
Kansas is a Midwestern State of the United States of America founded in

2.4.1 Soft Data 1861. It houses the middle of the geographic center of the 48 continental
United States.31 Kansas is located amidst the landscape of the Great
Plains. The State is characterized as being mostly flat, but it has a varied
topography. One of the interesting topographical features in east-central
27 Charles Pearson, “Kansas,” in Brittanica (Encyclopædia Britannica, May 28,

2020), https://www.britannica.com/place/Kansas.
Figure 3. The Contours of the State

of Kansas
Kansas is the Flint hills. The Flint Hills is a region that stretches from north
to south of the State and holds the densest intact coverage of tallgrass
prairie in North America. Many artworks in the Marianne Beach museum
of art have been inspired by this landscape characteristics.32 The Flint Hills
region covers over 1.6 million hectares of eastern Kansas from near the
Kansas-Nebraska border south into northeastern Oklahoma, and the largest
unplowed tall-grass prairie in North America are withing The Flint Hills.33
Figure 4. The Flit Hills Region.

Kansas Skies: The imagery of the Kansas skies brings memories of rich
sunsets, and sunrises, and overcast skies over the prairie. These images
have inspired many artists work. The Flint Hills ecosystem has been
documented by many western artists. The Beach Museum Collection owns
many diverse depictions of these landscapes.
32 Interview with Linda

33 “About Konza Prairie Biological Station,” Konza Prairie Biological Station, accessed December
10, 2020, https://kpbs.konza.k-state.edu/.
Figure 5.Terry Evans Prairie Images Prairie Images of Ground + Sky by Terry Evans illustrates the richness of an
of Ground + Sky atmosphere particular to Kansas.34 It is the flat landscapes of Kansas that
permits such rich colors which are not possible in more urbanized areas. The
prairies of Terry Evans show the diverse ecosystem of the prairie. Evans has
documented many species of tall grass and animals in the prairies. In his
description of the Prairie Images of Ground + Sky he compares the wildness
of the prairie and the wheat. 35 The prairie represent the untouched nature,
graceful, everlasting, self regenerated, the wheat represents the culture of
consumption, and waste.
2.5 Manhattan
Figure 6.Kansas. Riley Country. The

City of Manhattan Location: the city of Manhattan is in the North-East of the State of Kansas.
In the Riley County
2.5.1 Hard Data
Area: 15.0 square miles (51.56 km²)
Climate: Manhattan weather averages between an annual high temperature

of 67°F (19°C) and an annual low of 43°F (6°C).36 Average annual
precipitation is 35.62 inch (812mm), and annual snowfall is 17 inch
34 Terry Evans, “Prairie Images of Ground + Sky,” Terry Evans Photography, accessed
December 1, 2020, http://www.terryevansphotography.com/prairie-images-of-ground-
sky.
35 TERRY EVANS, “Ancient Prairies,” TERRY EVANS PHOTOGRAPHY, accessed December 10,
2020, http://www.terryevansphotography.com/project-statements/ancient-prairies.
36 Your Weather Service, “Climate Manhattan - Kansas,” U.S. Climate Data,
accessed November 25, 2020, https://www.usclimatedata.com/climate/manhattan/
kansas/united-states/usks0358.
Figure 7.Manhattan Climate Graph.

U.S. Climate Data
(431mm).
Population: 54,604 people
Manhattan was founded in 1855 on northern edge of the Flint Hills. It is

2.5.2 Soft Data the home of Kansas State University, founded in 1863.37 Manhattan has a
population of approximately 54,604 people.38 Manhattan is a college town
home to the Kansas State University. 29% of the population (15,358) is
between 20-24 years old.39
City of Manhattan Zoning
Zoning Districts Zoning Overlays
R-S - Single-Family Residential Suburban UCR - Urban Core Residential I-2 - Industrial Park AO - Airport Overlay
Districts and Overlays

R - Single-Family Residential C-1 - Restricted Business I-3 - Light Industrial MBPO - Manhattan Business Park Overlay
R-1 - Single-Family Residential C-2 - Neighborhood Shopping I-4 - Heavy Industrial M-FRO - Multi-Family Redevelopment Overlay
R-2 - Two-Family Residential C-3 - Aggieville Business I-5 - Business Park RDO - Redevelopment District Overlay
R-M - Four-Family Residential C-4 - Central Business LM-SC - Light Manufacturing - Service Commercial TNO - Traditional Neighborhood Overlay
R-3 - Multi-Family Residential C-5 - Highway Service Commercial PUD - Planned Unit Development UO - University Overlay
R-4 - General Residential C-6 - Heavy Commercial U - University Historical Sites and Districts
R-5 - Manufactured Home Park I-1 - Research Park
!
( 1 Historical Sites
27
Houston Street Historic District
Downtown Historic District

Symbols
¯
Wolf House Historic District
Manhattan Boundary Manhattan Schools Streets 1 inch = 800 feet
0 800 1,600 2,400 3,200
Manhattan Parcels Runway Waterbodies Feet
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Manhattan Parks Trails
Fire Stations Miles
This map should be used in conjunction with the written Manhattan Zoning Regulations. Contact the Community Development Department at (785) 587-2412 if you have any questions about the
zoning regulations that apply to a specific property. This zoning map may not reflect the latest zoning changes because it is updated periodically.
R-2
R-5
R-5
R
119 Historical Sites and Districts
R-1 Index # Site Name Index # Site Name
R-1 1 Strasser House 21 Community House
2 Goodnow Memorial Home 22 Samuel Houston House
3 Platt House 23 Marlatt Homestead
R-3 R-1 64 4 Anderson Hall 24 First Congregational Church
5 KSAC Towers 25 Hulse-Daughters House
6 KSAC Towers 26 Strong House
7 Grimes House 27 Rocky Ford School
8 Union Pacific Railroad Depot 28 Bethel AME Church
R-1 R 9 Seven Dolors Catholic Church 29 Pilgrim Baptist Church
10 Womens' Club House 30 Daniel & Maude Walters House
R-2 11 Ulrich House 31 Coons House
R-2 12 E.A. & Ura Wharton House 32 Jessie Ingraham House
R 13 Manhattan Carnegie Library 33 Francis Byron Kimble House
I-5 14 Manhattan State Bank 34 Floral Hall
15 Lyda-Jean Apartment House 35 Landmark Water Tower
R-1 16 McFarlane-Wareham House 36 Bluemont Youth Cabin
R 17 Damon Runyon House 37 Pioneer Log Cabin
18 Mattie M. Elliot House 38 St. Mary's Hospital
R-S
97 19 Fitz House 39 The Avalon
20 Riley County Courthouse 40 Hartford House
R-2 R I-5 84
R-3
R-1
R-2 R-2
63 R-1
R-3
R-S 69 73 R-2
126
R-S R-S
70
3
72
R-1 R-3 R-2
R-2
R-1 4
C-1 R-1
R-3 6 R-2 R 5
R-1 R-2
R-2
R-1
R-S C-1 R-2
R-S R-M
R-S R-2 86
R-2 R-2
C-2 R-1 C-2
R-M
C-2 R-1
R-1
R-2
1
R-1 8
R-3 R-2 R-3 C-5 R-3
R-3
R-2 R 7 R-2
R-S C-2 R-5
12 11 9
R-2 R-5
10
85 R-2 79 R-1
R-1
R-2
R-2 13
C-2 U R-2
R-S R-3 R-3 14 R-3 15
R
R-5
R-2 17 R-4
R-2
123 R
16 120
18
C-5
R-1 R
R R-1 R R R-3 R-1
60 R-2 26
19
R-1
R-3 C-5
I-5 21
U C-5
62
20 23
R-3 C-5 C-5

22
88
R-2 24 R
R-1 111 26
R-3 R-2
23 R-1
R-1 R-2 25 92
R-2 68
R U I-2 I-3
R-3
80 113
R-3 108 28
27 C-1
C-1
118 3
40 2
R-1 C-1 U C-5
C-5 29 36 I-3
C-2 30 C-1 101
114 R-2 R-2
C-5
C-2 104 R-1 100 C-6 C-6
C-1 32
C-2 R-1 R R-3 121
R-2 33 31 C-2 90 122
C-2 C-5 C-2 R-M 100
R-1 C-2 UCR
76 C-1
C-5
C-1 R C-5 C-2 C-5 C-6
C-2 4 C-5
22 R-2 C-1 R-3 C-5 C-5
C-2
R-3 R-3 R-2
R-1 35 102 106 I-4
37 75 71
R-M C-5
R-3 116 R-3 124
R-3 R-2 C-1 5 I-2
74 34
125 C-5
R-2 R-3 78 6 R-2 99
77
R-3 C-5 I-2
36 R-M 42 41 40 38 R-M C-2
C-3
R-3 R-3 1 C-5
R-3 67 I-2
I-2 R-3 39
59 R-3
R-2 R-2 R-S 32 58
R-M 38
R-2 R-3
39 87
R-1 43 17
I-3
34
110 C-5 C-5
R-1 83
R-1 R-3 C-1 C-4
R R-3 C-5
31 16 R-3 R-1 44
37 C-1
35
R-1 7 C-5
45 C-5 21
11
105 R
10 33 24 13 20 14
C-4
30 C-1
R-3 46
R-5 19 12 18 93
15
98
9
47
R-M C-5
49 48
117 R
25
R-3 C-2
C-5
52 51 89
R-3 C-5 91 109 8 Eureka Valley and Airport
¯
61 I-3 C-5 54 29 28
107
C-2 R-1 53 94
R-2 50
C-5 R-2 I-3
R-2 55 C-5 LM-SC LM-SC 1 inch = 1,000 feet
C-1 C-5 U
66 I-3 I-3
Feet
C-5 C-5 LM-SC 0 500 1,000 2,000
96 C-6 C-6
56
R-2
R-1 I-3
R-1 65 C-5
103
I-2
R-1
2
95 115
R-3 C-6
81
C-5 I-5 I-3

R 57
I-5 R-1
82
112
R-1 R-3
C-1
I-5 I-3
R-3 R-3 C-5
R-2
R-2
R R
R-2 I-3 I-3
I-3
R
R-1 Index of Planned Unit Developments
R-1 Index # PUD Name Index # PUD Name Index # PUD Name Index # PUD Name
1 Blecha Addition 33 Frakes Addition 65 Seth Child Commons 97 Silo Townhomes Residential PUD
2 Inverness Townhomes 34 Plaza West Commercial PUD 66 Manhattan Plaza PUD 98 Stone Pointe Townhomes Residential PUD
R-1
3 Brittnay Ridge Estates 35 Village Plaza Commercial PUD 67 Wal-Mart 99 Walgreens
R-S
4 Kingdom Hall Addition PUD 36 Gardenway Commercial PUD/Garden Grove Retirement Residential PUD 68 Southwind Capital 100 McCall Cats PUD
5 Butterfield 37 Professional Place PUD 69 St. Joseph Village PUD 101 McCall Landing
6 Snowbird Addition #1 38 Manhattan Christian College 70 Stone Valley PUD 102 Westport South PUD -
7 University Commons 39 Plaza de Maria PUD 71 Wal-Mart 103 Penny's Concrete Industrial PUD
8 Charter House 40 Anderson Village PUD 72 Pheasant Hill Residential PUD 104 Tecumseh Lofts PUD
R 9 Prairie Glen 41 Ramada Inn PUD 73 St. Joseph Village Independent Living Residential PUD 105 Stone Pointe Townhomes Unit Two Residential PUD
10 Gardens at Flint HIlls Residential PUD 42 Wildcat Amaco 74 Pebblebrook, Unit 3 106 Willie's Villas
11 North Pointe 43 Briercliffe Residential PUD 75 Campus Bridge Lofts 107 17th Street Properties Commercial PUD
12 Shirley Lane Addition PUD 44 Apartment Towers (Riley County Senior Service Center) 76 Stone Creek Addition, Lot 2 108 Westport Commons
13 Greenbriar 45 Briarview Office Park 77 The Moro 109 Downtown Entertainment District C-1
R-2 14 2010 & 2014 Seaton, 3028 Kimball 46 Briercliffe Addition 78 St. Isidore's Catholic Student Center 110 Scenic Woods, PUD
15 Knox Lane Addition 47 Carlson Plaza 79 Platt PUD 111 Westport Commons, Unit 2
R 16 Plymouth Landing 48 Colorado Plaza PUD 80 Four Winds Village 112 Genesis Health Clubs PUD
17 Westbank Townhomes 49 Orchard 81 The Townhomes at Miller Ranch Residential PUD 113 Claflin Townhomes PUD
18 Tuttle Creek Residences 50 Southwind Office 82 Oaktree Townhomes 114 Westloop Shopping Center PUD
19 College Avenue Medical Center PUD 51 Columbine Apartments 83 Manhattan Marketplace 115 Penny's Concrete Industrial PUD
20 Walnut Woods 52 415 S 18th, 1722 Rockhill Rd 84 Brookfield Residences 116 Bluemont and N Manhattan Hotel PUD
21 Westwood Village 53 Cherry Hill Estates 85 Grand Mere Village 117 Birchwood Villas Addition
22 Country Club Estates 54 East Columbine Apartments 86 Meadowlark Hills PUD 118 Body First PUD
23 Chase Manhattan Apartments Residential PUD 55 2104 Elm Ln 87 Manhattan Marketplace, Unit 2 119 Trails at Manhattan Addition
24 Claflin Residential PUD 56 Pottawatomie Court Residential PUD 88 University Terrace Condominiums 120 Mercy Regional Hospital PUD
25 Williamsburg 57 Home Center Mall 89 Treasures of the Heart 121 Abbot Landing Shopping Center
26 Country Club Townhomes Residential PUD 58 Manhattan Christian College 90 Limey Pointe 122 K-State Credit Union PUD
27 Claflin Residential PUD 59 Manhattan Christian College 91 Manhattan Emergency Shelter 123 No Stone Unturned Campus
28 First National Back Center Commercial PUD 60 JenTre PUD 92 Heritage Square South 124 12th & Bluemont Lofts PUD
29 Manhattan Medical Center 61 Town West 93 Collegiate Marketing Services 125 Aggieville Hotel PUD
30 Baher Place Residential PUD 62 Dickens Professional Place PUD 94 South Wind Office Park 126 Colbert Hills Stay and Play PUD
I-3 31 Hill Office 63 Founders Village at Colbert Hills 95 Courtyards at LMH
32 Hummel Estates 64 Tuttle Creek Residences Residential PUD 96 Lee Mill Village
C-6 C-6
I-3
I-2
103
-
Zoning_Public_Map
Last updated by: Julie.Peterson Sources: USGS National Hydrography Dataset (basis of river & water body delineations), Sanborn Map Co (2015 LIDAR for hillshade), Pictometry (buildings), Riley County (parcels, roads), Pottawatomie County (parcels, roads), City of Manhattan
C-6 115 Publish date: 1/3/2020 (zoning district and overlay layers, zoning records, City boundary, parks and recreation layers, historic sites, historic districts, symbology, map design, modifications to stream & water body delineations), map produced by the City of Manhattan
Figure 8.Manhattan Kansas Zoning
37 “Manhattan,” in Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, April 25, 2019), https://

www.britannica.com/place/Manhattan-Kansas.
38 “Population Estimates” (Manhattan, KS: U.S. Census Bureau, 2019), https://
www.census.gov/quickfacts/manhattancitykansas.
39 “Manhattan Demographic Profile: 2010 Census” (Manhattan, KS: U.S. Census
Bureau, 2010).
The Manhattan Kansas zoning map shows the zoning ordinances for the
city for Manhattan. The area in purple is the University, the areas in tones
of yellow are residention, pink and red are for commertial uses of the
land, gray areas are industrial, and in blue Planned Unit Development. The
term Planned Unit Development (PUD) describes a type of development
and regulatory process that allows developers be in line with overall
community density and land use goals without the limitations of existing
zoning requirements. More areas of Manhattan have been designated as
PUD allowing more flexibility for mix use development.40 The Manhattan
2035 plan comprehends the strategies the city is planning for the future of
Manhattan and its citizens.
2.5.3 The Konza Prairie
Figure 9.Konza Prairie Location in

relationship with Manhattan KS
Location: The Konza Prairie is located South of the city of Manhattan.
Size: 3,487 hectare
Climate: “Average monthly temperatures ranges from a January low of -2.7°
C to a July high of 26.6° C. Average annual total precipitation is 835 mm
with 75% falling during the growing season.”41
The Konza Prairie is owned by The Nature Conservancy and Kansas State
University and operated as a field research station by the K-State Division
of Biology.42 The Konza Prairie Biological Station main mission is long-term
ecological research, education, and prairie conservation. The prairies are
40 “Manhattan Urban Area Comprehensive Plan Update May 2014” (the City of Manhattan, May
2014), https://mhkprd.com/DocumentCenter/View/167/Manhattan-Urban-Area-Comprehensive-
Plan-Update---Trends-and-Forces-Report-PDF.
41 “Locations and Habitats,” Konza Prairie Biological Station, accessed December 7, 2020,
https://kpbs.konza.k-state.edu/location/.
42 “Mission,” Educational, Konza Prairie Biological Station, accessed December 7, 2020, https://
kpbs.konza.k-state.edu/mission.html.
Figure 10. Konza Prairie Tall-grass
an “outdoor laboratory“ that provides the unique opportunity to study tall

grasses in the prairie ecosystem. Open to scholars around the world, its a
source for comparison with developed lands.
The prairie ecosystem is in great danger of extinction. Tall-grass prairies
used to cover 170 million acres (70 million hectares) of North America.
Today, 95% of the prairies has been destroyed or altered by humans.43 To
the common man the prairies ecosystem may seem like “just grass,“ but
the prairies play a significant role in our worlds environmental balance. The
prairies are more effective than the forests in the conservation of carbon.
The Konza prairie is mostly covered by native tall-grass including the
perennial, warm-season grasses big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass,
and switchgrass and other diverse mixture of species.44 Within the nature
prairie two branches of the King’s creek run through the prairie. Along the
stream courses, bur and chinquapin oaks and hackberry cover approximately
7% of the preserve area. The flora is comprised of more than 600 species.
The fauna has recorded “several dozen species of fish, amphibians, reptiles,
and mammals, and more than 200 species of resident and migratory birds
have been recorded on the preserve.”45
The prairies of the Midwest have been of great artistic influence. Many
artworks in the Marianne Beach museum of art collection reflect the
impact the prairie had in Midwestern artists. Voices of the West is a virtual
exhibition that focuses on the artwork by indigenous artists in the Midwest
that have reacted to the environment in one way or another.46 The museum
constantly highlights Midwestern artists influenced by environments such as
43 Lawrence D. Igl et al., “Adaptive Management in Native Grasslands Managed by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service,” Open-File Report, Open-File Report (Reston, Virginia: U.S. Department of the
Interior U.S. Geological Survey, 2018).
46 “Voices of the West” (The Marianne Beach Museum of Art, February 4, 2020), https://
beach.k-state.edu/explore/exhibitions/voices-of-the-west.html.
the prairies. “The Meadow” at the back of the museum is an effort to inform
the visitors about the vast relationship of the prairie vegetation and the
artists works.
2.6 Kansas State https://www.k-state.edu/maps/buildings/A/a.jpg

University
Figure 11.Kansas State University .

Anderson Hall.
Location: Central Manhattan Kansas.

Population: Kansas State University Students Enrollment in the last 5 years
average 22,273 students per academic year.47
In 1863 The state of Kansas accepted the provision of the Morrill Act of
1862, and Bluemont Central College’s were transferred to the state. Kansas
State Agricultural College was the new name for the college. Kansas State
University was the first operational land-grant university and the first
University of the State.48
(More Information about Kansas State University)
47 “Student Enrollment by College” (Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University, 2020),

https://www.k-state.edu/pa/data/student/studentfb/totdemo.Fall2020.pdf.
48 “K-State History,” K-State Alumni Association, accessed November 20, 2020, https://www.k-
state.com/about/kstatehistory.php.
2.6 Marianne Beach

Museum of art
Figure 12.The Beach Musum at

Kansas State University.
Construction: 1996
Location: South-East corner of the Kansas State University.
Dimensions: ~26,000 square foot (2,550 sq meters)
Area: 26,000 square foot
Architects: Andersson•Wise Architects, Austin, Texas
Expansion date: 2001 Spaces added: three exhibition galleries, three art
storage areas, and new office and workspaces.
Marianne Beach Museum of art started as an initiative to gather the regional

art scattered in the Kansas State University public spaces and offices.49
In 1996, the museum opened thanks to the generous gift from Ross and
Marianna Beach of Hays. The Mary and Morgan Jarvis Wing of the Beach
Museum of Art was added in 2007. Spaces in the museum include galleries,
offices, art storage, and an education wing. The museum collection grew
from around 1,500 pieces of art to 10,000 pieces in its history. The Marianne
Beach Museum of art received around 30,000 visitors per year. Of the
visitors, approximately 30% are students in general, 30% are Kansas State
University students, faculty, and staff, and 40% are general visitors. The
museum was accredited in November 2017 by the American Alliance of
Museums.
49 “History of the Museum,” Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art - Kansas State University,
accessed November 25, 2020, https://beach.k-state.edu/about/history.html.
Beach
Museum
University
PUB (Planned Unit
Development)
Residential
Commercial (Aggieville)
Park
Local Streets
Figure 13. Site Analysis Map of

areas surrounding the Beach
museum
The museum, marked in red, is located at the South East corner of Campus,
has a very central location in the city of Manhattan. Many students pass
by the museum on their way to class. the South East corner is the closest
to “Aggie-ville.” Aggie-ville is an area of bars cafes and shops frequented
by students and citizens alike. In relationship to other buildings in the
University
2.6.1 The Meadow The Kansas State Meadow is a one-half acre learning landscape initiative
that includes prairie plants native to the Flint Hills. It is located North of
the Beach Museum of art.50 It includes more than 40 species of plants that
serve as food and habitat to butterflies and other pollinators. The Meadow
is a space that affords research, teaching, learning for the University. It
also provides a multisensory experience for museum visitors as part of the
Museums tours. In the meadow, the museum visitors can make meaningful
connections between the local art and landscape.
50 “The Meadow,” Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art - Kansas State University,
accessed November 25, 2020, https://beach.k-state.edu/prairiestudies/projects.html.
Figure 14. The Meadow at Kansas

State University
The meadow is a piece of land that brings the prairie close to the museum
visitor, so that people can begin to understand the landscapes that inspire
the work of many artists.
Virtual reality offers a unique opportunity for researching and constructing

a unique site experience that can be a collage of sites that can provide a
holistic sensation of the parts that construct the prairie ecosystem. Some
of the most prominent features of the landscape in Midwest Kansas include
the prairie, the river, and the agricultural scene. But in the general in the Flint
Hills context what strikes the most is the “untouched land” in opposition
with the developed land. The claim of creating a virtual architectural
proposal in this environment reinforces the efforts of preserving the
untouched ancient prairies. Architecture in these scenarios must remain
virtual for the preservation of the land.
3.0 Strategy Museums are places to be with art. Virtual reality museums are
environments to be within art. Virtual Reality offers the designer a new realm
for design that transcends the material qualities of space and thus requires
the main attention to focus in the ethereal aspects of design whether
architectural, exhibition design, or lighting design. This experience in the
context of museums, has the potential of revealing artwork under “new
light.”
The study of atmospheres has significant implications for architecture of
any kind (physical, virtual). But the term ‘atmospheres’ escapes definition
specificity within the architectural scene. Peter Zumthor decomposed
architectural atmospheres in 9 components and 3 appendixes.51 Elisabetta
Canepa et. all found that the wide range of definitions for atmospheres
in relation to architecture specifically, at minimum it concedes eleven
categories of sense.52 Torino Griffero also addresses the qualities of the term
in the form of atmospheric affordances, but he also refers to the struggle
of defining what atmosphere is.53 Understanding what atmosphere is might
reside more in what it is not than in what it is. Atmosphere is a non-material
quality of space.
As a non-material quality of space, Atmosphere has the potential for being
incorporated in virtual realities. But, how do we recreate virtually something
that is slips through the fingers? Peter Zumthors Atmospheres present
an ideal framework for the study of the incorporation and assessment
Birkhäuser, 2006.
53 Griffero, Torino. “Architectural Affordances: The Atmospheric Authority of Spaces.” Chapter.
In Architecture and Atmosphere, edited by Philip Tidwell, 14–40. Espoo, Finland: Tapio Wirkkala-Rut
Bryk Foundation, 2014.
of architectural atmosphere into Virtual Reality. The nine components

will be subject to in depth study to test the capacity of virtual reality to
incorporate the elements described by Zumthor. The nine components of
atmospheric qualities of the space include the body of architecture, material
compatibility, the sound of space, the temperature of space, surrounding
objects, between composure and seduction, the tension between interior
and exterior, levels of intimacy, and the light on things. The appendixes are
architecture as surroundings, coherence, and the beautiful form.
3.1 Neurosciences, We can start to speak of a neuroscientific turn in the theory of architecture
with more academics incorporating the advancements in the biological
architecture, & sciences to how the body understands architecture.54 Virtual Reality has
Virtual Reality been used for neurological studies involving the study of architectural
atmosphere in relationship to empathy. Elisabetta Canepa et all developed
a framework for defining architectural atmosphere within neuroscientific
background.55 Neurosciences provide a biological perspective on how
humans perceive atmosphere and adapt to physical space continuously.
Mirror neurons allow humans to store multisensorial interactions with
observed objects and actions performed by other subjects. This means
that humans somewhat practice actions in the brain through observation.
This is why mirror neurons are thought to be the neurons of empathy. The
research hypothesis is that there is correlation between people’s empathy for
animated subjects, and empathy with inanimate matter (e.g. architecture).
Understanding this relationship is of great significance because it would be
proof that the architecture can evoke sensorimotor reactions. It also has
implications for the relationship between architecture and neurosciences.
The authors report on an experiment with a sample of 205 participants
who completed an Interpersonal Reactivity Index test (used to measure
the empathic nature of the participant). The authors used virtual reality in
a residential corridor-like space. They design 21 different set-ups for the
experience divided into 5 categories: varying the space’s floor plan, section,
horizontal and vertical surfaces, and light condition, and 4 subcategories of
variations within those. The participants described the immediate response
to the presented spaces in terms of arousal and appeal. In the fifth and
last phase, the authors evaluated the results of the experiment. The results
suggest a correlation between high Interpersonal Reactivity Index scores and
responses of the participants to the experiment. This can mean that high
empathy for animate subjects can be translated into inanimate objects by
which our physical world is constructed.
3.2 Let’s talk Real An immersive virtual reality experience of museum architecture differs from
two-dimensional virtual experiences in the use of spatial characteristics
necessary for the experience of art. The experience of art in two dimensions
is passive, the user has little room to manipulate the perspective of the
54 Sarah Robinson and Juhani Pallasmaa, Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and
the Future of Design (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2017), 141.
object. Our engagement with tree-dimensional space is active.56 Visual

perception of objects activates motor skills associated with those objects.57
Immersive virtual reality has the potential for neuroscientific investigation
of architectural experience. Immersion is possible through the throughout
visual illusion of reality represented by the computer and absorbed by the
participant. Virtual Reality can grant extreme experience that might not be
affordable in reality. VR affords new possibilities for design exploration in the
form of immersive design more suited for sensorimotor predictions. VR can
provide realistic behavioral information of the participant’s experience of a
place thus providing safe ground for interactive research.58
3.4 Methodology The work is a design proposal of virtual reality architecture and exhibition
spaces for a collection of artworks selected by the Beach Museum of Art.
This endeavor involves the understanding of many disciplines involved in
creating the atmosphere of museums. I will start in the architectural scale,
assessing the incorporation of Peter Zumthor’s Atmospheres in the Virtual
environment. Then I will continue in the scale of exhibition design, laying
out Kutay Guler’s exhibition design process. Finally I will incorporate the
data from lighting design studies for Museums. Virtual reality architecture
is defined in the context of this projects as a system of architectural cues
and elements introduced in the virtual reality scenario for the embodied
experience of the virtual environment. The design will attempt to capture
the atmospheric properties of architecture laid out by Peter Zumthor, and
introduce them in the virtual environment.
3.4 Technology As defined in the beginning of the project, for the purpose of this research
the following definition of Virtual Reality is adopted: VR is a “computer-
generated environment that, to the person experiencing it, closely
resembles reality.”59 The technology for the display of the design proposal
will be preferable for Virtual Reality headsets and but will possibly also be
adapted for computer visualization for remote users. For local users, it will
be available at the convenience of the Beach Museum of Art in a gallery
designated for “the technologies of the visual.”
3.3 Atmospheres The realm of architecture can be thought of as a duality; architects operate
in the physical world, but they do so with the purpose of creating intangible
56 Alva Noë (2013, January) “Getting out of our Heads,” [Video file] Retrieved from: https://
ww.youtube.com/watch?v=Xhk9MkTkSPA . Accessed September 7, 2020.
57 Jelić A, Tieri G, De Matteis F, Babiloni F and Vecchiato G (2016) The Enactive Approach
to Architectural Experience: A Neurophysiological Perspective on Embodiment, Motivation, and
Affordances. Front. Psychol. 7:481.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00481
58 Jelić A, Tieri G, De Matteis F, Babiloni F and Vecchiato G (2016) The Enactive Approach
to Architectural Experience: A Neurophysiological Perspective on Embodiment, Motivation, and
Affordances. Front. Psychol. 7:481.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00481
atmospheres. The project goal is to incorporate the atmospheric qualities of

architecture into a Virtual Reality experience of art exhibition spaces. Thus
navigating the more ethereal aspects of architecture.
Without architecture we lose the atmospheric quality of the experience of
art. Atmospheres are in part, the mood of the place. The sense of the scale
of an object can be felt in relationship with the human body. The contrast
of the artwork and the material surrounding it. The sound of the space and
the echo of your movement in the space (steps, breathing). The physical
temperature read from the space, implies that there are ‘cold’ spaces,
and ‘warm’ ones not because of physical temperature but because of the
atmosphere they provoke. Other objects in relationship of the artwork (a
pedestal, a frame, a door further). The trajectory from one art piece to the
other and the impulse to travel to/from it. Artwork viewing under the light,
the shadow that the artwork projects. These characteristics are part of
what Peter Zumthor calls ‘Atmospheres.‘ 60 They provide a framework for
designing architectural quality. He claims that exploring the atmospheric
qualities of architecture is how architects achieve quality, meaningful,
memorable works of architecture.
3.3.1 The Body of

Architecture
Figure 15. Preliminary sketch of

Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier.
The first chapter is the body of architecture and it concerns the combination
of components that make a space as an extension of the body as a whole.
The body of architecture concerns with the multiple systems that comprise
a work of architecture. As if the work itself had an anatomy of its own, and
this one was very similar to that of the human body, to an extent it feels like
the own body projected in space. The anatomy of the body of the building
as structure system, enclosure system, circulation system; the anatomy

Birkhäuser, 2006.
3.3.2 Material of the human body, skeletal system, the integumentary system (skin), the
cardiovascular system. This perspective of architecture understands the
Compatibility body of architecture not as something other than the human body but as its
equal.
Designing architectural Virtual Reality from the perspective of the body
presumes a dual challenge. The body is in two places at once, one physical
world, and one virtual. They must be understood in both in the virtual and in
the physical space equally and as affected by the stimuli in both at once.
Figure 16. Steel Stair intervention

in Castelvecchio , Verona, Italy.
Carlo Scarpa
Zumthor finds great joy in material compatibility which offers endless

atmospheric possibilities, reacting to each other in unnumbered ways.
Materials converse with one another and tell different stories in this way.
In other words, putting two materials together evoke certain qualities
and reject other qualities. Materials offer endless possibilities. Different
treatments to the material will evoke a different quality. Take 2 materials and
you will duplicate the possibilities, take tree and they grow exponentially.
All combinations of materials and the possibilities within the materials will
evoke a different reaction. The perception of the material will be different
yet again under the light, the hours of the day, the temperature, and so on.
Then, we add another variable, proximity, different material combinations in
the relation of proximity become a palette of moods that the architect can
use to write the story of a place. The architect must assess how far apart or
together the materials should be to evoke the desired quality. The architect
needs to master the sense of presence and weight of materials.
The sense of presence and weight of materials are key for incorporating
this quality of the space in the Virtual environments, it is not the materials
themselves that will evoke the atmosphere but the perceived narrative told
by the quality, presence, and weight of the material in relationship to light,

distance, and treatment.
In fact, the experiment conducted by Canepa et. all found that design
elements such as color and material “offer a dynamic spectrum of perceptual
variability, capable of interplaying with the empathic sensibility of the
perceiver and reverberating in their emotive responses.”61In other words,
materials have great potential for awakening emotional responses to space.
3.3.3 The Sound of

Space
Figure 17. Quiet passage from

street into living spaces. Orvieto,
Italy
Rather tan actual sound, Zumthor talks about the perceived vibrancies that
originate in the tension between materials, particular to the form of space.
Sound in a space could also be the interpretation of the affordances of that
space, for instance, the sound of different kitchen elements bouncing with
each other, the sound of conversations in a cafe, the sound of wind in nature,
the sound of cars in a street near by, or the sound of the piano, played by
a sibling in another room of the house. Zumthor argues that even when
undressed of all the noises, real and imagined, the architecture still emits a
tone. This implies great sensitivity to imagine the affordances of the spaces
and the sounds that could be emitted in them, how they will bounce and
move in the space, how they will be absorbed, and most importantly, what
tone will the transmit.
Incorporating sound in the virtual experience adds another layer of
multisensory stimuli that provides the user of another layer of information.
But boths the sound and its absense are important qualities of the
experience. Especially if the experience is to be shared with the public on-

line where the exhibition designer loses the control of the quality, intensity,
or presence of sounds. Thus the visual quality or the perception of sound by
means of the architectural tone they emit seem to be more appropriate for
the incorporation of sound in virtual reality experiences open to the public.
Elisa Morselli presents insight into the multi-modal character of the senses
in Eyes that Hear. She states that an experience, although visual, can evoke
the sense sound. The senses are not independent but inter-modal and
qualities of one sense are naturally transferred to another, for instance,
“a tone is also referred to as high or sharp, a color as warm, or a voice as
coarse.“62 Morselli highlights that the word tone (also used by Zumthor to
describe a quality of the building) is used to refer to both sound and painting:
“the tone of a sound can be high or low, as well as the tone of a color that
can be dark or bright, but also the tone of one’s voice can brighten or darken
during a speech.” 63
The inter modality of the senses should inform the virtual experience
because it supposes that by creating an experience however visual, it
involves and awakens the other senses.
3.3.4 The Temperature of

Space
Figure 18. Maxii Museum of art.

Rome, Italy. Zaha Hadid
62 Elisa Morselli, Eyes that hear. The synesthetic representation of soundspace through
architectural photography, Ambiances [Online], 5 | 2019, Online since 20 December 2019, connection
on 20 December 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ambiances/2835
The temperature of a space is the subject of the fourth chapter, and it can be
read as the sum of the physical temperature and the psychological reaction
to space. The author assures that we can perceive temperature beyond the
climatic condition of the place. Space can feel cold or warm as interpreted by
the multimodal quality of the sensory experience. We make assertions from
the colors and textures of materials and their forms. Your grandmothers
house can feel “warm,” and “homey,“ while a modern house may feel
“cold” and “distant.” There is also the fact that the quality of the materials
(thickness, composition) can be mode or less conducive of heat. Zumthor
says “temperature in this sense is physical,but presumably psychological
too.“64 Morselli also suggest that atmospheres can only be manipulated to
an extend because changes in the climate, time of day, temperature, and
seasons, the momentary situation will in turn alter the atmosphere.65
The temperature of the space weather physical or metaphysical is an
essential component of the narrative of the place. The design strategy
should aim to evoke the necessary temperature to tell the story of a place so
that the temperature can be imprinted in the memory of the experience.
3.3.5 Surrounding
Objects
Figure 19. Sketch of Michael

Burt Studio painting in Asunción,
Paraguay. Michael Burt.
When talking about surrounding objects in the fifth chapter, the author
expresses their contribution to the atmosphere of a place. Objects become
nested in the architecture and become the footprint of the presence of
people and their personalities in the building. They become the expression
of the architecture and the inhabitants, as if their personalities could not

Birkhäuser, 2006.
be contained and spilled in a cohesive manner in the buildings corners and

nooks. The job of the architect will then also involve creating the affordances
for the collection of the objects that expand our bodies and instill life in the
places we dwell.
In the same way the objects in a house tell a particular story about the
inhabitants of the house, their desires, likes and dislikes, their taste, and
their personalities, in museums the relationship between a work of art
and the one next to it tell a narrative designed by the exhibition designer.
Linda Duke says in this way the museum can induce increasingly difficult
conversations.66
3.3.6 Between
Composure and
Seduction
Figure 20.Sketch of hallway leading

to atrium in the Royal Palace of
Caserta, Italy
In the sixth chapter, between composure and seduction, Zumthor underlines

the architect’s power to make people move through a space with enough
certainty and freedom at the same time.67 Between composure and
seduction talks about a particular tension between the architectural forms
that guide the experience and the person moving through it. In a perfect
balance of curiosity and appeal, the architecture makes the suggestions,
the person takes the decision, or strolls along. The sequence of movements
from one space to another like a voyage. Part of the composure in turn is
making a space where people want to stay. Playing the forces of composure
and seduction right, so that you feel drawn when you need to be drawn, but
you also are moved to stay, when you need to be moved to stay. By balancing
these forces, support the uses of the building.
66 Interview with Linda Duke. Beach Museum director.

Birkhäuser, 2006.
3.3.7 The Tension

Between Interior
and Exterior
Figure 21. Sketch of window

overlooking bridge in
Castelvecchio , Verona, Italy.
Carlo Scarpa
Zumthor sets a conversation between the enclosed space and the outside
world in the seventh chapter, the tension between exterior and interior,
addressing the signals that define the boundaries of space.68 First there was
only outdoors and then there was architecture. -And there was a distinction
of being outside and inside, and a threshold separating the two experiences.-
The tension also involves how we present of ourselves when we are inside.
The enclosed environment has a skin quality which is perceived from the
outside. Openings serve a dual purpose. They let the world in and let people
out in the world. The architect must asses the degree to which people and
their can be perceived from the outside by putting themselves in the shoes
of the end user. Architects must asses how much inside, and how much
inside the atmosphere is asking for. By doing so the architect sets up the
conversation between the building and its context.
In the Virtual Reality, both “inside,” and “outside,” are parts of the designers
program. The atmospheric consideration of the boundaries between inside
ans outside should be attentive of the programmatic needs.

Birkhäuser, 2006
3.3.8 Levels of Intimacy
Figure 22. Floating room. Brion

Tomb, San Vito d’Altivole near
Treviso, Italy. Carlo Scarpa
Proximity and distance in a relationship of contrast come to the scene in

chapter eight, levels of intimacy, which also attends the relationship between
humans as self, groups, and crowds.69 This section explores the experience
of a building in relationship to the body. How the body asses size of whole
and the parts of a building, and how we design with the human scale which
needs to resemble our own understanding of the size of space and things.
Levels of intimacy also refers to designing for the singular person, the group,
and the crowd. The relationships between how we feel by ourselves, when we
are in a group, or in a crowd need to be present in the continuum of design.
The spectrum of intimacy we can consider the poles of intimate and social
experiences. The experience of art in museums is many times design to
afford just the right amount of people for the mood of a place. A challenge in
Virtual reality is to incorporate the social aspect of the museum experience.
The architect need s to asses the importance of the contribution of the
viewing artwork next to someone else and how that affects the atmosphere
of the space.

Birkhäuser, 2006.
3.3.9 The Light on Things
Figure 23. Daylight passing

through the Oculus and hitting the
dome in The Pantheon. Rome, Italy.
Apollodorus of Damascus
The author focuses on how light hits material and the feelings that this
gives rise to in the ninth chapter, the light on things. Where and how light
falls on things generates a rich experience. Different materials absorb and
reflect light in different intensities. The author suggest looking at light as the
element carving trough mass and darkness from the beginning of a projects
life. The second suggesting is to go about lighting material surfaces to
elaborate a catalog of the different atmospheres that they evoke and to make
decisions about materials from the knowledge acquired in this experience.
Daylight has an spiritual character that connects the architecture with the
cosmos.
In the study conducted by Elisabetta Canepa et. all found as expected that
the arrangement with variation of lighting were described as the most
arousing and pleasant regardless of empathic predisposition.70 Light has
the magical power to create atmosphere. There is so much atmosphere in
the information of the light. We recognize “the morning light,“ “the mid day
light,“ and the favorite of the young people of today, “the golden hour.“ They
have very different effects as it washes down walls and textures, hitting
bumps, and generating a tapestry of emotional content. Passing through the
Oculus and hitting the dome in The Pantheon, these cylinder of light in itself
tells the whole story of one of the most complex and iconic buildings of all
times.
Within the architecture of museums, exhibition designers manipulate
the space available to them to create what Guler calls an ambiance71 for
the display of the elements. Guler suggest that the perception of the visitor
will be shaped by the ambiance the exhibition designer generates with the
manipulation of light, color, texture, materials, and sound. In a way, the
ambiance of the design exhibition is the smaller scale ‘atmosphere‘ that
links the elements in a space by the narrative selected by the exhibition
designer
3.4 Exhibition Design Artworks in museums are purposely displayed in specific arrangement
designed by exhibition designers to tell a story and evoke meaning.
Process Understanding the exhibition design process is essential to manipulate this
scale of museum design. Exhibition design is a multidisciplinary field that
includes design for multiple exhibition types, including art exhibition.
In the second chapter of Simulating Visitor Behavior Kutay Guler
addresses the exhibition design process.72 Guler says exhibition design
is the organization of exhibit elements and its environment to tell a story,
share an idea, or introduce a brand. The visitor and the experience are
the heart of exhibition design. Guler addresses the multi-range nature of
the exhibition designer responsibilities, including expertise from various
fields. The exhibition designer is like a “film director” says Guler, referring
to the articulatory role of the designer fulfills. Experts from other fields are
usually participatory of the design exhibition experience. The exhibition
designer articulates the participation of each discipline to conduct the
exhibition towards a common goal and story. Prof. Guler highlights that
the multidisciplinary nature of the design exhibition enriches the process
of exhibition design. The context of the exhibition demands unique design
approaches, each of them requires a different response and affords a
particular audience profile. Understanding context, audience, and exhibition
needs can enhance visitor satisfaction. The properties of the exhibit
elements vary upon the context of the exhibition. Context, target-audience,
and properties of the exhibit are all subject to the variable of time. Prof.
Guler says exhibitions can be permanent, temporary, or traveling. This will
also affect the design requirements and process affecting the construction,
dismantling, transportation, and location of the exhibition. Guler introduces
the exhibition design process and its four phases including: preparation
process, design process, realization process, and life cycle of the exhibition.
The introduction to the exhibition design process serves as a substantial
framework for understanding the many layers and scales of a virtual reality
architectural strategy design for a museum. The artwork is nested within
the world, the country, the state, the city, the museum architecture, and
yet another layer is the exhibition in which it is displayed. The exhibition
design input serves to understand how exhibition designer creates meaning
from programming, research, design, construction, and life of the project.
However, contrary to the exhibition design, where exhibition designers adapt
the artworks to the existing architecture, virtual reality exhibitions could
instead adapt the architecture to the art. Understanding how exhibition
designers manipulate the space can inform the Virtual Reality architectural
experience that is born from the interpretation of the artwork. For example,
from understanding exhibition design, architects learn that the essence of

exhibition design is lighting design. Through lighting, exhibition designers
explore the necessary contrast, temperature, color, quantity, of light this
information contributes to ensure the best ambience for the museum visitor
even in virtual reality.
3.4.2 The preparation The preparation process includes quantitative data like budget, visitor
profile, and venue characteristics but aside from pragmatic considerations,
processes the preparation process also includes qualitative data like the essence of
the institution’s vision, mission, image, public programs, and others. During
this phase, the exhibition designer collects the material that will inform the
design process. After the preparation phase a guiding design concept should
be formed to support the following design decisions.
3.4.2 The design process In the design process, the design evolves to reach all the goals of the
exhibition in a nonlinear process that ends in the design documentation.
Guler states that the most important design decision is to determine the
mode of presentation. Rather than designing a layout the designer should
focus on designing an experience for the visitor. The primary concern is
on the relationship of the elements and the context. Prof. Guler includes 4
areas of focus for the design process including structure of the exhibition,
ambiance, ergonomics and accessibility, exhibition graphics. The visitor
profile may aid in determining the correct choice.
In the section of structure of the exhibition he discusses the approaches for
organizing elements in an exhibition, the importance of the active visitor, and
the method of display. Approaches for organizing elements in an exhibition
include the chronological approach, and the narrative approach. The better
approach should be determined in accordance with the visitor information.
Kutay Guler says that rather than perceiving the visitor as a passive
receiver of the information, it is important to consider the visitor as actively
engaged in the exhibition.73 Because of this exhibition design is a unique
opportunity to create long lasting memories and effectively learn in a more
engaging environment that traditional approaches grant. The exhibition
designer should decide the necessity for a display case or an open view. The
way in which the elements are display will contribute to the physical and
psychological understanding of the artwork.
In the section about Ambience, Guler suggest that the ambience design
will contribute significantly to the experience of the user. According to
Guler, “form, color, material, texture, lighting, additional graphics, and even
construction details of displays contribute to ambience.”74 Lighting design
is an essential component of the exhibition design. The two types of lighting
are natural and artificial lighting. Both contribute to different aspects of
the ambiance design. The exhibition designer should carefully consider the
selection of lighting quantity, quality, and fixtures. The author encourages
the use of both natural and artificial light for diversity and dynamism. The
author recommends the use of color, material, and texture, to provide visual
diversity. Color can contribute to the storytelling aspect of exhibition design
as it contributes to a memorable experience. Color, material, texture, and
sound take part in the creating of the ambiance of the exhibition. When
carefully designed, sound can be beneficial for many purposes including
directing attention, blocking unwanted noise, and way-finding. The designers
should be cautious to avoid the discomfort and confusion caused by sound.
Guler addressed the human scale in ergonomics and accessibility.
Ergonomics are concerned with designing for the human dimensions and
movements. The exhibition designer must also address the accessibility of
the exhibition space. Accessibility means allowing independent movement
through an exhibition despite physical, visual, or aural challenges.75 Way
finding should be carefully designed, and path should be intuitive. Other
mediums such as maps and signs could aid in way-finding.
When addressing exhibition graphics, Guler suggests the information
should be limited to what is vital to tell the story. Graphics have the ability
to strengthen the narrative of the exhibition. Text should be looked at
considerably avoiding common mistakes. Accessibility is key.
Guler offers insight from the design field navigating the many modes of
presentations that can inform project stake holders about the path taken.
The exhibition designer should plan the construction and maintenance of the
exhibitions ahead to avoid damage to the exhibition elements and ensure the
LiveCycle of the project.76
The information about the design process of the exhibition design is
fundamentally applicable to museum scale. Exhibition design expertise
informs the architect of the advancements made in this field. The process
can have an impact in the architectural design as another layer of refinement
that will contribute to the cohesiveness of the overall narrative. Exhibition
design offers input in areas challenges that exhibition designers face and
how to overcome them. In Virtual Reality, the narrative of the exhibition
design needs to be a strong aspect of design to maintain the public engaged.
3.4 Lighting Design One of the most essential aspects of exhibition design is lighting design.77
Lighting design serves multiple purposes in museums.78 Lighting designers
need to be consider lighting principles, lighting the display area, lighting
the exhibits, consider material degradation, daylight, and electric light,
showcase lighting, specific object lighting requirements, and lighting
controls.79 Even though not all of them are applicable to the design of virtual
76
78 Elizabeth Gay Hunt, “Study of Museum Lighting and Desing” (San Marcos, TX, Texas State
University, 2009).
CIBSE, 2015).
reality exhibitions spaces, there is a lot of information that could inform the
experience since lighting design for physical museums has a long history.
The guide developed by the SSL will be used to asses the lighting
components necessary in the exhibition spaces.80 The lighting guide:
Lighting for museums and art galleries provides a comprehensive
understanding of lighting considerations concerning museums and art
galleries providing good examples of lighting best practices.
3.4 Ergonomics Addressing the human scale in the virtual environment is a task of both
the physical and virtual environments. Even though the designer might not
have control upon the spaces where people access the virtual environment
remotely, some consideration that spaced must de analyzed. The
information gathered in this process can inform the instructions suggested
to the remote users and also museums wanting to incorporate the virtual
experience in their spaces. For example if the space where the virtual reality
is too small, it will result in limited mobility and a restrained experience. If
the space is too big or too noisy, it might distract too much from the virtual
reality environment.81
Figure 24.Vitruvian man meets VR
CIBSE, 2015).
81 Roberto Antonio Montaño Murillo, “Erg-O: Ergonomic Optimization of Immersive Virtual
Environments,” October 2017, 13.
Figure 25.Ergonomics of the virtual
Figure 26.Ergonomics of the virtual
Figure 27.Ergonomicas of the

virtual
3.5 The collection The Marianne Beach Museum of art Director, Linda Duke and staff prepared
a collection of meaningful artwork from the museum’s collection for the
purpose of this thesis work. The collection includes 15 artworks of artists
from diverse backgrounds that at some point of their life had a personal
encounter with the Kansas environment and this influenced their work.
The selected artworks comprise a variety of mediums including painting,
sculpture, photography, and collage. The artworks will be examined first
individually, then by groups, and finally in the complete narrative of the
exhibition. Each artwork will be looked at under the lenses of the nine
atmospheric qualities of space to asses the right mood for the experience
of it. Then, they will be grouped in terms similarity of the atmosphere that
needs to be design for its viewing. The exhibition design processes will
supplement this scale of the design alongside with the lighting design.82
82 “Label List with Dimensions” (Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, November 30, 2020).
3.5.1. Red Prairie With Bison
Figure 28.Red Prairie With

Bison
Hard Data:
Artist/Maker: Patricia DuBose Duncan (United States, born 1932), MAKER
Date: 1990
Object Title: Red Prairie With Bison
Medium: Acrylic on canvas
Dimensions: 60 x 46 in (152.4 x 116.9 cm) FRAME 61 x 47 1/8 in (FRAME
155 x 119.7 cm)
Credit Line: KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Nancy
Landon Kassebaum Baker, Burdick, Kansas
Atmospheric qualities:
[placeholder] The atmospheric qualities assessment will be conducted in
person to address the three dimensional aspects of the artwork.
The Body of Architecture

Material Compatibility
The Sound of Space
The Temperature of Space
Surrounding Objects
Between Composure and Seduction
The Tension Between Interior and Exterior
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.5.2. Gordon Parks at Konza
Prairie
Figure 29.Gordon Parks at Konza

Prairie
Hard Data:
Accession No.: 1998.74
Artist/Maker: Patricia DuBose Duncan (United States, born 1932), MAKER
Date: 20th century
Object Title: Gordon Parks at Konza Prairie
Medium: Chromogenic print
Dimensions: IMAGE 8 15/16 x 13 3/8 in. (IMAGE 227 x 340 mm)
Credit Line: KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the artist

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects

Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.5.3. Mrs. Jefferson
Figure 30.Mrs. Jefferson
Hard Data:
Accession No. 2002.258
Artist/Maker: Gordon Parks Alexander Buchanan Parks (United States,
1912 - 2006), MAKER Kansas State University Friends of Art (United States,
established 1929), PUBLISHER
Date: 1949, printed 1993
Object Title: Mrs. Jefferson
Medium: Gelatin silver print
Dimensions: IMAGE/SHEET 10 15/16 x 12 1/2 in (IMAGE/SHEET 278 x 318
mm)
Credit Line: KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, 1993 Friends Gift
Print

The Sound of Space

Surrounding Objects
3.5.4. Post Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
Figure 31.Post
Hard Data:
Artist/Maker: Vernon Brejcha (United States, born 1942), MAKER
Date: 2002
Object Title: Post
Portfolio/Series Tittle: The Tenacious Fenceline series
Medium: Earthenware, glass, paint, and plastic
Dimensions: 36 x 8 x 7 in (91.44 x 20.32 x 17.78 cm)
Credit Line: KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Scott Vance
and Sharon Kootz Vance

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
3.5.5. Title unknown (bowl) Between Composure and Seduction
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
Figure 32.Title unknown

(bowl)
Hard Data:
Artist/Maker: Angelo C. Garzio (United States, born Italy, 1922 - 2008),
MAKER
Date: 20th century
Object Title: Title unknown (bowl)
Medium: Stoneware
Dimensions: 5 3/4 x 9 1/4 x 8 5/8 in (14.61 x 23.5 x 21.91 cm)
Credit Line: KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Dr. Jean C.
Sloop

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.5.6. To Love Madrid
Figure 33.To Love Madrid
Hard Data:
Artist/Maker: Margo Kren (United States, born 1939), MAKER - Jan Olewnik
(United States, born 1951), MAKER
Date: 1997 - 2007
Object Title: To Love Madrid
Medium: Charcoal, oil, gesso, copper, silver and variegated leaf (drawing)
with wenge and bird’s eye maple (frame)
Dimensions 59 x 55 x 13 in (149.86 x 139.7 x 33.02 cm)
Credit Line: KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Donald J.
Mrozek and R. Scott Dorman

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.5.7. Title unknown

(dancer)
Figure 34.Title unknown

(dancer)

Artist/Maker Shirley Smith (United States, 1929 - 2013), MAKER
Date ca. 2005
Object Title Title unknown (dancer)
Portfolio/Series Tittle
Medium Collage on paper
Dimensions IMAGE/SHEET 11 x 9 in (IMAGE/SHEET 280 x 229 mm)
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the estate
of Shirley Smith

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.5.8. Soft Landing
Figure 35.Soft Landing


Date 1970
Object Title Soft Landing
Medium Acrylic on unbleached muslin and acrylic on stone
Dimensions 66 x 89 x 66 in (167.64 x 226.06 x 167.64 cm)
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the estate
of Shirley Smith

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.5.9. Pinwheel of Growth and

Development
Figure 36.Pinwheel of Growth and

Development

Artist/Maker Chester E. Peters (United States, 1922 - 1995), MAKER
Date 1972
Object Title Pinwheel of Growth and Development
Medium Redwood, bloodwood, walnut, ash, sycamore, cherry, and
mahogany wood with metal and felt
Dimensions approximately 80 x 40 in (approximately 203.2 x 101.6 cm)
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the Doris
Peters Trust

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.4.10. Title unknown (tower with

figure)
Figure 37.Title unknown (tower

with figure)

Date ca. 1990
Object Title Title unknown (tower with figure)
Medium Walnut, zebra wood, teak, cherry, mahogany, wenge, and
white oak
Dimensions 34 1/2 x 4 7/8 x 5 1/8 in
87 x 11.5 x 13.5 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the Doris
Peters Trust

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.4.11. Big Bluestem (andropogon Accession No. 2016.126

gerardi) Artist/Maker James (Jim) C. Richardson (United
States, born 1947), MAKER
Date 2014, printed 2016
Object Title Big Bluestem (andropogon gerardi)
Portfolio/Series Tittle Prairie Roots series
Medium Inkjet print on paper
Dimensions IMAGE/SHEET 116 x 24 in (IMAGE/
SHEET 2947 x 610 mm)
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach
Museum of Art
[placeholder] The atmospheric qualities
assessment will be conducted in person to
address the three dimensional aspects of the
artwork.

Figure 38.Big Bluestem
(andropogon gerardi)
The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.4.12. Western Wheatgrass Accession No. U11.2016

(Kernza) Artist/Maker James (Jim) C. Richardson (United
States, born 1947), MAKER
Object Title Western Wheatgrass (Kernza)
Portfolio/Series Tittle Prairie Roots series
Dimensions IMAGE/SHEET 116 x 24 in
IMAGE/SHEET 2947 x 610 mm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach
Museum of Art
[placeholder] The atmospheric qualities
assessment will be conducted in person to
address the three dimensional aspects of the
artwork.

Figure 39.Western Wheatgrass
(Kernza)
The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.4.13. Spring: Evolving

Fishes
Figure 40.Spring: Evolving

Fishes

Artist/Maker Margo Kren (United States, born 1939), MAKER
Date 1998
Object Title Spring: Evolving Fishes
Medium Oil on plywood with silver and gold leaf and wooden frame
with metal hinges
Dimensions FOLDED 60 x 24 x 4 in -FOLDED 152.4 x 60.96 x 10.16 cm
LEFT PANEL 56 x 17 3/4 x 3/4 in
CENTER PANEL 60 x 24 x 3/4 in
RIGHT PANEL 52 x 17 3/4 x 3/4 in
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Margo
Kren

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.4.14. Energy
Figure 41.Energy

Artist/Maker Yoshiro Ikeda (United States, born Japan, 1947 - 2014),
MAKER
Date 2001
Object Title Energy
Medium Glazed stoneware and magnesium carbonate
Dimensions 22 x 13 1/2 x 5 1/2 in
55.88 x 34.29 x 13.97 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift in honor of
Yoshi’s love of clay by Ester and their children Nina and Seiji Ikeda

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.4.15. Emerging Man
Figure 42.Emerging Man


Artist/Maker Gordon Roger Alexander Buchanan Parks (United States,
1912 - 2006), MAKER
Object Title Emerging Man
Medium Gelatin silver print
Dimensions IMAGE 9 x 11 7/8 in
IMAGE 229 x 301 mm
SHEET 11 x 14 in
SHEET 278 x 354 mm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Gordon
Parks and the Gordon Parks Foundation

The Sound of Space
Surrounding Objects
Levels of Intimacy
The Light on Things
3.6 The history The analysis of the soft data, the information about the artist history and
relationship with the Beach Museums, is pending information of great
value for creating a museum and exhibition spaces that are born from the
interpretation of the art.
4.0 Space List Space List (expanded and totally inclusive) and space list articulation based
on the affordances of space, embodiment, and atmosphere(s). Include all
site features as well, plazas, gardens, parking, etc.
Amidst a pandemic, museums struggle to provide a remote immersive
experience. In the attempt to reach their audiences, many museums have
gathered efforts to create virtual exhibitions. Many of these consist in a
two-dimensional collection of well-crafted photographs of the art. These
presentations are very different from the aesthetic experience physical
museums offer.
Virtual two-dimensional exhibitions lack the psychological cues of
navigating spaces. We absorb information from the architectural affordances
of a space these cues prime us for the aesthetic experience. “You just
click on a link and you’re there immediately, which means that virtual
spaces can’t have all of the very necessary psychological kind of threshold
spaces that real architecture has.” Thresholds in architecture mean more
than the framing element that signals the passing from one space to the
other, “It also has physical, psychological, emotional, social, economic, etc.
meanings” says Ebru Alakavuk.83
4.1 Virtual Reality Transition Space

Spaces Entry
Thresholds
Galleries
Gallery 1
Gallery 2
Gallery 3
Gallery 4:
Circulation
Exit
Site 1
Site 2
83 Ebru Alakavuk, “Threshold Approaches to Architectural Design Studio,” SHS Web of

Conferences, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20184801046.
4.2 Physical space Addressing the human scale in the virtual environment is a task of both
the physical and virtual environments. Even though the designer might not
have control upon the spaces where people access the virtual environment
remotely, some consideration that spaced must de analyzed. The
information gathered in this process can inform the instructions suggested
to the remote users and also museums wanting to incorporate the virtual
experience in their spaces. For example if the space where the virtual reality
is too small, it will result in limited mobility and a restrained experience. If
the space is too big or too noisy, it might distract too much from the virtual
reality environment.84
More considerations and research on this topic need to be made to asses the
84 Roberto Antonio Montaño Murillo, “Erg-O: Ergonomic Optimization of Immersive Virtual
Figure 43. The Vitruvian men

experience of the virtual reality.
5.0 Precedents ergonomics of the ideal space for the virtual reality experience.
The precedent research includes a drawing analysis of buildings that have
been successful in incorporating the qualities of the atmospheres lay out by
Peter Zumthor. They are architectural projects that have influenced many
architects in the passing of time. The main goal is to acquire qualitative
data of the spaces to be able to implement the spatial strategies that
where employed to achieve such qualities. The projects are also selected
in relevance to the scale. Virtual experiences should not exceed a limited
amount of time necessary for the experience of art. Time and scale go hand
and hand. The architect should asses the right scale and amount of time in
the virtual environment to make the experience comfortable.
5.1 The Kauffman

House Richard Neutra.
Kaufmann House.
Palms Springs, California
1946-1947
The Kauffman house is a summer residence Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. and his
family.85 The main idea of the house is pinwheel. Planes in offset are the
main space defining elements around a central social house.
The house sits gratefully in the Palms Spring landscape. Neutral manages
to define a diverse relationship with the landscape through the means of
enclosure and openings. Neutra’s use of find and shades interrupt the view
of the landscape in a dynamic interplay mass and void. This is a strategy
that he uses in many areas of the desert house. Even in the northern wall
leading to the guests bedrooms.
The use of the wall as a basic architecture element around which all of the
usses of the building are supported highlight Neutra’s spatial expertise. This
understanding of the intersection of the planes, infinitely extending in the
landscape and how that facilitates vistas extending in all direction is why the
house is an example of architectural best practices and is of relevance for
creating virtual space.
Environments,” October 2017, 13.

85 Andrew Kroll. “AD Classics: Kaufmann House / Richard Neutra” 16 Jan 2011. ArchDaily.
Accessed 27 Nov 2020. <https://www.archdaily.com/104112/ad-classics-kaufmann-house-richard-
neutra> ISSN 0719-8884
Figure 44. Kaufmaan dessert

House Floor plan. [Placeholder for
sketch and watercolor study]
Figure 45.Kaufmaan dessert House

mountain view [Placeholder for
sketch and watercolor study]
Figure 46.
Figure 47.Kaufmaan dessert House

Elevations and section [Placeholder
for sketch and watercolor study]
5.2 Klaus Field Chapel

Peter Zumthor
Klaus Field Chapel
Mechernich, Germany
2007
The expert on Atmospheres, Peter Zumthor designed a chapel for local

farmes wanting to honor their patron Saint, Klaus Field.86 The construction
of the chapel is one of the most interesting aspects of it. Wooden post where
sen in an organic array, then concrete was poured over. Once the concrete
had curated, the posts where set on fire. What remained is one of the most
powerful statements on architectural atmosphere. The Chapel is open to the
natural environment in the oculus on the top. This makes it permeable and
subject to atmospheric transformation depending on day, time, climate, and
season.
Figure 48.Bruder Klaus Field

Chapel / Peter Zumthor plan and
sections [Placeholder for sketch
and watercolor study]
86 Megan Sveiven, “Bruder Klaus Field Chapel / Peter Zumthor,” ArchDaily, January 26, 2011,
https://www.archdaily.com/106352/bruder-klaus-field-chapel-peter-zumthor.
Figure 49.Bruder Klaus Field

Chapel - Peter Zumthor inside the
Chapel [Placeholder for sketch and
watercolor study]
Figure 50. Bruder Klaus Field

Chapel - Peter Zumthor inside the
Chapel [Placeholder for sketch and
watercolor study]
5.2 Wall House 2 John Hejduk

Wall House 2
Construction architects: John Hejduk, Thomas Muller/van Raimann
Architekten & Otonomo Architecten
Groningen, The Netherlands
Design: 1973, construction: 2001
Hejduk is recognized for merging Surrealist sculpture, Cubist paintings

and architecture.87 In his design, we can recognize his perspective on the
elements of architecture. The wall in the Wall House abandons its structural
duty to serve a poetic endeavor. The wall separates but also unites. This
poetic interpretation of architectural elements transcending its material
responsibilities contributes to a reflexive nature of architecture.
Figure 51.John Hejduk - Wall

House 2 [Placeholder for sketch
87 Megan Sveiven, “AD Classics: Wall House 2 / John Hejduk, Thomas Muller/van Raimann
Architekten & Otonomo Architecten,” ArchDaily, February 6, 2012, https://www.archdaily.
com/205541/ad-classics-wall-house-2-john-hejduk.
Figure 52.John Hejduk - Wall

House 2 [Placeholder for sketch
Figure 53.
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7.0 Appendix
Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art Label List with dimensions Page
11/30/2020 1
Artist/Maker Patricia DuBose Duncan (United States, born 1932), MAKER
Date 1990
Object Title Red Prairie With Bison
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Acrylic on canvas
Dimensions 60 x 46 in
152.4 x 116.9 cm
FRAME 61 x 47 1/8 in
FRAME 155 x 119.7 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Nancy Landon Kassebaum
Baker, Burdick, Kansas
48328

Artist/Maker Patricia DuBose Duncan (United States, born 1932), MAKER
Date 20th century
Object Title Gordon Parks at Konza Prairie
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Chromogenic print
Dimensions IMAGE 8 15/16 x 13 3/8 in
IMAGE 227 x 340 mm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the artist
42305

Artist/Maker Gordon Roger Alexander Buchanan Parks (United States, 1912 - 2006), MAKER
Kansas State University Friends of Art (United States, established 1929), PUBLISHER
Object Title Mrs. Jefferson
Portfolio/Series Ti
Dimensions IMAGE/SHEET 10 15/16 x 12 1/2 in
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, 1993 Friends Gift Print
39140

Artist/Maker Vernon Brejcha (United States, born 1942), MAKER
Date 2002
Object Title Post
Portfolio/Series Ti The Tenacious Fenceline series
Medium Earthenware, glass, paint, and plastic
Dimensions 36 x 8 x 7 in
91.44 x 20.32 x 17.78 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Scott Vance and Sharon
Kootz Vance
37199
11/30/2020 2
Artist/Maker Angelo C. Garzio (United States, born Italy, 1922 - 2008), MAKER
Date 20th century
Object Title Title unknown (bowl)
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Stoneware
Dimensions 5 3/4 x 9 1/4 x 8 5/8 in
14.61 x 23.5 x 21.91 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Dr. Jean C. Sloop
35728

Jan Olewnik (United States, born 1951), MAKER
Date 1997 - 2007
Object Title To Love Madrid
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Charcoal, oil, gesso, copper, silver and variegated leaf (drawing) with wenge and bird's eye maple (frame)
149.86 x 139.7 x 33.02 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Donald J. Mrozek and R.
Scott Dorman
34225

Date ca. 2005
Object Title Title unknown (dancer)
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Collage on paper
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the estate of Shirley Smith
48422

Date 1970
Object Title Soft Landing
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Acrylic on unbleached muslin and acrylic on stone
167.64 x 226.06 x 167.64 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the estate of Shirley Smith
56184
11/30/2020 3
Date 1972
Object Title Pinwheel of Growth and Development
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Redwood, bloodwood, walnut, ash, sycamore, cherry, and mahogany wood with metal and felt
Dimensions approximately 80 x 40 in
approximately 203.2 x 101.6 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the Doris Peters Trust
49950

Date ca. 1990
Object Title Title unknown (tower with figure)
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Walnut, zebra wood, teak, cherry, mahogany, wenge, and white oak
Dimensions 34 1/2 x 4 7/8 x 5 1/8 in
87 x 11.5 x 13.5 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of the Doris Peters Trust
49985

Artist/Maker James (Jim) C. Richardson (United States, born 1947), MAKER
Object Title Big Bluestem (andropogon gerardi)
Portfolio/Series Ti Prairie Roots series
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art
50860

Date 1998
Object Title Spring: Evolving Fishes
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Oil on plywood with silver and gold leaf and wooden frame with metal hinges
Dimensions FOLDED 60 x 24 x 4 in
FOLDED 152.4 x 60.96 x 10.16 cm
LEFT PANEL 56 x 17 3/4 x 3/4 in
CENTER PANEL 60 x 24 x 3/4 in
RIGHT PANEL 52 x 17 3/4 x 3/4 in
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Margo Kren
57368
11/30/2020 4
Artist/Maker Yoshiro Ikeda (United States, born Japan, 1947 - 2014), MAKER
Date 2001
Object Title Energy
Portfolio/Series Ti
Medium Glazed stoneware and magnesium carbonate
Dimensions 22 x 13 1/2 x 5 1/2 in
55.88 x 34.29 x 13.97 cm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift in honor of Yoshi's love of clay
by Ester and their children Nina and Seiji Ikeda
54892

Artist/Maker Gordon Roger Alexander Buchanan Parks (United States, 1912 - 2006), MAKER
Object Title Emerging Man
Portfolio/Series Ti
Dimensions IMAGE 9 x 11 7/8 in
IMAGE 229 x 301 mm
SHEET 11 x 14 in
SHEET 278 x 354 mm
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, gift of Gordon Parks and the
Gordon Parks Foundation
58746
Accession No. U11.2016

Artist/Maker James (Jim) C. Richardson (United States, born 1947), MAKER
Object Title Western Wheatgrass (Kernza)
Portfolio/Series Ti Prairie Roots series
Credit Line KSU, Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art
50851
This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
Lighting for the
Lighting for the built environment — LG8: Lighting for museums and art galleries
built environment
LG8: Lighting for museums and art galleries
The Society of Light and Lighting
ISBN 978-1-906846-49-7
The Society of Light and Lighting is part of the The Society of

Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 9 781906 846497 Light and Lighting
LG8 cover v2.indd 1 05/11/2014 14:25

Lighting Guide 8:
Lighting for museums
and art galleries
The Society of
Light and Lighting
222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS, UK
Tel: 020 8675 5211. Fax: 020 8673 3302. E-mail: sll@cibse.org. www.sll.org.uk
The Society of Light and Lighting is part of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
LG8 (AD v2).indd 1 16/12/2014 15:42

This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication.
However, no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay
however caused resulting from the use of these recommendations can be accepted
by the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, the Society of Light
and Lighting, the author or others involved in its publication. In adopting
these recommendations for use each adopter by doing so agrees to accept full
responsibility for any personal injury, death, loss, damage or delay arising out of
or in connection with their use by or on behalf of such adopter irrespective of the
cause or reason therefore and agrees to defend, indemnify and hold harmless the
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, The Society of Light and
Lighting, the author and others involved in their publication from any and all
liability arising out of or in connection with such use as aforesaid and irrespective
of any negligence on the part of those indemnified.
The rights of publication or translation are reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the
publisher.
© January 2015 The Society of Light and Lighting
The Society is part of CIBSE which is a registered charity, number 278104.
ISBN 978-1-906846-49-7 (print edition)

ISBN 978-1-906846-87-9 (PDF edition)
Layout and typesetting by Alasdair Deas for CIBSE Publications.
Printed in Great Britain by Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd., Norwich, Norfolk NR6 6SA
Cover photograph: Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.

(© Nic Lehoux Photography)
Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible
for the design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of
building services. It is not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will
be necessary for users of the guidance given to exercise their own professional
judgement when deciding whether to abide by or depart from it.
Any commercial products depicted, mentioned or described within this

publication are included for the purposes of illustration only and their inclusion
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation by the Society.
LG8 (AD v2).indd 2 16/12/2014 15:42

Foreword
This publication is one of a series produced by the Society of Light and Lighting
(SLL), part of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE),
which focus on different aspects of lighting design. This particular guide deals
with lighting for museums, galleries, historic houses and other places where
historic and cultural artefacts are displayed. It is aimed at those who bear
responsibility for the design, management and operation of lighting, including
architects, exhibition designers, interior designers, electrical engineers who are
directly involved with design aspects and curators, managers and operational
staff of museums who have direct responsibility for day-to-day management,
installation and operation of museum lighting.
This guide has been written in a time of unprecedented change in lighting. We are
seeing the advent of an entirely new type of light source – the LED, we have much
new published work and guidance on conservation of museum objects and we are
subject to considerable pressure to minimise energy use. We also have new legislation
to deal with, which affects the availability of different types of lamp, and frequently
updated Building Regulations limiting energy use in buildings of all types. We have
aimed to capture much of this change in this new edition of the guide.
The Task Group responsible for this publication, whose names are listed below,
includes lighting designers, museum conservators, curators, lighting researchers
and academics who have voluntarily contributed their time and expertise to
writing and editing. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged by the
Institution. The Institution is also grateful for permission to reproduce the
photographs provided by various organisations and people who are acknowledged.
Task Group and contributors

Kevan Shaw (chairman)
Linda Bullock (Linda Bullock Conservation)
Andy Calver (St Alban’s Museum)
Stephen Cannon-Brookes (CB Lighting)
Christopher Cuttle (Consultant)
Arfon Davies (Arup Lighting)
David Loe (Consultant)
Boris Pretzel (Victoria and Albert Museum)
Devki Raj-Guru (LittleFish Lighting, USA)
John Roles (Leeds Museums)
Paul Ruffles (Lighting Design & Technology)
David Saunders (The British Museum)
Mike Simpson (Philips Lighting)
Technical editor
Tad Trylski (LightBureau)
Technical secretary
John Fitzpatrick
Final updates
Paul Ruffles (Lighting Design & Technology)
SLL secretary
Brendan Keely
CIBSE Head of Knowledge

Nicholas Peake
Editorial Manager
Ken Butcher
LG8 (AD v2).indd 3 16/12/2014 15:42

Acknowledgements
The task group is also grateful to the editor and the technical secretary for their
assistance with the final stages of publication.
Diagrams and additional photography by Paul Ruffles (LD&T).
Picture credits:
AlphaLED (Figure 7.6b); Charles G. Young, Interactive Design Architects
(Figure 6.4b); Concord Lighting (Figure 7.6a); Erco Lighting Limited (Figure
7.7); Kevan Shaw Lighting Design (Figures 3.2, 3.3, 3.8, 4.6, 6.3a, 6.10, 6.11, 7.2,
7.3, 8.6, 10.1); Lighting Design & Technology (Figures 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.9a, 2.9b,
2.10, 3.1, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.9, 4.7, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.3b, 6.8, 6.9, 7.4, 7.5, 8.5, 8.7, 8.8, 9.1
and 10.2); Martine Hamilton Knight/Builtvision (Figure 3.4); National Trust/
Paul Kay (Figure 5.3); Nic Lehoux (Figure 6.6b); Opti-Kinetics (Figure 7.1);
Richard Bryant (Figure 6.7b); RPBW (Figures 6.4a, 6.6a, 6.7a); Scott-Frances
(Figure 6.5a); Thomas Phifer & Partners (Figure 6.5b).
Thank you to all the institutions that gave us permission to take photographs
– the locations of the various interiors shown are indicated in the captions
accompanying the pictures.
LG8 (AD v2).indd 4 16/12/2014 15:42

Contents 1 Introduction........................................................................1
2 Lighting principles..............................................................1
2.1 Viewing conditions....................................................................................1
2.2 Visual adaptation......................................................................................2
2.3 Contrast ratios..........................................................................................2
2.4 Colour appearance....................................................................................3
2.5 Colour rendering.......................................................................................4
2.6 Backgrounds to exhibits............................................................................5
2.7 Glare.........................................................................................................6
2.8 Modelling.................................................................................................7
2.9 Accent lighting..........................................................................................7
3 Lighting the interior or display area.................................8

3.1 Daylight in the space.................................................................................8
3.2 Electric light..............................................................................................9
3.3 Combining daylight and electric lighting....................................................9
3.4 Access and security lighting.......................................................................9
3.5 Emergency lighting..................................................................................10
3.6 Historic interiors......................................................................................11
3.7 Temporary exhibition galleries..................................................................15
3.8 Events and corporate entertainment........................................................17
3.9 The shop.................................................................................................18
3.10 The cafe..................................................................................................19
4 Lighting the exhibits........................................................20

4.1 Locating spotlights..................................................................................20
4.2 Contrast..................................................................................................23
4.3 Overall balance........................................................................................23
4.4 Experimentation and mock-ups...............................................................24
5 Considering material degradation..................................24

5.1 Use of light in the culture of materials conservation.................................24
5.2 Conservation categories..........................................................................26
5.3 Light: visibility, illumination and change...................................................27
5.4 Effect of light on materials......................................................................28
5.5 Factors affecting the destructive effects of light.......................................31
5.6 Reducing the damaging effects of light...................................................31
6 Use and control of daylight.............................................35

6.1 Daylight and annual exposure.................................................................35
6.2 Roof-lights..............................................................................................35
6.3 Windows in gallery walls.........................................................................39
6.4 Supplementary electric light....................................................................40
6.5 Daylight evaluation techniques................................................................41
6.6 Summary................................................................................................42
LG8 (AD v2).indd 5 16/12/2014 15:42

7 Selection and use of electric light...................................42
7.1 Ratio of general lighting to exhibit lighting..............................................43
7.2 Choice of lamp.......................................................................................43
7.3 Light fitting accessories...........................................................................48
7.4 Framing projectors..................................................................................49
7.5 Track systems..........................................................................................50
7.6 Alternatives to track................................................................................52
7.7 Lighting walls..........................................................................................53
7.8 Concealed and indirect lighting...............................................................54
7.9 Fibre-optic systems..................................................................................55
7.10 Picture lights...........................................................................................56
8 Showcase lighting.............................................................56
8.1 Externally lit cases...................................................................................57
8.2 Internally lit cases....................................................................................59
9 Lighting controls...............................................................62
9.1 General strategy......................................................................................62
9.2 Simple control of lighting........................................................................62
9.3 Automatic control...................................................................................63
9.4 Combined control of daylight and electric light.......................................63
9.5 Light-measuring cells...............................................................................63
9.6 Sophisticated whole building lighting controls.........................................64
9.7 Controls and audio-visual systems...........................................................64
10 Energy efficiency, maintenance and costs.......................65

10.1 Costs (capital and operating)...................................................................65
10.2 Maintenance...........................................................................................65
10.3 Energy efficiency.....................................................................................67
Appendix 1: Recommendations for lighting

object categories.....................................................69
Appendix 2: Beam angles from spotlights...................................77
Appendix 3: List of artificial skies available for

hire in the UK...........................................................79
Appendix 4: Decision tree for lighting within

historic showrooms..................................................80
Glossary..........................................................................................81
References.....................................................................................86
Bibliography and further reading................................................86
Index ...........................................................................................88
LG8 (AD v2).indd 6 16/12/2014 15:42

Introduction 1
1 Introduction This guide addresses lighting issues specific to museum and gallery buildings.
One such consideration is that responsibility for lighting design may be spread
among a diverse group, which can include lighting designers, curators, architects,
engineers, conservators, facilities managers, maintenance staff and private
collectors. Clarifying who is responsible for lighting is a necessary precursor
to making design decisions. However, to avoid repetition, this publication has
adopted the term ‘lighting designer’ to describe the individual or group with this
responsibility.
The presence of materials sensitive to light radiation introduces another range

of challenges not normally encountered in general lighting practice and this
guide aims also to provide assistance with the identification of these issues and
their reconciliation in the design and management of buildings. The increased
number of conservation categories adopted in this (revised) guide is intended to
assist the lighting designer in selecting appropriate solutions for the wide range
of materials that are light sensitive. Consideration of controlling light exposure
is an issue that sets this guide apart from other Society of Light and Lighting
(SLL) published guidance, which generally covers lighting for task performance
and the overall appearance of interiors.
Simple constraint of exposure to light is only one step in creating a suitable visual
environment and there is no fundamental barrier to lighting designers using the
full range of lighting effects that stimulate attention and aid interpretation when
illuminating sensitive materials. Thus, where recommendations or warnings are
given, the intention is not to stifle creativity but rather to share experience and
identify successful techniques and strategies.
Making sparing use of light, whether for reasons of energy usage or conservation,
requires a broad understanding of its properties and role within buildings. It
is hoped that this guide will assist both the uninitiated and the expert in the
recognition of the issues involved and, in particular, the specific situation of
lighting objects on display.
This guide is not intended to provide solutions but to inform and assist lighting
designers to ensure that they are aware of the issues involved and also to enable
them to know when to ask questions and seek advice.
2 Lighting Lighting designers working within museums, galleries and historic interiors are
presented with a large range of spaces and exhibits, many requiring a unique or
principles specific approach to lighting. A successful lighting solution, either for a gallery
space or for specific objects, is developed with an understanding of a number of
key lighting principles. The designer should be aware of, and consider, all of the
following before designing lighting solutions.
2.1 Viewing In any situation, we see exhibits because they contrast with their background or
surroundings. This general characteristic applies to everything we see, whether it
conditions is letters on a page or artefacts in a showcase. In museums, we are aiming to make
the exhibits not simply visible but attractive, drawing the visitors’ attention,
adding the element of interest to visibility. Contrast should therefore be considered
carefully when designing a display or a lighting installation. Similarly, labels need
to be produced on which the text must be of a suitable size and contrast with the
background. The lighting then has the task of providing the light on the labels
to make them as visible as the exhibits without competing with them. It will also
be necessary to consider the shape and form of the exhibits and, particularly, any
textural qualities. Having made the exhibit as a whole stand out, the detail should
also be revealed. This will depend on the direction of light falling onto the exhibit
at the most appropriate angle. The correct contrast and direction of light flow are
therefore important in creating the best viewing conditions.
LG8 (AD v2).indd 1 16/12/2014 15:42

2 Lighting Guide 8: Lighting for museums and art galleries
2.2 Visual The eye reacts automatically to the brightness in the field of view, adjusting
rapidly to accommodate small changes in brightness and more slowly in
adaptation response to larger changes. The eye becomes adapted to the general brightness of
a space over a few minutes and can then perceive objects and surfaces lit over a
reasonable range above and below that level, known as the adaptation level. Most
people have experienced this effect when moving, for example, from a brightly
lit foyer into a dark cinema or theatre. In the foyer, all objects and surfaces can
be seen well but on moving into the much darker space it is difficult to find
your way around. However, after a few minutes the eye adapts and all objects
in the space become visible. In museums and galleries this can be a problem
when moving from very brightly lit entrance halls into exhibition spaces or when
moving from a general gallery into one where extremely light-sensitive objects,
such as works on paper and textiles, are displayed at very low light levels. Where
possible the lighting designer should discuss this issue at an early stage with the
architect and exhibition designer and create lobbies between spaces with widely
different lighting levels with the aim of aiding adaptation. These lobbies should
be lit to an intermediate or graduated level between those in the two adjoining
spaces. If there are displays of interpretive material in these lobbies then so much
the better, as visitors will remain longer in them looking at the material and so
helping the slow adaptation process.
2.3 Contrast ratios Given that an exhibit is to stand out to some degree against its background, it
will be necessary to decide the contrast ratio required. This can be defined as the
ratio between the luminance of the exhibit and the luminance of the background
or surroundings.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the visual effect of three different luminance ratios between
exhibit and background.
Figure 2.1 To provide good visibility

and an interesting It must be remembered, however, that luminance is the product of the illuminance
appearance it is important falling on the exhibit and its reflectance. Thus, from knowledge of the reflectance
to consider the luminance
ratio between the exhibit
and colour of the exhibit, the background materials used and the general lighting,
and its background. the illuminance on the exhibit can be selected according to the effect required.
These photographs (Alternatively, for light-sensitive materials where the maximum illuminance will
demonstrate the effect be known, the ambient level can be determined.)
of luminance ratios that
provide modelling which
is soft (left), moderate
Typically, the contrast between the illuminance on an object and the general
(centre) and hard (right) lighting of the background should be from 3:1 for moderate emphasis up to 10:1
for more dramatic emphasis. If the contrast is significantly greater than this,
viewing may become difficult as the level of illuminance on the object will be
much greater than the level of visual adaptation of the viewer.
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Lighting principles 3
2.4 Colour The colour appearance, or colour temperature, of a light source – whether it is
cool or warm – can have an effect on the mood of a space and the exhibits in it.
appearance If the exhibits are lit with a warmer light source than the general or background
lighting then they will stand out more. However, if this is taken too far the effect
may be garish or distracting. Lighting exhibits with a cooler light source than
the background is normally less successful unless a particular effect is required –
perhaps lighting items that are meant to convey a ‘chilly’ feeling to the viewers.
To avoid problems it is suggested that this effect be determined by experiment
with the specific display (see Figures 2.2 and 2.3).
Figure 2.2 Colour temperature Candlelight Cool- Overcast Blue sky

on the Kelvin scale white daylight
Tungsten light LED
Early sunrise Electronic

flash
Household
light bulbs Noon daylight
Warm- direct sun
white
LED
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Figure 2.3 Exhibit lit by two sources

of light with different
colour temperatures. In
this case daylight from
the right and tungsten-
halogen from the left giving
reversed colour shadows
When incandescent or tungsten-halogen lamps are dimmed, the colour appearance

shifts and the light becomes far warmer – more orange (note that a warmer colour
of light is actually a lower colour temperature while light of a cooler appearance
has a high colour temperature). To avoid this effect the lamp wattages should
be selected carefully so that the lamps do not need to be dimmed by more than
LG8 (AD v2).indd 3 16/12/2014 15:42

about 20% from their maximum intensity. For spaces where exhibitions may
change from needing 200 lux to 50 lux, it is better to change the lamp wattages
in the luminaires or to have a second or additional set of luminaires available for
boosting lighting from the lower to the higher level. It is also possible to introduce
neutral density filters or light reduction screens to some luminaires to reduce the
amount of light without affecting the colour temperature. It should, however, be
noted that this is not a recommended approach as it does not reduce electric load,
effectively converting light energy into heat. Modern dimmable LEDs do not have
this problem and can be dimmed with little change to colour appearance.
2.5 Colour The effect of different light sources on the perceived colours of exhibits is termed
colour rendering (Figure 2.4). An important point is that the colour appearance
rendering of the light source is not a guide to its colour rendering properties. Two sources
may appear to be of similar colour appearance, but have different spectral
distributions and hence a different colour rendering performance.
The colour rendering index (R) of a light source is measured on a scale up to

100. Light sources with Ra greater than 90 are considered to be very good, while
those with Ra below 80 will normally not be appropriate for lighting exhibits in
museums and galleries (Figure 2.5).
The colour rendering quality of a light source depends on its spectral distribution.
Although incandescent lamps have a colour rendering index near to 100, their
spectrum is weighted towards the red. Reds and oranges within exhibits may
appear emphasised compared with their appearance in daylight, but the general
colour balance is not seriously disturbed. On the other hand, most discharge
lamps distort the appearance of the colours of exhibits and their background
because of irregularities in their spectral distribution. If there is little green in
the spectrum of the light source illuminating an exhibit then little green can be
reflected back and observed by the viewer.
Figure 2.4 Spectral distribution curves

for different light sources
Daylight Incandescent Fluorescent

100 100 100
80 80 80
Intensity
Intensity
Intensity
60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
Halogen Cool-white LED Warm-white LED

100 100 100
80 80 80
Intensity
Intensity
Intensity
60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
LG8 (AD v2).indd 4 16/12/2014 15:42

Figure 2.5 Colour rendering index (CRI) is a general indicator of how ‘natural’ object colours will appear when
illuminated by a particular light source. This shows an indication of the dull colours of an unacceptable CRI
of 50 (left), moderate CRI of 70 (centre) and preferred CRI of 90 (right) with full vibrant colour range
2.6 Backgrounds The background against which an exhibit is seen not only influences the
effectiveness of a display, but can also affect the adaptation state of the eye. Visual
to exhibits adaptation is dependent on two factors – luminance and colour.
2.6.1 Luminance of If the background areas within a space are significantly lighter or darker than the
exhibit, this will alter the adaptation state of the eye, thus reducing the ability to
backgrounds see fine detail.
Figure 2.6 demonstrates the effect of contrast in two situations. In (a), dark
exhibits are displayed against a light background and only a silhouette of the
exhibits can be seen; i.e. the luminance ratio between the exhibit and background
is too large for good visibility of the object. In (b), light exhibits are shown against
a light background and it is possible to see the detailed form of the exhibits
because the luminance range within the field of view is small.
It is important, therefore, that the luminance ratio between background and

exhibit is neither too large nor too small. Since the luminance of an exhibit and
its background is a function of the reflectance of the materials and the lighting
level taken together, care should be taken when selecting these values.
Figure 2.6 Visibility against a
background: (a) [left] dark
objects shown against a light
background can be seen
only in silhouette, (b) [right]
when light objects are shown
against a light background,
their outlines are less
distinct but details can be
observed. Guggenheim
Museum, New York
2.6.2 Colour of Just as the luminance of a background can affect the adaptation state of the eye,
so too can its colour. A strong coloured background can saturate the eye with
backgrounds that colour and, therefore, emphasise the complementary colour in the exhibit.
For example, a strong green background will have the effect of making a white
exhibit appear pink. Large wall areas of a strong colour will also tint the light
reflected back from them, thus affecting the colour of the light flowing across the
gallery (see Figure 2.7).
LG8 (AD v2).indd 5 16/12/2014 15:42

Figure 2.7 Walker Art Gallery,

Liverpool: by washing the
whole green wall with light,
the reflected light flowing
across the space casts a
green light on the paintings
in the background. The
nearer triptych is not so
badly affected as it has
been additionally spot-lit.
The problem was corrected
by dimming the wall-wash
and adding spotlights
for all the pictures
The lighting designer should discuss proposed colours with the architect or
exhibition designer and fully understand the design intent before finalising
lighting decisions. If the lighting designer has concerns, they should endeavour
to have a mock-up built to allow the design team to assess the effects of colour
and lighting decisions.
2.7 Glare Glare is caused when luminaires, windows or other sources of light, seen either
directly or reflected, are too bright in comparison to the general brightness of
the field of view. It is important to eliminate glare from light sources and their
reflections as it has a detrimental effect on visibility (Figure 2.8). Glare can impair
vision (disability glare) or cause visual discomfort (discomfort glare).
Greater risk In galleries and museums, glare can cause severe problems but attention to the
of glare at relative positioning of the exhibits, light sources and observers will usually
higher allow the designer to meet the challenge. For example, glare from spotlights can
angles
usually be avoided by ensuring that lights are not aimed above approximately
35°. If there are specific problem locations, then providing glare shields or baffles
to those lights can obscure the bright lamp from sight.
When looking at exhibits housed in a display case that is not internally

illuminated, visibility is often impaired by the presence of reflections of outside
light sources, illuminated displays or other exhibits. This form of disability glare
Figure 2.8 Direct glare from spotlights may be minimised by careful arrangement of the angle of the glass or by internal
if aimed too high lighting.
Glare should not be confused with glitter and sparkle, which are characterised by
points or patterns of high brightness caused by light reflecting from jewellery or
polished metal exhibits. The effects of glitter and sparkle are too small to affect
adaptation and vision and can often improve, for example, the display of objects
with metallic threads or gilding.
In addition to glare directly from lamps, luminaires that allow light leaks or
backscatter from exposed reflector lamps frequently cause distraction and
unwelcome reflection patterns in glazed displays. Luminaires with full enclosure
of the lamp and no light emitted except in the intended direction should generally
be selected. See also chapter 8 on Showcase lighting. More information and detail
on glare can be found within the SLL Code for Lighting (SLL, 2012) and SLL
Lighting Handbook (SLL, 2009).
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2.8 Modelling The modelling effects of light reveal the shape and texture of exhibits (see Figure
2.9). The degree and type of modelling will depend on the angle at which light
reaches an exhibit and on how diffuse it is. Highly diffuse frontal lighting from
large light sources tends to flatten shape and form and reduce the perception of
texture. On paintings, such lighting may also cause overall ‘veiling’ reflections
that reduce tonal and colour contrasts. A degree of directional light can enhance
the appreciation of the brushwork. However, strong directional light from a single
concentrated source can give a harsh effect, due to the strong highlights and
sharply defined shadows produced. Such lighting is better suited for displaying
carving in low relief.
Figure 2.9 Gulbenikan Museum,

Lisbon: (a) [left] the left side
of the pot appears plain,
but the raking light from a
small spotlight to its right
reveals that it is ribbed
(b) [right] The shallow relief
of this carving is enhanced
by the single small raking
light from above right
Daylight usually produces soft modelling. This can be localised to some

extent by manipulating the position and size of windows and roof-lights, or by
obscuring them with screens or louvres. The changing character of daylight is
not necessarily a disadvantage, and may even be welcome for the lighting of
sculpture, where subtle modelling effects are essential for effective display. If the
exhibit will not be damaged by exposure to direct sunlight, this can be used to
enhance the modelling effects. See chapter 6 for more guidance.
The best modelling for a given exhibit can be found by simple experiment with
a hand-held spotlight on a flying lead. This can also allow other, sometimes
conflicting, requirements of the lighting, such as freedom from glare, to be
considered at the same time so that the best overall solution can be devised.
2.9 Accent lighting Spotlights, which provide defined beams of light, are used to create visual accents
and modelling and to reveal highlights in the exhibits. The size of the beam will
be important to determine whether one beam will be sufficient to illuminate the
exhibit or if several overlapping beams will be required. Most beams are conical
in shape so a description of the beam angle and the distance of the light from the
exhibit should be sufficient to work out the coverage. The beam angle is defined
as the angle beyond which the intensity falls below half (50%) of the maximum
luminous intensity. The field angle is also sometimes quoted. This is the angle
beyond which the intensity falls below one-tenth (10%) of the maximum intensity.
The light falling outside the main beam is described as spill light. The amount of
spill light will affect the contrast that ultimately can be achieved. For example, a
beam with a lot of spill light will illuminate the background as well as the exhibit,
reducing the contrast and therefore the emphasis of the exhibit itself. A focused
beam provides a much sharper cut-off, leading to a more defined effect on the
exhibit and less effect on the surroundings. See Figure A2.1 in appendix 2 for
coverage and illumination levels for a range of typical lamp types at various heights.
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Figure 2.10 Varying balance between accent light and diffuse light. The left image is lit diffusely and is perhaps
bland; the middle image has added direct light from the right and has more detail visible within
the steps; the right image is lit from the left and has more shadows within the steps
Figure 2.10 shows how the lighting performance of accent or display lighting
luminaires will affect the appearance of the exhibits. These photographs show a
ceramic exhibit lit in three different ways – varying the balance between intense
and diffuse light sources. It can be seen that, just by changing the amount or
direction of the direct accent light on an object, its appearance can be altered.
3 Lighting the While the prime consideration in most spaces is the lighting for the exhibits, the
interior of the space must also be visually appealing and areas between displays
interior or sufficiently well lit to allow safe movement around the space. The lit appearance
of the gallery should complement both architecture and exhibits. For this reason,
display area the appearance of the gallery lighting equipment as well as the lit effect must be
considered. In some cases, the display and space lighting will be one and the same
thing. Nevertheless, the designer may find it helpful to address each element
of the design separately to ensure that nothing is overlooked. When daylight is
available, a decision needs to be made about whether to use it to light the space
and/or the exhibits or whether to exclude it. It should then be decided how the
electric lighting will relate to it during the daytime and how it will replace it after
dark. These are major considerations that will have implications for the design of
the building itself and for the appearance of the space. If daylight is to be used as
a significant light source, professional advice should be sought.
3.1 Daylight in Where windows or skylights exist in a space, a decision needs to be made about
whether to utilise the daylight available through them. Many curators and
the space visitors express a preference to have ‘natural’ light available in galleries and
to some extent in museums. In some larger buildings, windows allow visitors
to get a feel for their location or orientation in the building by seeing external
landmarks, although the brightness of such views out of windows normally needs
to be reduced by screening to avoid losing visitors’ low-light adaptation. For
new buildings, the same decisions have to be made but must also be considered
alongside both the effect of the windows or roof-lights (and associated screening
or louvres) on the external appearance of the building and their thermal efficiency
and cost. (See chapter 6 on the control and use of daylight.)
For existing or new windows or skylights it is vital to analyse their effect on

the space. The daylight distribution, the overall lighting levels and sunlight
movements over the course of the day need to be known. The daylight distribution
is the key determinant in the lit appearance of the space. Bright walls make the
space feel bright and well lit whereas dark walls, and especially dark corners,
make the space look gloomy; even if the exhibits within it are well lit. Assessment
of the overall lighting levels will indicate if these will endanger the objects and
whether overall screening or neutral density reductions in daylight penetration
through the windows or skylights will be needed (see chapter 5 for advice on
determining exposure levels to minimise degradation of objects).
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Lighting the interior or display area 9
If sunlight can penetrate into the space it needs to be confined to the upper
parts and not allowed to reach the exhibit areas if conservation limits are to be
maintained. The exception would be such areas as sculpture courts and areas
where lighting conservation limits are not a problem. However, it must be
remembered that the lighting level in one space will set the adaptation level of
the viewer and may make the transition into a darker gallery problematic (see
chapter 6 for more detailed advice).
3.2 Electric light The general gallery lighting must be designed to complement the display lighting
and to help create an attractive overall appearance to the gallery without detracting
from the exhibits. In some cases the differentiation between building and display
lighting is not always clearly defined, such as where, for example, the reflected
light from the display lighting provides the general lighting. Nevertheless, it is
important for the designer to consider both elements of the lighting to ensure
that the electrically lit gallery space appears pleasant and attractive in addition to
providing appropriate lighting for the exhibits.
It is also important that the interior lighting is integrated into the fabric of
the building in an unobtrusive way. This can only be achieved if the architect,
exhibition designer and lighting designer work closely together. The aim of the
lighting designer is normally to provide a pattern of light where the exhibits
are the brightest part of the field of view. Without a visual contrast between the
exhibit and their background, either by differences in lighting level, colour or
direction of flow of light, a gallery can appear bland and uninteresting. Providing
an element of accent light also enhances the visibility of the exhibit (see chapter
4 for further advice).
3.3 Combining Even with a predominantly daylit gallery, it will be necessary to have electric
lighting to supplement daylight when light levels are low and to replace it at
daylight and night. This is especially important where gallery spaces are used for events after
electric lighting normal opening hours. For a gallery that has an element of daylight, the electric
lighting may provide visual accents. The challenge for the designer is to decide
on the roles of the individual parts so that the whole is visually acceptable and
meaningful. For instance, if a predominantly daylit appearance is required then
supplementary electric lighting should appear to come from the same direction
and to provide a soft flow of light similar to the daylight (Figure 3.1). The
colour of the electric lighting must also blend satisfactorily with the daylight.
For a daylit gallery that uses electric light to highlight exhibits and displays,
the requirements will be different. Here spotlights that have a warmer colour
appearance may provide the electric light.
Normally the best approach for a space where there will be daylight available is
to start by considering the daylight. Check on the amount available and what
controls will be needed to ensure that no sunlight reaches the exhibits and that
the overall lighting level does not exceed the exposure limits set for the exhibits.
Once the daylight quantity and distribution are understood, the electric lighting
and its control system can be designed to make maximum use of this daylight.
3.4 Access and The designer needs to consider also what lighting is required after the public
leaves and the display and any case lighting is turned off and the blinds or
security lighting louvres over any windows shut. Some lighting is needed to allow access for staff
for cleaning and maintenance. This lighting is normally all or part of the general
lighting of the space without specific spotlighting on displays and exhibits. This
not only reduces the light damage on the exhibits but also saves considerable
amounts of energy, as the general space lighting is normally of a more energy-
efficient type than the display lighting.
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Figure 3.1 The Sainsbury Wing of the

National Gallery, London,
appears to be lit by daylight
entering through roof-
lights. In reality, the amount
of daylight on the paintings
is small and the exhibits
are lit in a controlled
way by electric light
During the night, some buildings have regular patrols (others have a sealed ‘no
movement’ policy). When patrolling is required, some form of lighting to all
the spaces will be necessary. If a detailed examination of the spaces is required
then the general lighting of the spaces is normally used. If just a simple walk-
through of each space is needed then normally just a few ‘patrol’ lights are turned
on. These can be turned on centrally, linked to patrol route key-switches or be
triggered by movement detectors. The designer will agree the extent and the
control of these lights with the client.
The security of a museum or art gallery will often be addressed by a specialist who
may also advise on the design of the security lighting. However, it is important
that the architect, together with the lighting designer, ensures that it does not
conflict with the other visual considerations and requirements for conservation
of the collection.
3.5 Emergency Emergency lighting forms an essential part of the building lighting system.
It is a common misconception that emergency lighting is installed for use in
lighting case of a fire. In fact it is provided to allow the swift and safe evacuation of a
building in the case of a power failure, which may or may not be caused by a
fire. The emergency lighting system should consist of luminaires that provide
light on all floor areas between displays and along corridors and to exit signs that
unambiguously identify an escape route to people not familiar with the building.
The emergency lighting equipment should be supplied either from batteries or a
standby generator which switches on automatically in the case of a power failure.
From an aesthetic point of view, it is preferable for the emergency lighting

installation to be integrated with the normal lighting system to avoid visual
clutter. If independent emergency luminaires and exit signs are used these should,
if at all possible, integrate with the architecture. However, these considerations
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should in no way interfere with the safety of the occupants. The designer needs
to refer to the current recommendations and statutory regulations with which
the installation must comply. Guidance on this topic should be sought from
the relevant British and/or European Standards, which are described in SLL
Lighting Guide 12: Emergency lighting design guide (SLL, 2014). A further source
of guidance is the local authority, which may be the enforcing body for means of
escape.
3.6 Historic interiors Historic buildings, particularly those open to the public, are exhibits in their
own right and form part of the national heritage, in terms of both architecture
and history. Where these buildings are also used to display historical artefacts
and works of art, the design and provision of lighting shares much in common
with other museums and galleries. There will be constraints, however, because
the architectural and historical integrity of the building must be maintained
and the fabric of the building respected (Figure 3.2). This will almost certainly
require the designer to carry out research into the period and to seek advice from
the recognised authorities on historic buildings.
It is impossible to make general recommendations for lighting historic buildings;

the best solution will often be determined by what is available and possible in
the particular space. The success of the building lighting will depend on the
inventiveness and ingenuity of the designer. It is often good to start by looking at
Figure 3.2 Osborne House: lighting

provided by original
fittings with modern lamps
and lighting controls
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what isn’t well lit when the room is lit just by daylight using the normal degree
of control, as discussed above. If areas remote from the windows appear under-lit
then supplementary electric lighting should be provided and in such a way that
it does not destroy the apparently daylit appearance of the space. Supplementary
lighting will need to provide a soft enhancement of the daylight illumination
without disturbing the natural pattern of light too much. This is best achieved
by luminaires that provide a soft wash of light, such as table lights or standard
lights suitable for the era of the room. Alternately, or in addition, lights that can
be concealed behind or within furniture or other elements of the building can
be used. The colour appearance of the light sources should also be considered to
ensure that there is no visual clash between daylight and the electric light.
3.6.1 Daylight control Most historic buildings were designed to be lit by daylight; it is only comparatively
recently that it has been possible to provide sufficient lighting by other means.
While it is preferable to maintain the daylit appearance of the building, this can
create serious conservation problems. As with other galleries, the light exposure
must be minimised if the artefacts are to be preserved for as long as possible (see
chapter 6 for more details).
3.6.2 Lighting Any new lighting equipment must be in visual harmony with the historic
interior. In most instances, any equipment that is visible will have to be of a
equipment design that matches the period of the building, or at least be sympathetic with
it. It is unlikely that such equipment will be able to provide suitable lighting for
both the building and the exhibits, so it will usually have to be complemented
with concealed luminaires (Figure 3.3). Care should be taken that concealed
luminaries do not create flashes or hotspots that betray their location and that the
appearance of the light does not become unnatural. There are occasions, however,
when the best solution is not to provide an apparently period lighting design
but to install a modern lighting system. This will usually apply only where a
building is being used for a purpose for which it was not originally intended (e.g.
an art gallery). In this case, historical exactness need not apply; however, due
consideration of the proposed methods of display is required.
Where it is decided to use luminaires of the period, either during daytime or

after dark, specialist manufacturers can provide electric replicas for this purpose.
Consideration must be given to the light sources used in such replicas, bearing in
mind the amount and nature of the light that would originally have been emitted.
Over-lighting a chandelier with inappropriate electric lamps can easily turn a
beautiful sparkling piece into a glaring object that cannot be viewed directly
with any degree of visual comfort, thus defeating the reason for including it
in the first place. The light provided by such luminaires will often need to be
supplemented by background illumination, either to provide the light levels
expected by modern visitors to see the room or to balance the brightness of the
luminaires if they have a high luminance. This applies particularly to luminaires
with unscreened light sources (e.g. chandeliers). The techniques for providing
supplementary lighting will depend on the room and its furnishings, but the
suggestions above for supplementing daylight illumination may be appropriate.
However, care should be taken to avoid destroying the apparent effect of the
period lighting by obliterating its natural pattern.
For spaces where there are pictures hung on the walls the use of good quality
picture lights could be considered. These not only light the paintings but also add
some light back into the space and make the room appear better lit. These lights
can be supplied via wall sockets or via wires down the suspension chains or ropes
from a connection system at picture rail level. Care must be taken to select suitable
picture lights to ensure that the light meets the requirements for conservation of
the object. The majority in the market-place are quite unsuitable for use in a
museum or gallery environment. See section 7.10 for more information.
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Figure 3.3 The Wallace Collection: set

in restored historic rooms,
the exhibition lighting is
concealed within a plaster
detail on the ceiling
The other major constraint will be the limited number of options available for
providing an electrical supply to lighting equipment and the installation of the
equipment itself. In a few instances surface wiring, suitably disguised to blend
with the building, has been successful, but alternative solutions should be sought
if at all possible. Floor-standing luminaires are an attractive possibility, although
this solution will often demand specially made, or at least specially disguised,
equipment. Recent developments in infrared or radio controls allow remote
switching and dimming of luminaires that avoids disturbing wall surfaces to
install local switch drops.
3.6.3 Emergency All the basic requirements discussed above in section 3.5 will apply to most
historic interiors. The challenge will be providing functional emergency lighting
lighting in in a visually acceptable way. This will stretch the ingenuity of the designer but
historic interiors every attempt must be made to reach an acceptable solution. Most enforcement
authorities will allow some deviations from the standards in listed buildings.
Negotiations with local authority building control, fire officers and appropriate
local authority licensing officers should be undertaken at an early stage in the
design process to determine appropriate emergency lighting strategies for the
specific project.
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3.6.4 Re-use of historic When a historic building is primarily used for displaying exhibits or pictures,
a different approach will be necessary. The advice given above in this section
buildings and should be considered, but the actual methods by which the exhibits are lit will
interiors depend on the circumstances. For example, it may be considered appropriate to
use modern display techniques, designed and installed in such a way that the
integrity of the building is maintained. The Waterhall, Birmingham, is a good
example (see Figure 3.4).
Here the solution was to build the lighting, as well as other services, into a
specially manufactured lighting system, with fluorescent lamps combined with a
reflector to provide an even distribution of light over the ceiling, with spotlights
on track suspended out on outriggers from the central spine. A very different
approach would be to install standard modern lighting equipment suspended
from the ceiling. This can provide a simple and elegant solution that, because it
is not in direct contact with the building, is not visually offensive (Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.4 The Waterhall, Birmingham

Museum and Art Gallery:
a modern lighting system
providing uplight and
track lighting on flying
booms floats below the
historic fabric of the space
Figure 3.5 Cartwright Hall, Bradford:

track is suspended away
from the historic fabric so
that it can be viewed past
the modern lighting system
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Some exhibits will be displayed in cases. If these are to be purpose-built, then

an unobtrusive style, perhaps with integral lighting, should be selected and the
advice given in chapter 8 on showcase lighting followed. Where it is decided
to make use of period display furniture, this can often be carefully modified to
incorporate modern lighting equipment. Where internal lighting is to be used
then normally fibre-optic or LED lighting equipment is chosen as the cables
and optics are relatively small and can therefore be concealed without too much
difficulty. Where a lighting box is to be added to the top of a case, other lighting
systems can be used.
3.7 Temporary Frequently museums require galleries for temporary exhibitions. These galleries
may host a very wide variety of exhibitions and the lighting system must be
exhibition designed to accommodate a corresponding number of lighting requirements.
galleries Obviously it will not be possible to consider all possibilities; however, the general
principles for the lighting of different types of display given in other sections of
this document should be consulted to determine suitable provisions for lighting.
There are some basic requirements that should be considered in addition to the
exhibition lighting.
3.7.1 Emergency This needs to be considered to allow for any partition work, cases, large exhibits
or other structures that may be introduced into the exhibition space. The best
lighting approach is to ensure that the entire floor area can meet the emergency lighting
requirements with a large number of small fittings to minimise the risk of
partitions obstructing the lighting. Consider how additional exit signage may be
introduced to ensure that exit routes are clearly indicated when obstructions are
introduced. The designer should strongly argue the case for a non-maintained
emergency lighting system, i.e. one where the lamp is not normally illuminated
but comes on when the main lighting fails. This will be of great assistance when
audio-visual elements are required and will also assist in reducing reflections and
distractions in glazed cases or screen-based displays.
3.7.2 Working light It is helpful to provide a background level of working light that is available while
exhibition lighting is unavailable, for example while changing around between
exhibitions. It is expected that specific task lighting required for construction or
installation of exhibitions will be provided locally during the work using portable
light fittings. A reasonable level of overall working light should be limited to
a level that will not compromise lighting requirements set for minimising the
exposure of exhibits. A level of 50 lux will typically provide adequate light for
moving around the gallery.
3.7.3 Exhibit lighting The lighting system should be designed to provide as much flexibility as is practicable.
Generally this will require a system that allows a variety of different fitting types
to be located in a wide variety of locations across the exhibition floor. Typically
multi-circuit track systems are a solution used for providing physical support and
electrical connection. The track should be set out to provide the best possible cover
across the area. The optimum layout will allow for lighting angles of 20° to 30° on
any potential vertical surface. The spacing will depend on the suspension height of
the track; as a rule of thumb you can start with a grid spacing of half the suspension
height. This density of track may not be possible for reasons of cost or complexity,
therefore the designer must use their skill to provide the best compromise between
the ideal layout and that which is practical in the specific project.
The track system may also be useful for the suspension of exhibition elements,
and provision of power to audio-visual equipment or interactive exhibits and
may include other lighting elements, such as the working or emergency light or
architectural feature lighting. As the best location for the track is likely to be a
grid formation, this layout may also be suitable for other functional requirements
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of the exhibition – therefore consideration should be given to incorporating the

lighting track into more substantial structural elements. Some manufacturers
provide truss systems that incorporate lighting track which may be suitable for
these applications (a large circular suspended truss is shown in Figure 3.6).
Careful consideration of the electrical loading of the track system is required.

Subdividing the room into zones that are obvious and logical will help to provide
a reasonable power density. The power requirements should be determined by
the lighting designer based on a typical layout for an exhibition using the type
of equipment provided for the gallery. Consideration should also be given to the
potential for the use of theatrical lighting equipment to achieve special lighting
effects. Typically, theatrical lighting equipment uses high wattage lamps so can
have a very significant effect on the load requirements.
Consideration should also be given to the requirements for lighting control.

Care is required to provide a system that is straightforward for the end user but
flexible enough to be able to respond to the requirements of the gallery. In most
cases a system that provides some dimming and some switching, which may all
be simply controlled by master on/off switching, is preferred. In general, three-
circuit track can be provided with either one dimmed and two switched circuits
or two dimmed and one switched circuit. This depends on the type of light
fittings selected and anticipated for use in the gallery. In all circumstances it is
necessary to provide a single point of isolation for all the circuits in any length
of multi-circuit track.
3.7.4 Light fittings The selection of light fittings for a temporary exhibition gallery is particularly
challenging. While it may be appropriate to use the same fittings that are
installed in other areas of the museum, there are particular considerations that
are necessary in temporary galleries depending on their expected use:
—— the typical duration of exhibitions

—— the typical content of exhibitions
—— the time available for setting up lighting
—— the resources available for lighting.
Typically the fittings should provide maximum flexibility. There will be

requirements for a variety of different fitting types; these will include some or
all of the following:
—— spotlights
—— wall-washers
—— gobo projectors
—— area floodlights.
Fittings must also be robust and easy to handle, in a temporary gallery the fittings
will be moved and adjusted much more frequently than in permanent galleries.
It is also possible that staff may be brought in specifically to light temporary
exhibitions who are not familiar with the equipment, so an element of rough
handling is to be expected. Flexibility of the fitting output and beam distribution
can be achieved through the use of fittings with interchangeable reflectors, lenses
or zoom lenses – see Figure 7.6 for examples. It is also worth considering fittings
that have built-in dimming facilities; these allow for fine tuning of lighting levels
on objects being lit by each individual light and can reduce the time involved in
setting up exhibitions.
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The control and storage of spare fittings, accessories and lenses should be
given due consideration in the design. Agree with the architect suitable storage
locations within or immediately adjacent to the gallery. Also consider the use of
wheeled cabinets to contain fittings, lamps and accessories that may be brought
into the gallery to facilitate exhibition turnarounds. As part of the obligations
of the designer, consideration must be given to means of access to the lighting
for installation and for exhibition changes. The designer should investigate the
various types of access equipment that are available and make recommendations
based on the required access height and ease of use. Bear in mind the required
footprint of the means of access, whether this be a ladder, ‘genie’ lift or cherry
picker, and consider the safe reach from the device, this will determine the
working area for each deployment. It is also necessary to determine the imposed
load on the floor created by the equipment; this should be addressed as early
as possible in the design process with input from the architect and structural
engineer. Whatever solution is decided upon, provision should be made for
storing the access equipment within, or as close as possible to, the gallery to
facilitate its use.
The designer should provide clear and detailed instructions for the lighting
system and each of the fitting types to enable future users of the gallery to quickly
understand the facilities designed into the lighting system. There should also
be clear instructions for the operation of each fitting type. It is also helpful to
prepare a drawing providing a blank track layout with circuiting information
to assist the users in laying out specific lighting arrangements for exhibitions.
Think carefully about what questions you would ask and what information you
would require to set up the lighting for an exhibition in the gallery and ensure
that you provide the answers in your project documentation.
3.8 Events and Many galleries and museums rent out their more impressive spaces for corporate
events and even wedding receptions and parties. While this sort of event may
corporate not be the primary purpose of the organisation, they do bring in revenue and
entertainment often encourage participants to return during normal hours to view the rest of
the exhibits.
Normally the lighting needed for corporate or private hire is more dramatic or
sparkly than the normal display lighting. Often a second system is provided for
this purpose, either as stand-alone luminaires or as extra lights built into the
main luminaires. These obviously need to be controllable separately and simply.
It should not be forgotten that usually the exhibits around the space need to be
lit during these events as they provide the backdrop to the event. It is sometimes
acceptable for some increase in light exposure on these exhibits during these
relatively short events. However, this needs to be checked with the conservation
staff who may well have different priorities to the marketing staff!
The lighting designer must establish with the client the areas that are likely to
be required and the purposes for which they are to be used. There are distinct
differences between the lighting needed for a product launch and a party. The
client has to realise that, as well as the main function space, special lighting may
be needed in the entrance hall, main staircases and even externally (Figure 3.6).
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Figure 3.6 [above] Leeds City Museum:
the lighting for this large
space has to serve a number
of functions: daytime
use as exhibition space
with high-level projection
screens, evening lectures,
presentations and corporate
events when the entire
floor is cleared for tables
or event structures
Figure 3.7 [right] The Walker Art

Gallery, Liverpool: the
lighting here is adaptable
and can be changed to
suit different counter,
display and shelf layouts
3.9 The shop The revenue derived from shops is vital to most museums and galleries. Good
lighting is as important in this shop as in the high street. Good vertical lighting
of wall-mounted and freestanding displays is needed (Figure 3.7). Flexibility
in positioning and aiming the lighting is essential to allow display units to be
moved around to cope with variations in product ranges due to changing special
exhibitions or to provide space for seasonal stock (e.g. at Christmas).
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Note that the shop may be completed as a shell for a future tenant to fit out. In
these cases simple access and emergency lighting only may be required, with a
distribution box provided for the future lighting. The exact extent of the lighting
responsibility of both the landlord and the future tenant must be established
early in the project. A CIBSE/SLL lighting guide is due to be published covering
the topic of retail/merchandise lighting.
3.10 The cafe Cafes and restaurants not only provide revenue but also offer a rest space for
visitors and help in image creation for the organisation (Figures 3.8 and 3.9).
Lighting needs to be attractive and functional over servery areas and complement
the style of the eating areas. Many cafes and restaurants also have exhibits or
merchandise from the shop displayed on the walls that will need to be lit.
Note that the restaurant or cafe may be completed as a shell for a future tenant to
fit out. In these cases simple access and emergency lighting only may be required
with a distribution box provided for the future lighting. The exact extent of the
lighting responsibility of the landlord and the future tenant must be established
early in the project.
Figure 3.8 Ashmolean Gallery, Oxford:
some cafes are simply
convenient places to
have a snack, others are a
destination in themselves
and need lighting that
is suitable for daytime
and evening dining
Figure 3.9 John Rylands Library,

Manchester: entrance hall
containing ticketing and
information desk, shop and
restaurant in one adaptable
space. The lighting needs
to be equally adaptable
to meet future needs
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4 Lighting the The purpose of display lighting is to present the exhibits in such a way that they
may be studied and enjoyed. In most cases this means providing a lighting system
exhibits that enables fine detail to be examined and reveals the form, colour and texture of
the exhibit. In some instances, the overall appearance of the display may be more
important than the visibility of the individual exhibits, in which case some form
of ‘effects’ lighting may be required. In general, display lighting should provide a
balance between a general wash of light and some form of accent lighting. It will
also require a balance between the luminance and colour of the exhibit and its
background. Display lighting should also have good colour rendering properties
and be provided in such a way that it is not intrusive and does not cause glare. The
techniques of display lighting may vary depending on the particular exhibits and
whether they are freestanding or displayed in showcases. The basic philosophy,
however, will be the same.
This section should be read in conjunction with chapter 7 on the selection and
use of electric light and chapter 8 on showcase lighting.
4.1 Locating The location of spotlights for lighting exhibits has to be considered carefully.
If put in the wrong location the fittings may be seen reflected in the exhibits or
spotlights shadows may be cast onto the exhibits or displays either by the viewers or by
other exhibits. Spotlights that are used for lighting architectural features in the
space usually do not have such restrictions.
4.1.1 Wall-mounted Figure 4.1 shows the difference between placing lights at about 30° and 40° to
the downward vertical. The diagram shows that, as the lights move further back,
exhibits there is a greater chance of distracting reflections in upper areas of exhibits and
more risk of shadows being thrown from the viewer onto the lower part of the
exhibits. Conversely, if the lights are too close to the walls, long shadows will be
thrown from any frames down the exhibits and the wall below, and any surface
texture will be exaggerated. This is true whether exhibit-specific spotlights or
general wall-washers are being considered.
Figure 4.1 Reflected glare from

differing spotlight positions 30˚out 40˚out
from wall from wall
Greater risk
1.5 m of reflections 1.5 m
Figure 4.2, however, shows that the effect of shadows being thrown by viewers can
be reduced if spotlights can be directed so that light falls onto exhibits from the
sides. This moves reflections and shadows away from the main direction of view.
Where there is a series of similar exhibits on a wall (Figure 4.3) it is normally
better to keep the light coming from the same side so that the shadowing and any
modelling on the exhibits looks consistent.
It should be noted that where exhibits have deep frames, such as many older oil
paintings, shadows will be thrown from the top frame across the upper part of the
painting and a deep shadow thrown onto the wall below. When lit from the side
there will also be shadows on the wall beside the exhibit. In these circumstances the
balance of problems may favour moving the lights further back to minimise these
shadows. See also section 8.1 for problems with reflections in the glass of showcases.
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Lighting the exhibits 21
Figure 4.2 Reducing shadowing by

lighting from a steeper 30˚out 40˚out
angle and from positions from wall from wall
to the sides of the exhibit
Greater risk
of shadowing
Figure 4.3 To keep shadows and

modelling consistent along
a series of objects, the
lighting should generally
come from one side
Figure 4.4 (a) [left] With high hangs,

reflections from the upper
paintings can be a problem 30˚out
as viewers have to stand from wall
back to see the exhibit
clearly and reflections are
thrown towards them
(b) [right] Where it is
possible to incline the top
objects forward, reflections
are thrown further down
and there is a better
viewing angle to the exhibit
Figure 4.4 shows the problems associated with exhibits, usually paintings, hung
at high level. Here it is very difficult to avoid reflections if they are hung flat
against the wall. If they can be tilted forward, which is a traditional technique
for a double hang, then the reflection problem is reduced and the view of the
painting is improved. Care should be taken, however, not to increase the shadows
cast by the frames.
4.1.2 Centrally located For exhibits, graphic panels or display screens placed in the central area of a
gallery, the correct location of spotlights is more problematic. As greater
exhibits flexibility is required in the location of these items, so more flexibility is needed
in locating the spotlights.
Figure 4.5 shows a cross-section of a simple gallery where two runs of track
lighting or rows of spotlights have been positioned to provide lighting not only
for exhibits on or against the wall but also for three-dimensional exhibits in
the central part of the space. Increasing the number of tracks or lights across
the space would obviously improve the likelihood of lighting centrally placed
exhibits well, but at a greater cost. The more flexible the space is intended to
be and the more diverse the range of possible exhibits, the greater the density
of tracks or individual spots should be. An exercise should be carried out by
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Figure 4.5 (a) Spacing of tracks has to take into account prefered Figure 4.5 (b) Here, with an extra central track, the light can
lighting angle onto wall exhibits and 3D objects in the come down from a better angle and there is more
central part of the space. Here the spotlights on the right flexibility to light other objects across the space
track cause glare when lighting across onto a sculpture
the lighting designer in conjunction with the client and exhibition designers to
determine the likely positions of centrally placed exhibits or display screens and
then work out possible track or spot layouts that can light these from acceptable
angles. The cost versus quality and flexibility issues can then be assessed.
4.1.3 Access for aiming There is no point in putting a spotlight in a perfect position to light an exhibit if
it cannot be accessed to aim or maintain it. This can happen where the exhibition
layout on the floor below the spotlight restricts the access of hydraulic platforms
or stepladders. Exhibition designers normally carry out an access exercise on their
exhibition layout to ensure that a wheelchair user can pass safely between exhibits
and exhibition stands. This may be sufficient, or could easily be extended, to
ensure that a hydraulic platform can be manoeuvred into all required positions.
Remember that, once in position, many platforms will need space for outriggers
to be extended. For powered platforms, specific training and certification may be
required to comply with site health and safety rules (see Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6 Motorised access platform in

use for focusing track lights
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Lighting the exhibits 23
4.2 Contrast The importance of the contrast between the illuminance on the exhibits and the
general lighting of the gallery space was introduced in section 2.3. Generally, a
3:1 contrast ratio will offer moderate emphasis, increasing to a point where, at
10:1, the effect will be quite dramatic. Any greater contrast and viewing exhibits
may become difficult as the visual adaptation of the viewer is generally defined
by the ambient brightness within the space.
It will also be necessary to limit the brightness of the lighting equipment in

normal directions of view. This is often not properly considered in museums
and galleries, and insufficiently screened luminaries cause glare and visual
discomfort. Some form of accent lighting will usually achieve the highlighting
of exhibits and so information will also be required about lighting distribution.
Directional luminaires are available with many different beam shapes and sizes.
These range from very narrow to relatively wide beam; light beams can also have
a soft or hard edge as preferred. Designers are advised to consult manufacturers
for detailed information.
4.3 Overall balance It is important to try to balance the lighting between the various lit elements
within a space. This includes spotlit items on open display, objects within cases,
freestanding graphics, information and descriptive panels and the building
interior itself, if important. If this is done successfully, the visitor will be able to
view the whole interior as one coherent space without being distracted by bright
areas or missing less well-lit items (see Figure 4.7).
To achieve a good balance, the lighting of each display case, graphic, back-lit
panel and exhibit needs to be designed to a target lighting level. As, generally,
the exhibits are displayed at set lighting levels for conservation reasons, the
lighting of the architecture, display panels, information points and such like can
be designed around these levels. Within a single area, all lit objects meant for
viewing, such as objects, graphics and other information displays, should be lit
to an average lighting level within a 3 to 1 range if they are all to be viewed as
being similarly well lit.
To assist in getting the final balance of the lighting correct it is a good idea to
provide dimming controls for all separately lit features. Thus, as well as the
overall room lighting and spotlighting of open exhibits, each case and back-lit
display would also be dimmable. The dimmer control should ideally be accessible
from outside the case or structure (on top, behind a panel or below an overhang
Figure 4.7 Colchester Castle: the

lighting in this space
had not only to balance
the lighting of the case
interiors with the open
displays and signage,
but also the historically
significant interior wall
and a massive projected
presentation on one wall
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over a plinth) to allow easy setting of the light without having to crawl under or,
indeed, into an enclosure.
For display screens, projections and other self-luminous displays, the brightness
settings of the equipment will need to be adjusted to match the surrounding
externally lit objects and displays. Consultation with the audio-visual specialists
at an early stage will assist in ensuring that the self-luminous displays can be
adjusted when carrying out the final setting up of the lighting within the space.
4.4 Experimentation Before specifying a particular lighting technique for displays, whether
freestanding or in a showcase, the designer should consider producing a mock-up
and mock-ups of the design to ensure that it will deliver the performance required. This is also
useful to demonstrate a design approach to a client or others who may not have
experience or knowledge of the types of lighting that are available or possible.
Such mock-ups do not need to be elaborate or expensive constructions, but they
should be sufficiently detailed to test the proposal and to identify any deficiencies
in the lighting equipment and its installation. This exercise could avoid costly
mistakes and problems in the final installation.
5 Considering Light radiation causes irrevocable damage to most organic and a small minority
of inorganic materials. Research has shown that these materials’ susceptibility
material to light varies substantially and may be affected by other environmental factors,
such as relative humidity. To assist the reader, this guide contains generalised
degradation information on the light responsivity of common object types and materials.
(Note that the term ‘responsivity’ is used in place of sensitivity within this guide
to align with the International Committee on Illumination (CIE) guidance on the
categorisation of object sensitivity to light, described later in this section.) This
information forms the background for the guide’s advice on appropriate levels
of illumination and the duration of exposure to which such materials should be
subject.
It must be noted that the tables of recommendations are purely advisory and are
only intended to reflect current conservation practice. They are not to be treated
as mandatory targets and it remains the responsibility of lighting designers to
determine issues such as the significance, visibility, access and light responsivity
of objects or surfaces before selecting a means of lighting for sensitive materials.
As any light exposure will cause damage, it is inevitable that a compromise will
have to be struck between the needs of the viewer to see, interpret and enjoy
the material and the latter’s long-term preservation. Using the least amount of
light practicable remains the primary goal when working with light-sensitive
materials
5.1 Use of light During the past half century there has been a growing understanding of the effects
of light on materials. This has served to bring our scientific understanding into
in the culture line with our intuitive awareness that some materials change faster than others
of materials (for instance, textiles and fugitive pigments), while a limited number respond to
conservation light either relatively slowly or not at all. The effects of photochemical degradation
have been investigated by conservators and their findings have helped to quantify
rates of change and thus shape recommendations for curtailing light exposure.
In their earliest guise, these recommendations were primarily generated by
calculations based on visual acuity and the length of museum opening hours. It is
now widely recognised that earlier categorisations of material responsivity were
too broad, especially for highly light-sensitive materials, and that some items
should only be accessed on an occasional basis.
While balancing the needs and sensitivities of viewers and objects, it is also
important to consider the context in which viewing takes place. For instance,
limiting the period during which a material is exposed to light will reduce its rate
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Considering material degradation 25
of change but this may interfere with viewers’ access to it. Likewise, a reduction
in the rate of change will be achieved if the light intensity is reduced, but there
will be a point below which the viewer’s ability to perceive and interpret the
object will be impaired. To take a simplistic example, a newspaper is easy to read
outside and will, if exposed to just a few hours of sunlight, start to discolour
(change). Conversely, exposed only to moonlight the same degree of change may
take hundreds of years to occur but the paper will be effectively unreadable,
though some younger people may possibly be able to see the largest titles. Current
conservation-based management practice for displaying light-sensitive materials
seeks to find an appropriate balance between these extremes. It takes into account
the rate of deterioration and light levels needed to perceive objects adequately.
Where these conflict, compromises have to be made; the most common being to
limit the periods for which objects are exposed to light and levels of illumination
for viewing. This practice applies equally to objects in museum galleries and
other locations, such as domestic environments and, it may be noted, has only
been codified in the past few decades in parallel with the decline of traditional
domestic practices, such as protecting expensive textiles with covers and closing
curtains or shutters when rooms are not in use.
Developing appropriate lighting solutions for light-sensitive materials requires

the lighting designer to follow conservation practice while optimising conditions
for viewing. Given that few, even in the museum profession, exercise the skills
and knowledge this requires on a day-to-day basis, the following project steps
are offered to help discharge the responsibilities implicit in the role of advising a
lighting designer when working with light-sensitive materials.
Step 1 Appraise the light responsivity of the object or material to be lit

Identify the composition of the object and its responsivity to light. Objects of
mixed media should be treated with caution and may need expert appraisal to
determine their responsivity. The tables in this guide are intended only to assist
basic identification of material properties. To avoid lengthy repetition, the word
object is used here in place of light-sensitive material.
Step 2 Appraise the object’s lighting management requirements

Final responsibility for the object’s exposure to light rests with the owner, be this
an institution or a private individual. They need to determine whether the object
merits controlled exposure to light. For instance, where a highly sensitive object
is judged not be significant or is replaceable, rather less stringent restrictions may
be imposed on its illumination. It is important to note that this determination
lies outside the issues associated with access and light responsivity.
Step 3 Determine the anticipated level of access to the object

Access has two components, visibility and duration of exposure of light. The
latter may range from viewing on demand to permanent display in a public
location, while visibility will focus on the level of illumination required for the
object to be adequately seen by the viewer. The combination of viewing duration
and light levels is critical in determining the degree of light exposure that the
object will receive, and which the lighting designer is responsible for delivering.
Step 4 Appraise the context in which the object will be viewed

Careful review should be made of the building or place where the object is to
be viewed. Does its lighting performance suit the requirements of the object,
both in terms of viewing and light exposure? Special attention should be given
to daylit locations, since daylight is difficult both to measure and to control
to levels appropriate for displaying highly light-sensitive objects. Control and
management of lighting systems should also be taken into account.
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Step 5 Initiate a lighting solution

Few if any locations suit the display of all types of object. Consideration of
conservation, access and display context will almost certainly initiate a process
of optimisation and compromise. Objects cannot voice their requirements and
thus interpreters such as curators and conservators may be needed to provide
guidance to assist in the lighting design process. The language that these
professions employ and their aspirations may be difficult to assimilate with more
everyday lighting criteria and great care should be taken to avoid regarding the
achievement of set lighting or exposure levels as a guarantor of good display
lighting. Finding an optimal solution may well involve agreement of priorities
and a degree of negotiation.
Where the lighting design process is undertaken by isolated individuals there

is an implicit responsibility for them to ensure that they have considered all of
these issues.
5.2 Conservation One major change to this guide from the previous edition is the introduction of a
fourth conservation category for object illumination. The former three categories
categories appear below in Table 5.1. The new category is for highly sensitive items and the
names of the categories have been altered as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.1 Former categorisation and exposure limits for conservation
Category Illuminance Exposure
(lux) (lux hours)
Insensitive No limit No limit*
Moderately sensitive 200 600 000
Highly sensitive 50 150 000*
* No conservation limit but there may be adaptation, visibility or heat effects
if high light levels are used on insensitive items.
Table 5.2 New categorisation and exposure limits for conservation

Category Illuminance Exposure
(lux) (lux hours)
Irresponsive No limit No limit*
Low responsivity 200 600 000
Medium responsivity 50 150 000
High responsivity 50 15 000
* No conservation limit but there may be adaptation, visibility or heat effects
if high light levels are used on irresponsive items.
The 15 000 lux hour limit for the new high responsivity category is significant
because it means that these objects cannot be on continuous display for any
length of time. The minimum lighting level for adequate visibility is generally
considered to be 50 lux, therefore these objects cannot be exposed to this level for
more than 300 hours per year, which equates to about 6 hours per week. One way
around this limitation is for such objects to be exhibited continuously for a given
period at 50 lux and then put into dark storage for a considerably longer period.
Thus, perhaps, one of a number of similar silk dresses could be exhibited while
the others are in dark storage.
It is also possible with some types of exhibition to have dimming controls

operated by presence detection. Thus an object may be lit to, say, 10 lux for most
of the time which would increase to 50 lux when actually being viewed and then
dim down again once the viewer has left the vicinity of the case or object. (Note
that during opening hours it is best not to have the lights dim right out as visitors
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may assume that the exhibit is not present or is not worth approaching as the
lights have failed.) For externally lit objects behind glass, it is also possible to
install switchable glass that is normally fairly opaque but becomes transparent
on the operation of a local presence detector.
5.3 Light: visibility, Light plays a key role in making museums, galleries and historic houses
accessible and attractive to visitors. However, for the many materials sensitive to
illumination light, exposure can cause undesirable changes, such as the fading of dyes and the
and change loss of colour information.
Light can promote both thermal and photochemical changes. Thermal changes
are caused by the heating effect of the light source, which can cause thermal
expansion in some materials and localised drying, resulting in cracking and
splitting. Enamels appear to be particularly susceptible to thermal movement.
Photochemical reactions are generally more significant as light can promote

many chemical reactions, the visible effects of which include colour change and
physical deterioration. Photochemical changes are irreversible and cannot be
rectified by conservation treatment (Figure 5.1).
The greatest risk to the preservation of museum collections comes from disasters
such as earthquakes, fire, flood and theft. However, it is the insidious effects
of biological attack, incorrect relative humidity and temperature, air pollution
and light which the conservator attempts to manage in day-to-day operations.
Light, although potentially damaging to many materials, is required for the
objects to be appreciated and thus cannot be avoided. As light is required to view
objects it is inevitable that those sensitive to light will undergo some change, the
majority of which will be considered as damaging. For light-sensitive objects
there are no safe levels of illumination, though the rate of change is controllable,
depending on the type of material and the intensity, wavelength and duration
of the illumination. There is thus a fundamental dilemma in lighting objects:
visibility versus vulnerability.
Figure 5.1 Fading is evident on this
stained mahogany piano
top, except where the cover The commonly recommended illumination levels of 50 and 200 lux are based
has been flapped back on established practice and research into visual acuity and are not levels below
over an area protecting which damage does not occur – a frequently misunderstood concept. Similarly,
it from light. American there is an erroneous belief that the filtering of ultraviolet (UV) radiation
Museum in Britain, Bath
provides complete protection and makes the light ‘safe’. Removal of UV offers
some protection for colours that are sensitive to UV, normally the more stable
colours, and can help to limit structural changes. Thus UV is normally reduced
through filtration because the human eye does not need it to see.
Research into perception and appreciation under different viewing conditions

can give an idea of what levels of illumination are required for people with
good vision. However, they cannot be used as an absolute preservation standard
since the rate of change is related to the exposure time. Recommended levels
have generally been based on experiments with users with good eyesight. The
drive to provide access to more of the community and the recent introduction
of the Disability Discrimination Act mean that illumination levels based on
‘good’ vision may be deemed to be discriminatory. The Canadian Conservation
Institute lighting guidelines, for example, attempt to provide guidance based on
the level of detail, the reflectance of the object and level of vision that the user has.
The guidelines suggest varying levels of illumination by up to a factor of 3 and
controlling rates of change through limiting exposure time (e.g. by displaying
objects on a rotating basis).
Lighting design can have a dramatic effect on visual appreciation. Conservation

illumination levels have often been blamed for poor viewing conditions.
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However, in many instances a suboptimal viewing experience is due to ill-

considered lighting design. Common errors include reflections, dark circulation
spaces, backgrounds of the wrong reflectance or brightness, the disturbing
presence of glare from lamps, other areas of very high illumination in the field of
view – subjects dealt with in detail in other chapters of this guide. In the drive
for increasing access, some designers have assumed that open display provides
better viewing conditions. Yet, for vulnerable materials such as costume, this
will normally mean that the viewer will be kept further away from the object
by a physical barrier. The closer you can get to an object, the easier it is to see
detail at the same illumination level. This would mean that either the object
would be harder to see (decreasing access) or more light would be required to
see the same level of detail than if the viewer were allowed to closely approach
the object in a glass case. This could, in turn, mean that the object could not be
displayed as often, potentially reducing access. So, in some instances, displaying
objects behind glass and lighting them properly to avoid glare and reflection can
improve visibility and increase the accessibility to the object for a wider section
of the community.
5.4 Effect of light Some objects are insensitive to light while others are so light-sensitive that a
very short exposure could produce a noticeable change in appearance. The extent
on materials to which materials deteriorate under given lighting conditions depends largely
on their chemical composition. As a broad rule, organic materials are more
susceptible to photochemical deterioration than inorganic. The occurrence of
colour change is often revealed when an area exposed to light is compared with
an adjacent area that has been protected; for example, at the edge of watercolours
where the paint has been covered by the mount or where part of an object is
shielded by another. It should be noted that in many instances colours can fade
completely (Figure 5.1).
Not all colours fade at the same rate. Some colour changes cause distortions to the
original intent, such as where yellow dyes have been used together with blue dyes
to create the green of foliage in tapestries. The more fugitive yellow dyes fade
more rapidly leaving the more permanent blue dye to dominate. Other changes
can be less obvious; for example, when pink pigments fade from flesh tones to
leave a white colour. These changes are highly undesirable because they distort
the intention of the artist or craftsman, reduce the enjoyment of the viewer and
can lead to misconceptions that are confusing to art scholarship. Figure 5.2
demonstrates the impact of the loss of yellow pigment producing the appearance
of blue foliage.
Figure 5.2 The grass and leaves in this

tapestry have changed from
green to blue due to light
exposure fading the yellow
pigment more quickly
than the more stable blue
pigment. V&A Museum
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5.4.1 Inorganic Glass and ceramic

materials Glass and ceramic objects may be regarded as being unaffected by light, although
in some cases they may have pigments applied after firing which can be affected.
Stone and minerals

In general, objects made from stone are unaffected by light, although there
are about 90 minerals which are known to change colour or to disintegrate if
exposed to daylight for long periods. Again, many stone objects may have painted
decoration.
Metals
There is little evidence that metals are affected by light.
Pigments
The majority of inorganic pigments are not changed by light but some are known
to be affected; for example, vermilion and chrome yellow will darken.
5.4.2 Organic materials Dyes

Many organic dyes undergo dramatic colour changes when exposed to light.
The fading of yellow dyes such as quercitron, turmeric and weld from areas of
tapestries that were intended to be green, leaving behind the more permanent
blue dye indigo, has already been discussed. Indigo also fades on prolonged
exposure. Red dyes such as madder, cochineal, logwood and the nineteenth-
century synthetic alizarin all fade after relatively short exposure to light. The
substrate can have a significant effect; for instance, madder is far more stable on
wool than on cotton.
Pigments
Many of the organic dyes mentioned above are also used as pigments by
precipitating them onto inert bases, such as calcium carbonate or aluminium
hydroxide. These pigments are referred to as lakes and are affected by light in the
same way as the dyes, although the rates of change may be different. Indigo is a
solid and can be used directly as a pigment. Quite dramatic fading of indigo can
often be seen in watercolours, where the pigment particles are thinly applied as a
wash on light-coloured paper. However, indigo is relatively durable on wool, less
so on silk and fugitive on cotton.
Colour changes are usually more obvious on watercolours than oil paintings
because of the thin application of the pigment particles in the former, resulting
in the exposure of the majority of the particles to the damaging effects of the
light. The same colour changes occur in oil paintings but tend not to be evident
so quickly because only the top layer of pigment particles is exposed to the light
initially.
Apart from the lakes, several other organic pigments are used in oil and
watercolour paintings that are affected by light. Vandyke brown, sepia, carmine
and gamboge all fade. The transparent green glaze, copper resinate, much
favoured by Renaissance painters, turns opaque brown on exposure to light. This
change distorts the appearance of paintings, although this was not always obvious
to later artists. They often deliberately painted foliage brown, wrongly assuming
that this autumnal appearance was a desirable attribute of Renaissance painting.
Textile fibres
Neither the cellulose molecules of the vegetable fibres in cotton and linen nor the
protein molecules of the animal fibres wool and silk are rapidly affected by light.
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Figure 5.3 Deterioration of silk where

it has been exposed to light.
Lyme Park, National Trust
However, when the fibres are associated with dyes, mordents, sizes, pigments and
dirt, complex reactions occur under the influence of light.
One of these reactions may cause the fibres to weaken if the long molecules to
which they owe their strength are broken. Silk fibres are most vulnerable to
this type of deterioration (Figure 5.3), followed by wool; cotton and linen are
less affected. This damage can have a dramatic effect in tapestries: the woollen
warp threads usually remain in a reasonable state of preservation while the silk
weft threads, which are dyed and carry the design, are often so decayed that they
have broken, leaving long tears in the tapestry. In addition to weakening fibres,
photochemical reactions can produce coloured decomposition products that
stain the fibres.
Wood
Some woods, such as mahogany and walnut, bleach under the action of light;
oak, rosewood and sycamore turn yellow; others, including teak, darken.
Paper
The stability of paper depends upon its quality. A pure linen-rag paper will be
resistant to photochemical change, cotton rag paper rather less so. Newsprint,
which contains a high proportion of linen, will visibly discolour if exposed to
sunlight for even a few hours.
Resins and oils

Resins have many uses in museum objects, ranging from adhesives to varnishes
and paint media. The natural resin varnishes used on paintings and furniture all
discolour, turning darker and more yellow when exposed to light. Hard resins
dissolved in oil, such as copal, and soft resins dissolved in spirit, such as mastic
and dammar, are used as picture varnishes. These not only discolour but also
become progressively less soluble in organic solvents as their photochemical
deterioration progresses. Shellac, which is used as a furniture varnish (‘French
polish’), does not discolour significantly. Oil, when used as a paint medium,
yellows on prolonged exposure to light. It is reported that fresh oil paint can be
bleached by exposure to sunlight.
Natural history exhibits

Fur and hair are faded by light. Dyed colours are affected by light, but iridescent
colours are reasonably lightfast, although the proteins that form the structures
responsible for iridescence will eventually break down.
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5.5 Factors Museums select their lighting on aesthetic as well as conservation grounds. To
ensure that the colour appearance of exhibits is good, lamps with good colour
affecting the rendering properties should be chosen and placed appropriately. In the context
destructive of conservation, the lighting should be selected with reference to the potential
effects of light damage it will cause. The extent of the damage caused by a particular light
source to an exhibit of given responsivity depends on three factors: the spectral
composition of the light, the illuminance and the length of exposure.
Although daylight and the light from the lamps most commonly used in museums
can be described as ‘white’, their spectral distributions – the relative power of the
light in the different regions of the spectrum – can vary considerably. Different
types of lamp will emit different proportions of light in the infrared, visible and
ultraviolet regions.
Quantifying the damage caused by different types of light source has proved
extremely difficult. In theory, the shorter the wavelength of the radiation, the
higher the energy and, consequently, the greater the damage that will ensue.
A study of the rate of deterioration of low-quality paper concluded that,

throughout the visible region, the damage caused to objects decreases as
wavelength increases. It has become clear, however, that no simple relationship
of this type exists to quantify damage to coloured materials.
5.6 Reducing the Although damage to light-sensitive materials cannot be completely avoided,
taking certain precautionary measures can reduce it. The most important are
damaging reducing the length of exposure, limiting the illuminance and eliminating, as far
effects of light as possible, the ultraviolet radiation.
5.6.1 Eliminating The shorter wavelength radiation (blue light and UV) has the highest energy. It
has been shown that removal of UV does not provide protection for many of the
ultraviolet most sensitive colours but does reduce the deterioration of more stable colours.
radiation As UV radiation is not required for vision (in fact, it is invisible to the human eye)
it makes sense to filter this out or use low UV emitting light sources. Indeed, the
common standard of keeping UV radiation to below 75 microwatts per lumen of
light is based on the output of a standard tungsten filament lamp. The assumption
at the time was that this was a relatively small component of UV and it would be
very costly to filter all light sources. However, standard tungsten lamps are rarely
used and tungsten-halogen, fluorescent or metal-halide lamps which tend to emit
a higher proportion of UV were common. Thus, UV filtration of these lamps is
essential, as is the filtration of daylight. Must current LEDs do not emit UV. Of
the visible spectrum, blue light is generally more damaging and as daylight has a
much larger blue component than tungsten-based light sources it can be shown
that daylight sources are potentially more damaging than artificial lighting at the
same illuminance.
The filtration of UV radiation is quite easily achieved and, because UV light is

invisible to the human eye, does not affect colour perception.
Coated glass filters which reduce the UV radiation emitted in the 320–400 nm
region and lamps with integral coated filters are now available. Filters are not
considered necessary for tungsten filament lamps, however, as the amount of
ultraviolet they emit is considered acceptable for museums. With tungsten-
halogen lamps, heat-resisting glass filters should be used to remove the small
proportion of UV radiation of wavelength shorter than 320 nm ordinarily emitted
by these lamps through their quartz envelopes. Most fluorescent lamps emit
sufficient UV to warrant the use of filters. A polymeric sheet may be placed in
front of the lamp, or a sleeve of UV-absorbing film wrapped around the tube.
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In many museums, exhibits are exposed to more daylight than electric lighting.
Daylight contains the highest proportion of UV and therefore filters should be
installed over windows and roof-lights. Ordinary window glass and the standard
grades of clear or translucent plastics used for glazing roof-lights absorb only part
of the ultraviolet radiation in daylight and additional UV-absorbing filtration is
still necessary.
Certain chemicals will absorb almost all UV radiation without significantly

affecting the transmission or colour of the light. These UV absorbers can be
incorporated in polymeric sheet and film or in varnishes to provide effective
protection. Different degrees of UV cut-off can be achieved. Laminated glass, in
which a transparent UV-absorbing layer is sandwiched between the glass sheets,
is also available. Polycarbonate or acrylic sheets may be placed on the inside of
windows or roof-lights. Alternatively, a varnish or adhesive film may be applied
to the glass to give an even coating of sufficient thickness to provide protection.
Applied internally, these materials are guaranteed for 5–10 years, but on exterior
surfaces may deteriorate more rapidly.
It is important to test the UV-absorbing properties of all filters prior to application

because the quality can vary between batches. The graph in Figure 5.4 shows the
spectral transmission of two filters currently available and claiming to provide
UV protection. Curve (a) shows the performance of a material with very little
transmittance below 400 nm which, therefore, provides good UV protection.
Curve (b) shows a material which allows considerable transmission below 400 nm
and therefore provides poor UV protection.
Figure 5.4 The spectral transmission for 100
a material which provides
90
(a) good UV protection and
(b) poor UV protection 80
Transmittance (%)
70
60
50
40 (b) (a)
30
20
10
0
300 350 400 450 500
Wavelength (nm)
5.6.2 Exposure: The amount of damage suffered by an object increases with light exposure (or
dose): the product of the illuminance and the length of time for which the object
illuminance is exposed at this level. So, for example, if the illuminance is doubled, a given
and duration amount of damage will occur in half the time (the reciprocity law).
This is likely to be approximately correct as far as most museum material is

concerned, but the rate at which damage takes place does not remain constant
throughout long periods of exposure to light, even though the illuminance
remains the same. For example, the rate at which a dyed fabric fades depends
on the amount of dye present and therefore slowly decreases as the dye is
progressively destroyed.
In the past few years, the concept of dose or cumulative exposure has become
more common. Generally considered to have an approximately linear relationship
with change, it is measured in lux hours or megalux hours (million lux hours).
Thus, exposure at 200 lux for 10 hours per day would give 2000 lux hours per
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day, and this level for 365 days of the year would come to 730 000 lux hours or
0.73 megalux hours per year. Specifying dose, or exposure, rather than a fixed
illumination level is particularly useful where there is a daylight component in
the illumination as the intensity of daylight can vary from several thousand lux
under an overcast sky to over 60 000 lux in full sun. This concept of dosage is
also essential if the rate of change is to be predicted or a lighting policy based
on acceptable rate of change is followed. For instance, the Victoria and Albert
Museum (V&A) has decided that an acceptable rate of change, i.e. fading of
materials, is 50 years. The overall exposure levels which it sets are based on
the concept of one ‘just noticeable change’ (JNC) in a 50-year period. A JNC
is a change in colour which the majority of people would notice if they could
compare the faded object with the unfaded original. It has been estimated that
most objects have a colour ‘lifetime’ of 10 JNCs before all colour information is
lost. Thus, the V&A policy predicts a ‘useful’ object lifetime of around 250 years.
Of course, for some objects, their colour is relatively unimportant or is part of a
replaceable sacrificial layer (e.g. a restored and completely repainted object), and
it may be acceptable to sacrifice the colour for greater visibility or display time.
The effective use of light involves a careful balance between providing good
viewing conditions and extending the useful lifetime of objects. This can be
achieved through a design process that considers the needs of the audience,
visual perception and the concept of acceptable rates of change through managing
illumination levels and exposure time.
5.6.3 Managing the In determining the correct illuminance there is a dilemma. The damage suffered
by an object is proportional to the light exposure, so it is best to minimise the
rate of change illuminance. Against this, experiments have indicated that there is a minimum
illuminance necessary for the perception of colour and detail in works of art
in museum conditions. One cannot apply a scientific formula to balance the
illuminance needed to give the best viewing conditions against that demanded by
conservation, so reliance must be placed on experience. The limits recommended
in Table 5.3 are widely accepted as practical for reducing damage while
maintaining adequate viewing conditions and take into account the vulnerability
of materials within the object. The designer should be aware, however, that there
is no illuminance below which damage ceases for objects that are sensitive to
light; the maximum illuminance selected must therefore depend on the amount
of deterioration that can be tolerated. The limitation of the illuminance for light-
sensitive objects makes the employment of the best possible lighting and display
techniques essential. In practice, even objects that are not damaged by light
should be displayed under illumination levels that will not affect the adaptation
state of the eye as gallery visitors pass from one area to another.
The recommended maximum illuminance relates to the chief plane of the object.
For electric lighting installations, the illuminance will be largely constant and can
Table 5.3 Recommended maximum cumulative exposure

Exhibition type Maximum cumulative
exposure (lux hours)
Objects irresponsive to light (e.g. metal, stone, glass, ceramics –
and enamel)
Objects with low responsivity to light (e.g. oil and tempera painting, 600 000
fresco, undyed leather, horn, bone, ivory, wood and lacquer)
Objects with medium responsivity to light (e.g. prints and drawings, 150 000
paintings in distemper media, wallpaper, gouache, dyed leather and
most natural history exhibits, including botanical specimens, fur
and feathers)
Objects with high responsivity to light (e.g. watercolours, tapestries, 15 000
miniatures, textiles and costumes)
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be easily calculated. Illuminance from daylight is difficult to predict because the

brightness of the sky changes constantly so that in a top-lit gallery the daylight,
which in any case is usually excessive if light-sensitive materials are present,
varies over a wide range from the level on dull days in winter to that on bright
days in summer. However, the principle of limiting the illuminance in order to
prevent undue deterioration of exhibits still applies and suitable controls, such
as diffusing or grey glass, blinds and curtains are often needed. Devices such as
venetian blinds or louvres can be controlled, either manually or automatically
using photoelectric sensors.
5.6.4 Reducing Measures to reduce the time for which objects are exposed to light form an
important aid to conservation. The levels recommended in Table 5.3 assume
the length of that the lights will be either extinguished or maintained at a very low level
exposure to light outside museum opening hours. Assuming this to be so, it is possible to arrive
at a recommended cumulative annual exposure from the maximum illuminance
settings. For example, if a level of 200 lux is maintained and the exhibits are
illuminated for about 60 hours per week, the cumulative annual exposure received
by each object will be approximately 600 000 lux hours.
In displays which are regularly viewed and where daylight is excluded, there
should be little difference between setting a maximum illuminance and a
maximum cumulative figure for light exposure. If it is assumed that the level
of the electric lights remains constant once the fittings are set up and directed,
a cumulative exposure can readily be calculated. To ensure that the cumulative
levels do not exceed the calculated exposure in practice, it is important that the
lights are always switched off outside opening hours and that failed lamps are not
replaced with lamps of a higher output.
5.6.5 Logging light The most basic form of logging exposure is to record manual readings of light
levels made periodically within the museum. Unfortunately, there are no low-
exposure technology, low-cost methods of measuring light exposure analogous to the
thermohygrograph used for recording climatic variations, although the fading
of ISO blue wool standards has been used to estimate total light exposure and
indicator strips have been developed which estimate UV exposure.
The degree of accuracy of any system of logging light exposure or UV radiation

levels will depend on the accuracy of the measurement systems and the number
of measurement points. There are two types of electric light sensor: surface-
mounted cells, which measure the illuminance incident on a surface, and
luminance sensors, which are positioned to point at a surface and measure its
luminance. The latter can be calibrated to read illuminance when the reflectance
of the viewed surface is known. The advantage of the luminance sensor is that it
is less obtrusive.
Portable solid-state devices can be adapted to log any environmental parameter,

provided that a sensor is available that generates an appropriate signal.
The advantage of logging devices of this type is that they function without
intervention or attention. As with all measuring instruments, however, it is
necessary to recalibrate periodically and to renew batteries. Recently, advances
in miniaturisation have led to the development of compact solid-state devices
which log both light and UV levels with respect to time.
The decision to adopt a centralised system for environmental monitoring and

control may well be accompanied by a decision to install fixed light sensors in
the exhibition spaces. The drawback is that, in an existing building, considerable
disruption may result from installing the sensors and running cables to the
monitoring computer.
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Use and control of daylight 35
6 Use and Natural light has many attractions in a museum or gallery, although it usually has
to be controlled for conservation reasons. There is constant variation in the pattern
control of and intensity of natural light, but it tends to be of a consistently good colour
quality. Although direct sunlight should generally be excluded due to its intensity,
daylight it can reveal shape and texture of irresponsive exhibits, such as sculptures. Another
attraction of daylight is the use of windows with a view, giving connection to the
outside. If not too bright, this can provide pleasant visual relief, which assists in
reducing museum fatigue and helps visitors to orientate themselves.
All these aspects help to create a visually attractive space and, provided the exhibits
will not be damaged by exposure to light, the designer can exploit the benefits of
natural light to the full. However, it is important that other environmental aspects
of windows, including their thermal and acoustic performance, are considered.
6.1 Daylight and Traditionally, maximum illuminance limits are applied to minimise the potential
light damage to museum objects and exhibits. Where daylight is a significant
annual exposure component of exhibit lighting it is unrealistic to expect any control system to
maintain a constant illuminance due to the inherent variability of daylight.
Attempts to control to a fixed maximum level are unlikely to result in a gallery
space that feels daylit. Hence, when daylight is used, it is necessary to develop
a conservation strategy based on illumination levels averaged over the full year.
The annual-exposure approach combines the illuminance and the period of time
over which the exhibit is illuminated into a single value known as illumination
exposure, or sometimes referred to as dose.
Lighting design goals for naturally lit spaces should therefore aim for a predicted
annual exposure value to include both daylight and electric light on the exhibits
in the space. Establishing appropriate annual exposure values will require
detailed discussion with the curatorial staff with reference to existing published
work in the field. See chapter 5 for illuminance and exposure recommendations.
6.2 Roof-lights With roof-lights, a primary consideration will be whether sunlight and daylight
are to be controlled for conservation reasons. Rather than simply shielding, it
may be possible to redirect available daylight towards the walls to make the most
of the ‘free’ light to illuminate exhibits.
6.2.1 Sunlight It is usually important to restrict direct sunlight entry into the gallery space due
to the very high illuminances, to prevent the gallery becoming overheated and
restriction to avoid problems arising from glare. Direct sunlight should not fall on exhibits
unless they are insensitive to light or heat.
Sunlight control can be achieved by the positioning and the detailed design of
windows and roof-lights. For example, north-facing windows and roof-lights are
one possible solution, although direct sunlight may still enter the space in the
early morning and late afternoon during the summer.
An alternative method for controlling sunlight is a sunscreen device, usually some

form of louvres or blinds, which can be manually or automatically adjusted. Fixed
sunscreen devices can also be used, although consideration should be given to the
transmission of these systems as they restrict daylight levels at times when sun
screening is not required. This is especially applicable to temperate climates with
predominately overcast skies, such as the UK. The design of sunscreen devices
requires knowledge of the sun’s position throughout the year for each particular
site, which can be found from tables, sun-path diagrams or by calculation – see SLL
Lighting Guide 10: Daylight: a guide for designers (SLL, 2014) and CIBSE Guide A:
Environmental Design (CIBSE, 2006). It is best to check the design and calculations
for the performance of the sunscreen device, however, using a scale model of the
screen in conjunction with a heliodon or artificial sky (see section 6.5).
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Diffusing materials in glazing systems, such as white inter-layers, acid etch or

sandblasting, are another method of preventing direct sunlight entering the
space. However, these will also prevent a direct view of the sky from skylights
and will obscure vision through windows.
6.2.2 Directing daylight Daylight penetrating through roof-lights can be diffused across the whole space to
provide general background lighting or be directed towards the walls of a gallery
to act as the main source of light for the exhibits there (Figure 6.1). Large areas of
diffusing laylights are another solution to providing diffuse, general and exhibit
lighting throughout a gallery space. For either situation, a successful daylighting
design will depend on the architect and the lighting designer working closely
together to devise the optimum form and structure of the roof-lights and their
screening or redirecting surfaces.
Figure 6.1 Museum Ludwig, Cologne:

side-facing roof-lights
allow directional daylight Architects have produced many different daylighting solutions for art galleries
into the gallery via which have influenced the basic form of the building. Figure 6.2 shows a cross-
curved ceiling forms section through two such galleries. The selection is not extensive but indicates
a range of possibilities that will be helpful to the designer. In each case, the
designers have aimed to provide a display area predominantly lit by daylight.
Some profiles have worked better than others, but it is worth remembering that
where the sky condition is mainly overcast, as it is in northern Europe, the form
of the profile can have only a limited effect on the control of the light pattern
because of the diffuse nature of an overcast sky.
Figure 6.2 Architects’ design solutions

for daylight control: (a) Tate
Gallery Clore extension,
1980, (b) Sainsbury Wing,
National Gallery, 1990
(a) (b)
6.2.3 Daylight The next consideration is how to control the level of daylight to take account of
daily and seasonal intensity variations. Some form of louvre or blind will usually
restriction provide this, but the first step is to establish the daylighting performance of the
windows or roof-light design using the techniques outlined in section 6.5 below.
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Once the daylighting performance is established, a system of daylight control

can be devised. At this point it is necessary to determine if the control approach
will be passive or active. Passive systems have no moving parts and are often
designed specifically for the project. Standard solutions include structural fins,
fixed louvre blades and micro louvre systems sandwiched between two layers of
glass. Daylight levels within the galleries will vary with season, time of day and
weather. Therefore the annual exposure approach must be used when considering
passive systems. Active systems consist of motorised elements that are controlled
automatically, either by continuous adjustment or in steps. These systems are
usually roller blinds or louvres, and they can provide close control of interior
daylight illuminance with input from photocells located either externally,
below the louvres or blinds, or on the gallery walls. Care should be taken when
commissioning active control systems to ensure that some variability in daylight
illumination remains.
With step-control, some variation in daylight illuminance will occur and hence
the lighting level on the display will vary. It will therefore be necessary to monitor
the light exposure value (lux hours) rather than illuminance (see section 5.6.2).
Step-control is usually preferred to continuous control, in which the control
system attempts to maintain a particular illuminance by continuously adjusting
the louvres. Continuous control removes the variable quality of daylight and the
constant adjustment of light control devices can be distracting for gallery visitors.
Consideration of the method of control should be undertaken at the beginning of
the design process. The requirements for controlling louvre systems in museums
and galleries are quite different to the requirements for the use of louvres in other
building types. The accuracy and repeatability of the system are important, as is
feedback from the system to ensure that the louvres are working correctly.
Louvres and blinds can be fitted externally to the building or internally below
the glazing (Figure 6.3). Louvres can also be located between layers of glazing.
Consideration should be given to the appropriate location for each specific
project. In all cases full access will be required for installation and maintenance
and consideration must be given to how the glazing surfaces will be accessed
for cleaning. For external blinds, construction and operating systems need to
be substantially more robust than on internal blinds. External blinds will also
be subject to wind and weather loadings. Internal blinds can be of significantly
lighter construction and are protected from wind and weather. However,
considerable space will be required to allow good access to the blinds and motors.
The designer should take advice from system manufacturers and obtain evidence
of the success of previous installations before agreeing final specifications.
Figure 6.3 (a) [left] External roof-light

louvre system, (b) [right]
internal louvre system
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An important feature when designing a daylight control system is that the louvres
or blinds should shut completely outside the normal opening hours to ensure
that a virtual blackout can be achieved. This will substantially reduce the light
exposure on the exhibits at times when no light is required and may even allow
higher levels of light during the day. When designing passive systems it may be
necessary to consider a dedicated system to provide this blackout. Without this
system, daylight levels during opening hours will need to be lower to ensure that
total exposure levels are achieved. For all spaces where there are light-sensitive
exhibits it is important to use glass that incorporates filtering layers to limit the
level of UV radiation entering the exhibition space (see section 5.6.1). For new
windows this can be achieved by using laminated glass incorporating several
layers of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) inter-layer. For existing windows, spray-on or
stick-on UV filtering films are available. Figures 6.4 to 6.7 present a number of
design solutions.
Figure 6.4 Art Institute Chicago:

(a) [left] section drawing,
(b) [right] photograph
UV blocking skylight
UV blocking glass
skylight glass
Sunlight
Sunlight blocking
louvers
blocking
Lenticular plastic
Lenticular plastic louvres
light spreading lens
light spreading lens
Light diffusing
Light diffusing
ceiling coffer
ceiling coffer
Fabric
Fabriclight reducing
light reducing insert
with various densities
insert with various
densities
Services
Services between
coffers including
between
track lighting
coffers,
including
track lighting
Figure 6.5 North Carolina

Museum of Art:
(a) [left] photograph,
(b) [right] section drawing
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Figure 6.6 Los Angeles County
Museum of Art:
Figure 6.7 Menil Collection:

6.3 Windows in In some galleries it is not possible to have daylight illuminating the exhibits
because of the roof geometry. In these cases, daylight can sometimes be
gallery walls introduced high up in the gallery space through a lantern or roof-lights. This was
the system adopted for the Sainsbury Wing of the National Gallery in London
(see Figure 6.2), and it gives the impression that daylight is lighting the gallery
whereas in reality the amount of daylight reaching the exhibits is minimal. The
main display lighting is provided by spotlights positioned high up in the gallery,
which can be maintained from access panels behind the luminaires. The daylight
contribution can be supplemented by fluorescent lighting positioned behind the
diffusing glass panels.
Normal windows are not usually provided in new exhibition spaces unless they
are heavily screened to avoid very bright elements in the field of view. Windows
also take up valuable display space. However, they can be provided and used to
advantage in circulation or rest areas, provided they do not interfere with the
visual adaptation state of visitors as they move about the building (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8 Tate Modern, London:
Where windows do occur in exhibition spaces it is important not to place an
windows with bright
view moderated by low exhibit, particularly a dark painting, on the wall beside the window because the
transmission secondary extreme luminance difference between the exhibit and the exterior will make
glazing and trees outside viewing difficult. This problem may be overcome with low-transmittance glass or
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Figure 6.9 Holburne Museum, Bath: other luminance-reducing devices, provided that they neither distort the colour
simple roller blinds: double of the light entering the gallery nor seriously offset the colour appearance of the
set – translucent in front
of blackout – allowing for
view outside the window. The architect should be reminded that splayed reveals
a number of combinations were traditionally used around windows to act as an intermediate luminance
for blocking bright sky or band between the dark interior walls and the brighter exterior view.
sun without losing a view
As a first level of control, all windows should be provided with curtains, blinds
or shutters to exclude daylight outside the opening hours of the building. If there
are light-sensitive exhibits, a means must be provided to shade them from direct
sunlight at all times. The actual style of the shade will depend on the particular
building. A successful solution for many historic buildings of different periods
is the simple roller blind (see Figure 6.9). These blinds are visually unobtrusive,
but do require a dedicated staff to operate them effectively.
Automatic window shades can ensure the minimum light exposure and avoid
the possibility of exhibits being damaged through manual drawing of blinds or
curtains. Automatic systems, however, are expensive and it can be a challenge to
design them to blend visually with the building when seen both internally and
externally. Any automatic system needs to be regularly serviced if failures and
expensive maintenance bills are to be avoided.
In some situations, it may be possible to reduce the transmittance of the window

rather than having adjustable daylight control. The obvious solution is neutral
density films or glass. These maintain the view to the outside but the film will
reduce the light level at all times. Care must be taken to select films that do not
alter the colour of the light. Another simple but effective solution is to place a
perforated screen in front of the glass.
A further essential conservation control is UV filters, which should be provided

on all windows in display spaces. These can take the form of self-adhesive films
applied to existing windows, provided that it is recognised that these materials
have a limited life (see section 5.6.1). If new glass is to be installed, filters can be
built into the inter-layer of laminated glass sheets. This also provides additional
security and safety measures.
6.4 Supplementary When electric lighting is used in conjunction with daylight, the lighting
designer should give special consideration to the colour temperature of light
electric light sources used. Where electric light is supplementing or replacing daylight on the
exhibition surfaces, cool light sources may be appropriate. These may be high
colour-temperature fluorescent, metal-halide or LED sources. However, low-
voltage tungsten-halogen may need colour correcting filters or may be in the
form of reflector lamps with colour correcting coatings. If this approach is used,
remember that dimming these sources will reduce their colour temperature.
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If cool light sources are provided to supplement daylight then the lighting in the
evening, when daylight is not present, should be considered. It may be preferable
to have separate fittings with warmer light sources as these will appear more
natural for evening use. This approach is used in the Sainsbury Wing of the
National Gallery with some success. However, it does require increased numbers
of fittings.
When daylighting is used in galleries and museums the temptation to provide a

similar electric light in the evening should be resisted. This approach is rarely
successful and dissolves the distinction of the evening lighting condition, which
may provide an alternative view of the gallery and its contents.
Where it is established that daylight can provide all or most of the lighting level
required over all or part of the space then control of the electric lighting should
be provided. The control system must switch off electric lighting when there
is sufficient daylight to ensure that annual exposure targets are not exceeded.
Dimming controls can also be used to regulate electric lighting in response to
interior daylight levels. In both cases this control will not only reduce energy
usage but also extend lamp life, thus reducing maintenance costs. See chapter 9
for further design guidance.
6.5 Daylight The level of daylighting is usually described by the term ‘daylight factor’ – a ratio
of the daylight level at a particular point in the building relative to the level of
evaluation unobstructed daylight outside the building (excluding direct sunlight). This, in
techniques turn, can be related to an approximate daylight illuminance for a particular time
in the day or year. Predicting the daylight factor distribution for a particular
window or roof-light design can be difficult for complicated gallery designs and
one of the most reliable methods is to build a scale model of the space and to
measure the daylight performance using an artificial sky. This equipment is often
available in schools of architecture or building research establishments. A list of
currently available artificial skies is given in appendix 3 at the end of this guide.
Figures 6.10 and 6.11 show an artificial sky, which provides an overcast sky
condition commonly experienced in temperate climates, with a gallery model at
a scale of 1:20 (other scales can be used in some cases). In addition to providing a
facility to measure the daylighting conditions, the model can also be used to study
the appearance of the lighting. Daylight testing models must be dimensionally
Figure 6.10 a [left] Artificial sky at
the Bartlett School of
correct and include any elements that affect the light, such as light control
Architecture, London, with devices, as well as the colour and reflectance of the interior surfaces.
model of Queen’s Gallery
A computer can sometimes be used to predict daylighting performance, but
Figure 6.11 [right] Model of Queen’s this will depend on the complexity of the design and the sophistication of the
Gallery – internal view
with light sensors fitted
computer program. A number of recognised computer packages are available that
through the walls
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can produce useful results and modelling of daylight and sunlight in buildings,
many of these use Radiance, a standard suite of software tools for performing
lighting simulations. Annual measured weather data can also be used to calculate
the annual variation of interior daylight levels which, in turn, provide a measure
of annual daylight exposure. It should be noted that significant computing
power and/or time is required to carry out this analysis. The task of accurately
modelling the building cannot be underestimated. It is absolutely necessary for
the form and surfaces to be modelled along with detailed modelling of glazing
and louvre systems proposed. The benefit of a computer approach is the relative
ease and speed of changing elements of design, finish or glazing, allowing many
more options for solutions to be tested.
6.6 Summary The design of a daylit gallery or museum will need to be developed by the architect
and lighting designer working closely together. The number of possible solutions
will depend on the particular requirement and only some can be indicated here.
It will be necessary to develop a design that provides the level and pattern of light
required. The windows or roof-lights will also need to be positioned in such a
way that there is no glare from these or from reflections on the exhibits.
In some cases the daylight will provide the display lighting, while in others it will
provide the building or ambient lighting only. Whichever approach is followed
it is suggested that designers take note of successful solutions in other museums
and galleries at an early stage. They should then develop their own design and
refine this through the use of daylighting calculations and architectural models
for the gallery in question. For particularly significant galleries it will often be
necessary to build a full-scale mock-up to check the design before the gallery
is constructed. Further information on daylighting is given in SLL Lighting
Guide 10: Daylight; a guide for designers (SLL, 2014).
Electric lighting in predominantly daylit galleries requires special consideration

of the colour appearance and, for the integration of electric light, controls
incorporating light sensors.
7 Selection In chapters 3 and 4 the principles and aims of lighting the space and lighting the
exhibits were outlined. In most interiors, whether new build or refurbishments,
and use of there are practical constraints on where the lights can actually be located.
Sometimes structural elements dictate that lighting has to be positioned in certain
electric light places or other services restrict the locations where lights can be placed. It is
important that the interior lighting forms an integrated part of the architecture,
especially in historically sensitive interiors. Depending on the architectural
character of the gallery and on how the exhibits are to be displayed and lit, the
building lighting may need some form of concealed or indirect lighting that
lights the space and perhaps ceiling or architectural features, while ensuring
an appropriate contrast between the exhibits and the gallery space. The aim of
the lighting designer is to provide a pattern of light where the exhibits are the
brightest part of the field of view. Without a visual contrast between the exhibit
and background lighting, a gallery can appear bland and uninteresting. Providing
an element of accent light also enhances the visibility of the exhibit.
Where the space has daylight available, the electric lighting must be designed
to complement it and, where possible, use it to enable a reduction in lighting
power during bright parts of the day. After sunset, roof-lights can present a dark
void over the visitor’s head. This may be remedied by the use of uplighting,
particularly where blinds or louvres are closed and provide an additional reflective
surface. Care in positioning uplights is necessary to avoid reflected images of
bright lamps in the glazing.
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Selection and use of electric light 43
For galleries lit entirely by electric lighting, controls are likely to be required if
the display regularly changes, as in galleries used for temporary exhibitions (see
section 3.7). The degree of control will, to some extent, depend on the lighting
system employed and the degree of change required for each exhibition. The
lighting strategy for this type of gallery will necessitate the development of
an explicit design brief between the gallery staff and the designers to ensure a
successful solution. See chapter 9 for more information on controls.
7.1 Ratio of general The ratio of the illuminance of the exhibits compared to their background
determines the impact that the exhibits have on the viewer and the ‘drama’ of
lighting to the space itself. At one extreme, where only the exhibits are lit, they stand out
exhibit lighting starkly in the space giving a very dramatic or theatrical appearance. This may
be appropriate for certain exhibitions, but where an exhibition takes place in a
space with dark decor it can easily become gloomy or even oppressive if there
are few lit exhibits in the space. At the other extreme are spaces lit with general
soft light with no direct lighting on the exhibits themselves. These spaces can
appear rather bland with the exhibits lacking any presence in the space. Where,
for instance, light-coloured paintings are exhibited on a light-coloured wall the
paintings will not stand out at all and may appear uninteresting to the viewer.
Exceptions are where there is a strong flow of daylight across the space giving
some modelling to three-dimensional exhibits and ‘white-box’ galleries where
mostly brightly coloured modern art exhibits are displayed on light walls.
Generally, the most successful spaces have some soft general lighting on the
background and exhibits, with extra, direct light onto the exhibits. This
emphasises the exhibits within the space and provides interesting modulation to
the visual scene within the space. There is also some evidence that this technique
aids visibility of the art by improving visual performance (refer to chapter 2).
7.2 Choice of lamp There is increasing pressure to meet energy targets for lighting, with the relevant
legislation including UK Building Regulations and European energy-related
products (ErP) Directives. In addition, commercial pressures are increasingly
being felt in running museums, as energy costs are a significant element of
the overall running cost. These considerations have to be borne in mind when
selecting the appropriate lamp type. However, there remains a trade-off between
quality of light, particularly in colour rendering and appearance, and energy use.
The ErP legislation has a direct impact on the lamps and light sources that may
be offered for sale in the European Union. The process has already resulted in the
withdrawal from sale of conventional incandescent lamps of various wattages and
types. This has a particular effect on lighting in historic buildings using historic
light fittings, especially where replica candles are used. It will also impact older
installations using T12 fluorescent lamps as these are also in the process of being
phased out. Higher wattages of tungsten-halogen capsule lamp, reflector lamps
and linear tungsten lamp will also cease to be available. This will necessitate
replacement of existing lighting equipment in some situations.
At present there are three main types of lamp that are used in gallery spaces
for spotlighting: metal-halide, LED and tungsten-halogen. There are differences
between them relating to energy usage, colour rendering, beam quality, dimming
and life. Designers will need to choose carefully to ensure that the lamp selected
meets all the requirements for each space and display method. Every effort should
be made to restrict the number of lamp types used in any project to simplify
future maintenance and lamp stocking.
7.2.1 Tungsten- Within the life of this guide it is likely that the availability of tungsten-halogen
halogen lamps capsule and reflector lamps will be drastically reduced. Current European
EcoDesign regulation No 244/2009 of 18 March 2009, implementing Directive
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2005/32/EC for non-directional household lamps, and the forthcoming regulation

on directional lamps, low-voltage converters and LED lamps will prevent many
lamp types currently used in museums from being sold. In the draft regulation
on reflector lamps, special-purpose lamps for museums are exempted. However,
there is no clear definition regarding what lamps will be covered and no indication
from the lighting industry of what lamps they will or will not supply once this
regulation comes into force.
Tungsten-halogen lamps have been the mainstay of museum and gallery lighting
for the past 20 to 30 years. They are more efficient than simple tungsten lighting,
are dimmable and come in a variety of wattages and beam angles to suit all sizes
of space and lighting levels required on the exhibits.
Tungsten-halogen lamps come in capsule form, for use in lights with built-in
reflectors, and with integral reflectors in various forms. The capsule form requires
careful handling as residues on fingers can react with the quartz envelope causing
early lamp failure. They are available in mains voltage or extra-low-voltage (ELV)
versions – usually 12 volt. The ELV type needs to be used in spotlights with integral
transformers or in ELV spotlights mounted on ELV track supplied by a transformer.
Reflector ELV lamps are available in a wide range of reflector sizes, wattages
and beam angles. The mains voltage versions can be used in spotlights without
transformers but are less efficient, have a shorter life, are more expensive and are
only available in a limited range of wattages and beam angles.
7.2.1.1 Tungsten-halogen Spotlights can be selected with in-built reflectors that use capsule lamps or
lamps in capsule, without reflectors for use with lamps with integral reflectors. The advantage of
dichroic reflector capsule lamps is that they are cheaper to replace and simpler to stock as there are
only different wattages and lamp bases, not different beam angles as with reflector
and QR111 formats
lamps. The disadvantage is that to change the spread of light on a display the whole
spotlight has to be changed or, in the case of a few manufacturers, the reflector
has to be removed from the spotlight and replaced by another. There are some
spotlights where the lamp or the reflector can be adjusted to vary beam angles.
For lamps with integral reflectors it can be easier to select the right beam angle
to light a given exhibit but this option does result in a wide range of beam angle
and wattage combinations. A clear guide to the maintenance staff is then needed
so that they use a lamp with the same wattage and beam angle when replacing a
failed lamp (see chapter 10 for more detail on maintenance).
With the reflector types of ELV lamp there are two main sizes to choose from: the
111 mm diameter QR111 and the 50 mm diameter QR-CB51.
The lamp life of the QR111 (AR111) is about 3000 hours and it comes in 35 W,
50 W, 75 W and 100 W versions in 4°, 8°, 24° and, in some wattages, 45° beam
angles. It uses an aluminium reflector that reflects heat forward as well as light.
The QR-CB51 (MR16) lasts about 4000 hours and comes in 20 W, 35 W, 50 W and
sometimes 75 W versions in roughly 10°, 24°, 38° and 60° beam angles. They come
with aluminium reflectors or with dichroic reflectors that have the advantage of
passing much of the lamp’s heat out through the back of the reflector rather than
in the beam. This is a better option for heat-sensitive exhibits. (Note that available
wattages and beam angle ranges do vary from one manufacturer to another.)
There is also a range of smaller reflector-style dichroic lamps with a diameter of

35 mm available in a range of beam angles in both 20 W and 35 W versions. While
these are less efficient than the 50 mm diameter versions they are useful when
very small lights are needed for a space.
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There are many cheap, low-quality ELV lamps available that have poor beam
qualities and relatively short lamp life. Lamps should be specified or ordered
from named, main manufacturers rather than using cheap generic varieties.
All tungsten-halogen lamps should be ‘UV-stop’ or ‘UV filter’ and should be
of the IRC type. IRC stands for infra-red coating and is a method of increasing
efficiency. Although an IRC type is more expensive, its higher output means
that, for instance, a 35 W IRC lamp can replace a 50 W conventional lamp, with
consequent energy and cost savings throughout the life of the lamp. For high
wattage IRC lamps it is important to check that the luminaire is rated to accept
them to avoid any heat damage to it. See Figure A2.1 in appendix 2 for a diagram
giving lighting levels and beam diameters for a range of lamp types, wattages,
beam angles and installation heights.
Tungsten-halogen spotlights are available with an integral dimmer or without

for use on remotely dimmed systems. With integral dimming the desired light
level on each exhibit can be more precisely achieved but the light level across the
whole gallery cannot be easily raised or lowered to suit changes in circumstances,
such as raising the level for a few hours during a special function or lowering
the level during audio-visual presentations. If this flexibility is needed then
remote dimming of all the spotlights is required. With careful selection to ensure
compatibility, it is possible to have both local dimming of the spotlights and
remote dimming of all the spotlights; this flexibility obviously comes at a cost.
It is worth noting that a 5% reduction in voltage to a tungsten-halogen lamp
roughly doubles its life with a 15% drop in output and a slight drop in colour
temperature. See chapter 9 for more information on controls.
7.2.2 Metal-halide In comparison with traditional quartz envelope metal-halide lamps, the newer
generation of ceramic discharge metal-halide lamps (CDM) have good colour
rendering, good colour constancy throughout their life and use less energy than
tungsten-halogen. The drawbacks are that they come in a more limited range
of wattages and cannot readily be dimmed. They also take up to 5 minutes to
achieve full brightness and if switched off cannot be restarted until they have
cooled sufficiently, which can take 10 or 15 minutes.
These lamps are best used in higher spaces where their greater output is useful
and where their light can be utilised without the need for dimming. While neutral
density filters or mesh screens can be used to reduce the lamp’s output, this does
not reduce the energy used.
Lamps are available in capsule form, to fit spotlights with built-in reflectors,
as well as in parabolic aluminised reflector (PAR) and AR111 forms that have
in-built reflectors. Although 35 W sizes are widely available, 20 W sizes have
recently appeared in various formats too.
While it is difficult to give a direct comparison with tungsten-halogen lamps, due

to differences in beam angles and unit sizes, the 35 W CDM capsule has a higher
output than a 100 W tungsten-halogen capsule and the 20 W CDM is almost
equivalent to a 75 W tungsten-halogen capsule.
7.2.3 Light emitting LEDs are now replacing tungsten-halogen lamps as the primary source for
spotlighting applications.
diodes (LEDs)
LEDs come in a wide variety of types with differing characteristics. Generally,
individual LEDs have low outputs and are grouped together within a light to provide
sufficient output for most applications. LEDs are very temperature sensitive and
operate at much lower temperatures than other types of light source and are usually
cool to the touch, which makes aiming and adjusting easier. They do, however,
emit a certain amount of heat and should be used with caution in small spaces.
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There are now some like-for-like replacements for existing low-voltage reflector
lamps. Some types are not suitable for museum application; they do not match the
light output, beam characteristics or colour rendering required in the museum
environment. Some of these substitute lamps do not work correctly with dimmed
lighting circuits or self-dimmed low-voltage fittings.
It is important to obtain exact performance information for LED systems,

including all optical and electronic components based on recognised methods of
measurement.
LED systems are also sold on the basis of having a long service life. As the
electronics to drive LEDs are relatively complex, the risk of failure in the
drive circuits is significant and any life expectancy claims have to include the
potential failure of the electronics as well as the manufacturer’s claimed life
of the LED device itself. Warranties for LED systems should be considerably
longer than for other technologies: typically you should expect at least 5 years’
parts and labour warranty on the entire system or fitting. Make sure that the
warranty is properly passed to the building owner from the contractor if they
supply the fittings.
LED lighting systems are not maintenance free. Although they do not require
frequent re-lamping it is important to clean the fittings regularly to maintain light
output from lenses and reflectors. It is also important to clean heat sinks to ensure
that they operate with maximum efficiency. As LEDs are temperature sensitive,
the life will also be determined by the location and method of installation of the
LED fittings: adequate airflow must be allowed around LED fittings to preserve
the expected life.
A document titled A guide to the specification of LED lighting products 2012 (Lighting
Industry Liaison Group, 2012) is available for free from the SLL website and is
regularly updated with current information to assist in the process of obtaining
suitable LED systems.
In general, ‘white’ LED light is produced by a blue or violet LED in combination

with a phosphor that converts the blue/violet frequencies to other colours in the
spectrum, so as to provide white light – similar to the process used in fluorescent
lamps. Some LED lights can produce a peak emission in the blue area of the
spectrum which could cause accelerated deterioration of certain pigments and
materials. This is an area of ongoing research. However, careful consideration
should be given to the use of LEDs with any specifically blue-sensitive objects.
The colour appearance of LEDs is described using the same system as other light
sources and is referred to as a correlated colour temperature (CCT) specified in
kelvin. It is important to note that the colour appearance to the viewer of different
light sources at the same CCT can be quite markedly different.
Currently LED fittings suitable for exhibit lighting fall into two broad categories:
—— Remote phosphor emitters – These can provide very high colour

rendering and consistent colour appearance. Typically, the light
emitting area is relatively large, around 20 mm in diameter. These
sources can have problems in delivering narrow beam angles and
tight beam control. They will require larger diameter reflectors and
larger fitting sizes than, say, a tungsten-halogen fitting of similar
performance. The large emitter and reflector combination can
sometimes produce a ‘fried egg’ beam pattern with a tight bright
spot in the centre of the beam and a wide field of light around it.
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—— Multiple emitters – Groups of high-power LEDs with individual

optics can also be used to provide suitable light outputs and
distributions for exhibition lighting. With these arrangements,
narrower angles are achievable; however, with multiple light
sources and optics, multiple shadows of objects can sometimes be
created.
Different lighting manufacturers are developing solutions for spotlighting that

are more tailored to exhibit lighting and there are likely to be many developments
throughout the life of this guide. It is essential to conduct side-by-side trials to
assess the suitability and performance of LED products in any given situation.
Currently, standards of some manufacturers’ data may not be sufficiently reliable
to allow assessment of the actual performance of these products and comparisons
to be made between them.
LEDs can be dimmed; however, there is a variety of different systems in

use that are not compatible with each other or with existing lighting control
infrastructure. Typically, track lighting systems are controlled using either
leading or lagging phase control power dimming. There are certain LED fittings
that can work with this system. Some lighting manufacturers are providing
digital addressable lighting interface (DALI) protocol track fittings that require a
lighting track which can carry data as well as power. At the time of writing, there
are at least two different and incompatible systems for data track. Therefore, it
is important to ensure the compatibility of products. Other control protocols
used for LED products include 1–10 V analogue, digital serial interface (DSI) and
digital multiplex (DMX). Each protocol requires different control hardware and
wiring schemes. It is important to get expert, independent advice to ensure that
the equipment will work together to meet the specific requirements of the space.
7.2.4 Fluorescent lamps The fundamental technology behind fluorescent lamps has existed commercially
since the 1900s. It relies on an electric current exciting a mercury vapour in
a glass tube to produce UV radiation. The addition of a fluorescent phosphor
coating converts the UV to visible light.
Due to their mercury content, these lamps should never be discarded with normal
refuse, but disposed of in an approved method. Specialist recycling companies
exist for this purpose (and will recycle most other lamp types too).
Modern fluorescent lamps are designated by their power (wattage), as well as

their colour temperature and colour rendering ability. The combination of these
three elements, together with the variety of shapes, makes for a vast range of
choices.
Incandescent and discharge lamps produce all luminous flux (light) from a
single point and mimic the sun in creating deep, dark shadows with crisp edges,
desirable for modelling objects as three-dimensional. Fluorescent lamps are
considered area sources – that is, light is emitted from the entire surface area
of the lamp – diffuse, like a cloudy, overcast sky. Shadows soften and lighten,
sometimes disappearing altogether. This type of light can be described as being
rather ‘flat’ or ‘dull’, but is useful for rendering objects as more two-dimensional
and for general area lighting.
Two basic types of lamps are produced: linear and compact. As the names suggest,
linear are long, tubular lamps with end caps at both ends. Compact fluorescent
lamps take on a variety of shapes, with the electrical pins all at one end, but
operate in the same fashion. Within this category there are also subcategories,
depending on number of bends, size and shape.
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In general, all types of fluorescent lamp are too large and diffuse to be used
in conjunction with a reflector to create a focused beam. The best that can be
achieved is a redirection of the light.
Fluorescent lamps are highly energy efficient. The mechanism of producing
light, however, also produces a high level of UV, generally considered harmful to
sensitive materials (see chapter 5) and this will need to be reduced with filters or
sleeves when lighting such exhibits.
The colour of the light emitted is governed by the mixture of phosphors

employed. Lamps are available in several options: 2700 K, 3000 K (warm white),
4000 K (cool white), 5400 K and 6000 K (notionally designated as ‘daylight’). The
most commonly used for museum and gallery application are the 3000 K and
4000 K colour temperatures. Selection depends on the desired atmosphere to be
created and integration with daylight or other light sources.
Basic fluorescent lamps are considered to have a colour rendering index of about
80 (see section 2.5). However, high quality lamps are readily available, offering 90
or higher. As ever, there is a slight trade off in reduced light output.
Fluorescent lamps are much less susceptible to vibration than incandescent

lamps. This is fundamental to maintenance, especially if the installation is
located adjacent to a busy road, underground rail, railway or overpass. Lamp
failure will start to reveal itself around the time of rated life expectancy, when the
light output will visibly diminish. It is often recommended that an installation
of fluorescent lamps be re-lamped all at one time, to ensure that brand, colour
temperature and light output are constant across the entire installation. Other
indicators of lamp failure are ‘end blackening’, where the end of the lamp closest
to the electrode literally turns black, or flickering/cycling on and off. The latter
may be an indication that the ballast has failed.
Modern electronic control gear produces a ‘soft start’, treating the electrodes
more gently and extending the life of the lamp. On the whole, fluorescent lamps
have a life of 10 000+ hours using old-fashioned wire-wound ballasts (which are
being phased out) and up to 18 000+ hours using the newer electronic ballasts.
Ensuring that the installation is correct, ambient temperature remains constant
and electrical input is within the recommended ratings will safeguard lamp life.
Some electronic ballasts also allow fluorescent lamps to be dimmed. These will
be identified by the method by which they are controlled: analogue (1 V–10 V),
digital (DSI) or individually addressable (DALI). There is, of course, a cost
premium associated with dimmable devices.
Fluorescent lamps dim smoothly from 100% output down to either 10% or 3%
(depending on the lamp and ballast) before switching off. They do not change
colour significantly when dimmed (like tungsten lamps) but may show some
slight change in appearance and rendering properties.
7.3 Light fitting Many spotlight ranges have available accessories that can be used to shield,
change or shape the beam of light from the spotlight. Glare shields or louvres
accessories can be used to avoid glare to those approaching a spotlight – for instance when
lighting a graphic panel just inside the door into a gallery. Barn-doors (a set of
four adjustable flaps on a rotatable frame) can be used to shape the beam of light
from the spotlight to avoid over-lighting the background beyond an exhibit.
Note that not all luminaires can accept more than one accessory. Sometimes it
may be necessary to have two – a sculpture lens and a set of barn doors or a UV
filter and an anti-glare honeycomb.
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Spread lenses or sculpture lenses are very valuable as they spread the beam of
light into a long oval. This can be used to better light a vertical exhibit, such as a
sculpture, or to light across a number of exhibits on a wall, such as a group of small
paintings. Coloured filters can be added to give a slight tint, such as light-blue
which makes the light more like daylight, or to create a dramatic effect, say in an
exhibit on the Great Fire of London, to light part of the display in red or orange.
Neutral density filters and meshes can be used to reduce the light intensity from
spotlights that are not dimmable or to further reduce the light from one spotlight
among a number of lights on a track that is itself dimmed. Designers will need to
check what range of accessories is available for the spotlights they are considering.
Different ranges have widely differing numbers of accessories available for them.
7.4 Framing A framing projector, or a framing attachment for a standard spotlight, creates a
shaped beam with hard or soft edges. These are useful for controlling the spill of
projectors light around an object. The frame is adjusted by moving or angling four blades
into or out of the beam. The beam size and softness is controlled by a separately
adjustable lens.
7.4.1 Gobos and image A gobo is a mask that is used in a framing projector to provide a pattern, shape or
texture (Figure 7.1). These are used to provide an atmosphere over an exhibition
projectors display, such as a leaf pattern or animal track pattern near a natural history display
or ice crystals over an ice-age display (Figure 7.2). They can also be used to project
text or logos onto walls, floors or displays (Figure 7.3). Some projectors allow
gobos to be rotated or scanned around the space. Some programmable projectors
allow a number of gobos to be selected from an internal set and projected at set
times or in programmable sequences. Gobos can be a simple stencil form etched
from stainless steel or tonal and even coloured, made from chrome-coated glass;
the latter enable greater detail but the projection quality is limited by the simple
lens arrangements in the light fittings. Motorised accessories can also be used to
provide a sense of movement, such as water ripples or flame effects.
The term ‘image projector’ usually refers to a digital projector linked to a

computer or network that can show images of almost any type. They allow the
projection of still or moving images, graphics or shapes.
Figure 7.1 [top left] Side view of

effects projector showing
space where gobos, images
or, as here, a rotating
effects cassette is inserted
Figure 7.2 [bottom left] Gobo

images of leaves at The
Public, West Bromwich
Figure 7.3 [right] Museum of

Scotland, Edinburgh: gobos
used to project text
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7.5 Track systems While it is possible to light many gallery and exhibition spaces from fixed
positions on the ceiling, some flexibility is desirable in most spaces. The use of a
track system allows spotlights to be moved along the track to different locations.
This makes it easier to locate spotlights in the most favourable positions for each
exhibit or sign in the space.
Tracks can be surface mounted, recessed or suspended on rods or wires at a height

where the light can be aimed down onto the exhibits at a more favourable angle.
Suspending the track can also make access to the spotlights for aiming and re-
lamping easier. The suspension points need to be close enough together so that
the track does not bend under the load of the spotlights attached. Where the
whole track cannot be suspended, it is possible with some ranges to suspend
individual spotlights on drop-rods from the track.
It is possible to recess tracks into wide slots in the ceiling to partly conceal the
spotlights hanging from them. The designer needs to ensure that the slot is wide
enough to allow the spotlight to rotate freely even when tilted. The recess has to be
shallow enough for the beam of light from the spotlight when tilted to pass freely
below the edge of the slot so that it does not throw a hard shadow from the edge.
Tracks are available in single-circuit or multi-circuit designs. The multi-

circuit type gives more flexibility in design (Figure 7.4). For instance with a
typical three-circuit format, circuit 1 could be fed from a switched supply for
fluorescent house lights, circuit 2 from a dimmed supply for LED spots and
circuit 3 from a switched supply for metal-halide spots. Alternatively, circuit
1 could be for dimmable fluorescent wall-washers, circuit 2 for dimmable spots
lighting exhibits on the wall and circuit 3 for spots facing away from the wall
to light exhibits within the central part of the gallery. The lighting on each
circuit can then be varied or switched independently of the others. Note that
the specification should be consistent across all tracks so that, in this example,
someone wanting to hang a new spot anywhere in the building to light a new
picture on the wall would know to set the spot’s adaptor to take its feed from
circuit 2 and for a wall-washer from circuit 1.
Figure 7.4 The Walker Art Gallery,

Liverpool: tracks suspended
in three rows to light art
on wall, on freestanding
screens or on pedestals
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Figure 7.5 Cartwright Hall, Bradford:

uplight, wall-wash and
spotlighting from a single
suspended H track
Track systems can be used for more than just carrying spotlights for exhibition
lighting. The track system shown in Figure 7.5 has an ‘H’ format, with three-
circuit track in the lower part of the H and wiring and uplighters running in
the top part. Uplighters are mounted on top of the central track to light up the
roof-light void in the evenings and the decorative features on the gallery cornice.
Track adaptors are also available with a flex to allow suspended lights to be hung
from the track. Some track systems have non-electrical connectors that allow
other items, such as signs or objects, to be suspended from the track. Weights
must be checked to ensure that the track can support the intended load without
bending.
Some track systems are available with curved track sections. Others can be curved
specially if required to fit into certain architectural or display features. There is
a limit to how tight the radius can be as the adaptors will fail to connect reliably
into the track if the curvature is too extreme.
Although each length of track is normally one continuous electrical system, it is

possible to use a non-electrical connecter at some point along a track run so as to
provide separate electrical circuits to each part of a continuous track.
The optimum layout will allow for lighting angles of 20° to 30° on any potential
vertical surface. The spacing will depend on the suspension height of the track;
as a rule of thumb you can start with a grid spacing of half the height between
the track and the floor. This density of track may not be possible for reasons of
cost or complexity, therefore the designer must use their skill to provide the best
compromise between the ideal layout and that which is practical in terms of the
specific project.
7.5.1 Track lights Although there is a very large number of track lights available today, the number
of fittings intended for museum use is limited as the museums market is very
small compared to the market for retail use. The requirement for lighting in
museums is specialised. A number of manufacturers include in their catalogues
lights that are particularly suited to use in museums. The designer should be
aware of a number of factors in selecting appropriate fittings:
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—— museum lights are likely to be retained in use for much longer

periods than in retail applications
—— accurate focus is essential and must be maintained when the lamp
is changed and the lights cleaned
—— control of light output is important, exposed lamps or back-spill
from the lights can cause glare and be distracting
—— fittings should be flexible to minimise the total number of different
types used.
To accommodate these requirements, specific features should be included in the

light’s specification:
—— lights should be supplied with, or capable of taking, multiple

accessories
—— available accessories should include UV cut-off filters, colour
correction filters, diffusion lenses, sculpture lenses, etc. to increase
flexibility
—— lights should provide a positive locking mechanism to ensure that
the focus is maintained during lamp changes
—— lights should have the lamp well recessed into the fitting or be
provided with a glare shield accessory
—— lights should be designed to prevent light leaks from the back or
sides
—— the requirement for lights with integral dimming should be
considered
—— the design and construction should make it obvious how to adjust
and focus the light and how to change lamps and accessories.
Figure 7.6 Two modern LED spotlights:

(a) [left] with continuous
zoom ability from narrow
10° beam out to wide
65° beam, (b) [right] with
fixed reflectors giving
wide, medium or narrow
distributions. Both types
come with a wide range
of dimming options
Before final selection of lights, obtain working samples and try for yourself how
the light handles. It should be borne in mind that the lights will probably be
mounted at high levels, so how easy are they to operate with one hand while the
other is holding onto a ladder? The surface temperature of the lights should also
be assessed. If the fittings are to be installed in an area with a low ceiling, are the
surface temperatures acceptable if a member of the public touches them?
7.6 Alternatives In some interiors track systems are not appropriate. Here recessed or possibly
surface-mounted adjustable spotlights can be used. One alternative to a full grid
to track of lights on the ceiling, where some degree of flexibility is required, is the use
of mono-point sockets. These small sockets can be located in a pattern across a
LG8 (AD v2).indd 52 16/12/2014 15:43

space, fixed between plaster details or located within joints between stones in an
arched ceiling. Groups of them are wired up to transformers or a mains supply.
Spotlights can then be plugged into as many of them as are needed to light the
exhibits. To relocate a spotlight it is simply unplugged and moved to another
socket. The greater the number of sockets, the more flexibility there is, but the
cost increases and they become more obvious on the ceiling.
In the case of low-voltage mono-points, care is needed in determining the

number of mono-points fed from each transformer as transformers are designed
to operate within a given range of loads. Thus, if six mono-points are fed from a
50–200 W transformer, between one and four 50 W lamps or up to six 35 W lamps
will have to be used. If an electronic transformer is over-loaded or under-loaded
it will shut down. If a wire-wound transformer is under-loaded it will over-volt,
leading to rapid lamp failure.
7.7 Lighting walls Wall-washing can take many forms, ranging from a simple pelmet concealing
a fluorescent lamp to a sophisticated linear optical system that provides very
even illuminance over a large wall surface. Alternatively, individual asymmetric
downlights can be employed but these often introduce a scalloped effect that
may not be appropriate in some spaces. For lighting walls not used for exhibits
a variation in illuminance across a surface can be in the ratio of 10:1 maximum
to minimum illuminance; where the wall is used to display exhibits a gradually
changing range of 5:1 maximum to minimum illuminance is likely to be more
acceptable.
To some extent the appearance of the gradation of light across a surface will
depend on the nature of the surface. For example, variation in the light pattern
will be more obvious on a surface that is flat and of a single colour than on one
that is textured or patterned. Light striking a surface at an oblique angle will
enhance texture but exaggerate any imperfections in a smooth flat surface. Figure
7.7 shows recessed LED wall-washers being used to provide an even wash of light
across an entire wall at full display lighting level. This allows art works to be
placed anywhere on the wall without further adjustment. Contrast this with
Figure 7.4, where the wall-wash provides roughly half the display lighting level
over whole wall, with individual spotlights boosting the light level on individual
art works to give them added emphasis.
Figure 7.7 Recessed LED wall-

washers lighting an
entire wall evenly
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7.8 Concealed and Concealed lighting used to illuminate walls, ceilings or other building surfaces
is a way of introducing light into an interior without obviously employing
indirect lighting luminaires that might detract from the overall impression or architectural
design of the exhibition space. This form of lighting can be adopted to enhance
architectural features or surfaces and to provide background lighting for the
exhibits. Highlighting an architectural feature or a building surface, however,
will tend to draw attention to it and an appropriate illuminance must be used so
as not to detract from the exhibits.
7.8.1 Uplighting This technique uses luminaires that project their light directly onto the ceiling
and upper parts of the walls and, employed correctly, can complement display
lighting. The luminaires can be suspended from the ceiling, mounted on the
walls, built into the top of displays and showcases or be freestanding on the floor.
Uplights must be positioned above normal eye height (>1.8 m) to avoid direct
views of the bare lamp, and sufficiently far below the ceiling to ensure a soft
pattern of light without causing an excessive or extreme variation of luminance
that might be distracting. The light pattern on the ceiling will depend on the
intensity distribution of the luminaires and their distance from the ceiling. It is
rare that a satisfactory uplighting solution can be achieved with a ceiling height
of less than 3 metres.
Where the uplighting is intended to provide the background lighting to the

gallery, rather than to light up decorative features, then the main reflecting
surfaces must have a relatively high reflectance value, of the order of 70%. Strong
colours should also be avoided: an important characteristic of light reflected from
a surface is that it takes on the colour of that surface, and strong surface colours
may cause colour distortion of the exhibits. Uplighting installations direct most
of the light onto the ceiling but some will inevitably reach the upper parts of
the walls; again it is important that this does not produce extreme variations in
brightness in the light pattern that are distracting when viewing the exhibits.
Similarly, the designer should avoid over-lighting the ceiling, as this may distract
visitors and also look unnatural. If horizontal, or near horizontal, roof-lights are
used, care must be taken to avoid the bright innards of the uplights appearing as
reflected images in the glass at night.
7.8.2 Cornice lighting This is a system of uplighting using the cornice around the edge of the room
to conceal the lighting system. It often incorporates a linear system of tubular
fluorescent lamps or LED strip, although carefully positioned and aligned
individual luminaires are sometimes used. Cornice lighting can be particularly
successful for decorative ceilings modelled in plaster, but only if it provides a
reasonably even distribution of light across the ceiling. This requires the lamps
to be combined with a system of light control via reflectors, baffles or diffusers
that limits the brightness on the upper walls above the cornice and projects the
light across the ceiling. Cornices must be positioned above normal eye height.
With all linear systems of lighting it is important to avoid dark patches across
the ceiling where one lamp ends and another starts. One solution for fluorescent
lamps is to overlap the ends of adjacent lamps. Alternatively, cold-cathode lamps
can be used which, with the electrodes turned back, will butt tightly together.
Cold-cathode lamps can also be ordered with special shapes to fit around curved
cornices. Although cold-cathode lamps have a very long life it may be sensible
to order spares of special shaped lamps. A system of small incandescent lamps
in individual reflectors can be used for intricate cornices, but they use far more
energy than fluorescent systems. LED products are also available for cornice
lighting applications. These vary considerably in size, light output and general
suitability for use in long-life applications. Selecting LED equipment has to be
undertaken carefully to ensure that the required lighting effects are produced
from the installation.
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Where individual luminaires are used, they should be spaced so as to avoid

creating a patchy effect. As with all systems of indirect lighting, it is essential to
screen the light sources from all possible directions of view. Separate dimming of
the cornice lighting will allow the brightness of the ceiling to be balanced against
the brightness of the room in general and the exhibits in particular.
7.9 Fibre-optic Fibre-optic systems use either glass or polymer fibres sheathed into bundles
(tails) to transmit light from a common light source to individual points, which
systems can be fitted with various optics. These systems allow the light source to be
mounted remotely from the space where the light is required. This can allow the
light source to be installed in a convenient, easily accessed location, such as the
top of a showcase or in a low-level enclosure in the room above. For lighting of
cases with fibre-optics see section 8.2. Refer also to the ILE/SLL guide to remote
source lighting (ILE/SLL, 2001) for more technical information.
7.9.1 Optics The optics can be fixed downlights, adjustable downlights, eye-ball fittings or
can be surface mounted on small adjustable brackets. As they are so small they
are useful in historic spaces where they can be hidden within ceiling features or
around existing ceiling light positions. They can also be used within a complex
display structure to light into the space without having to worry about heat build-
up or access for re-lamping at the optic positions. The designer should carefully
consider the design of the fittings at the end of the fibre tail. A variety of lenses
should be available and it should be easy to change these. It is also essential to
ensure that the head can be locked in position, particularly where fibre-optics are
being used in areas where access is difficult.
Harnesses should be fixed and supported to prevent any load being imposed on
the fittings. Despite this, movement can occur due to flexing in the plastic sheath
of the tail. If the light head is locked then this movement is constrained so the
head will not be pushed out of focus.
7.9.2 Harness/tails The length of the tails from the projector to the optics should be limited to
less than 8 m as, particularly in glass fibre, the colour of the light starts to shift
towards green the longer the tails get. Also, the light output falls by about 3%
for each extra metre of tail. In addition, for every metre the projector is moved
away from the optics, the length of all the tails increases and so the cost increases.
Large diameter tails deliver more light to the optic, but increase the size of the
fibre bundle and need a large bending radius to turn the tail into the optic. These
factors must be balanced when designing fibre-optic systems.
The optical efficiency of the system varies between one manufacturer and another.
This is mainly due to differences in the way the light is collected and fed into the
harness from the lamp. In other words a cheaper system may actually give out
less light, even though it has the same wattage lamp in the projector.
7.9.3 Light sources The light sources need to be housed in accessible, well-ventilated spaces. This
could be in cupboards on the floor above the space or at high level in the space
itself. If they are housed within the floor void they may require forced ventilation
via a small fan unless a large grill can be provided above the projector. If they are
poorly ventilated then the lamps will fail rapidly. Most projectors, except a few
50 W models, have an integral cooling fan. While most are fairly quiet, the noise
from these must be considered in quiet environments. Tungsten-halogen, metal-
halide and LED light sources are available for projectors. Metal-halide is more
efficient but tungsten-halogen and LED are more readily dimmed if required.
The designer should ensure that the light source is appropriate for the application
and be careful to select the light source most appropriate for illuminating the
objects. See section 7.2 on the choice of lamp.
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7.10 Picture lights The lighting of pictures by lights local to them has been used in historic
buildings and houses almost from the general introduction of electric lighting
into such buildings. The old style of picture lights, with tungsten lamps in shell-
like hoods or linear tungsten lamps or fluorescent lamps in long troughs, had
many problems – the lamps locally heated the pictures, the lamp life was short
and the light distribution down the painting poor. With modern picture lights
the optics are much better, the light source is normally tungsten-halogen or LED
and the heat output much reduced.
Most modern, high-quality picture lights use lamps that need a 12 V electrical
supply. For this reason the 230 V mains supply needs to be transformed down at
some point. For pictures in fairly fixed locations the best way to achieve this is
to install new extra-low-voltage wiring from remote transformers to each picture
position. This is normally only feasible during major refurbishment or rewiring
exercises. These lights normally use tungsten-halogen lamps or LEDs. Where
there are existing 230 V picture lights, it may be possible to convert the existing
supplies to the picture light positions to 12 V by inserting transformers in the
existing supply cabling. Where a single supply feeds a number of picture light
switched circuits this could be done along this supply line before the switches.
The transformers could be accommodated in nearby service voids or in ventilated
boxes in the door panelling below the switch panels. Where a group of switches
supplies a mixture of table lights and picture lights then the transformers
would need to be inserted after the switches in picture light circuits only. These
transformers could be incorporated in ventilated compartments built into the
door surrounds or wall panelling.
When undertaking any such conversion from a higher to a lower voltage, it is

essential to check that the wiring is suitably rated for the increase in current that
will follow a reduction in voltage. For the same lamp wattage, reducing from
230 V to 12 V will increase the current flowing in the cables by the same ratio (i.e.
by approximately 20 times).
Where pictures are moved around relatively frequently, then an adaptable power
supply system is needed. One possibility is to provide a power distribution
system at high level as part of, or disguised by, a hanging rail system. This could
be a miniature track or a series of connection points at regular intervals. Then
power can be supplied from the power source via cable fixed to the chain or rope
suspension to each individual painting. When dealing with 12 V supplies the
problem of volt drop must be considered. This is where the resistance of the
wires to the wall sockets reduces the voltage of the supply at the socket. In other
words, what starts out as 12 V from the transformer terminals may, for example,
diminish to 10 V by the time it reaches the socket. Some small reduction can be
tolerated but such a large drop would make the lamps too dim. This volt-drop
problem can be addressed by either installing heavier gauge cables or increasing
the output voltage of the transformer. In some houses and galleries the decision
has been made to use a local transformer attached to the picture frame. While this
is a simple way of avoiding the conversion of the existing mains wiring, there are
drawbacks. Even with electronic transformers in ventilated metal holders, which
shield the picture frame and wall surface from any normal or abnormal heat, the
locating of an electrical device that may go wrong on a valuable object should be
avoided if possible.
8 Showcase Within a museum or art gallery it will often be necessary to display exhibits
in an enclosed case. This protects exhibits from possible damage by curious
lighting visitors and adverse environmental conditions and provides increased security.
Unfortunately, the glass will act as a slight visual barrier between the exhibit
and the viewer. Without specific lighting, the contents of cases look dull when
compared to the rest of the space. This is because the glass reduces the light
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Showcase lighting 57
entering the case and then, once it reflects from the exhibits, it is reduced again as
it passes out of the case to reach the viewer’s eyes. To offset this, either spotlights
within the room need to be aimed into the case or lighting within the case is
needed.
Museum display cases take a number of forms and may be externally or

internally lit. Externally lit cases have the lighting equipment remote from the
case so there is no problem with disturbing the case contents when changing
lamps. The disadvantage is that the light may reflect off the glass and high-level
access is needed to reach the lights, which must be correctly aimed initially and
then again once re-lamped. With internally lit cases the lighting is more closely
related to the exhibits, is more efficient but could introduce heat into the case if
not correctly specified.
8.1 Externally Cases that are lit externally should be constructed with the minimum of support
framing to avoid unwanted shadows. Lights must be positioned and aimed to
lit cases avoid shadows being cast onto the exhibits or labels by the visitor or edges of the
case (even glass-to-glass joints will throw shadows). For externally lit cases it is
important to use ‘white’ glass, which is glass with a low iron content, as it gives a
less green tinge to light passing through it. With external lighting the light picks
up a tint from the glass as it enters the case and again when it leaves it on the way
from the exhibit to the viewer.
External spotlights will need to be carefully positioned to get light onto the
exhibits in a way that offers good modelling of the exhibits, provides the right
lighting level and avoids reflections of the light in the glass. For island cases the
lights also need to be positioned so that they do not shine ‘past’ the case to cause
glare elsewhere in the space (see Figure 8.1).
With careful positioning of the cases and their lights, reflections can be moved
to appear at points on the glass that are not between the viewer and the exhibits.
Avoiding reflections is especially difficult with flat or sloping-top desk-style
cases. With vertical sheets of glass there is also the possibility of reflections
from windows or other showcases. It may be impossible to remove unwanted
reflections completely but the designer should be aware of the potential problem
and minimise the effect. The use of low-reflectance glass could be considered,
although this is more expensive than plain glass.
8.1.1 Single-sided cases Wall cases come in many sizes ranging from the small cases mounted on or within
display panels to floor-standing cases for the display of collections of exhibits.
(viewed from Generally speaking, viewers stand in front of the case so if external lights are
one direction) placed to either side of the case, lighting onto the content over the shoulders
of the viewers will minimise the chance of their shadows being cast onto the
exhibits or reflections of the lights being visible on the glass in front of them.
Figure 8.1 Externally lit, single-sided

cases designed to be 30˚ out
viewed from one side from wall
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Spotlights can also be located above the front edge of glass-topped cases to
increase the lighting down onto the front of exhibits. The tops of such cases will
need regular cleaning.
8.1.2 Multi-sided cases In these cases the viewer can stand on a number of sides – for multi-sided cases
near or against a wall it will be two sides and the front, for island cases the viewer
(viewed from can look into the case from any side. Sometimes the exhibits will be displayed
many sides) within the case for viewing from just two sides, such as when an internal vertical
partition is installed giving the effect of two single-sided cases back to back.
There has to be a compromise here between throwing shadows of the corners of

the case onto the exhibits and having reflections on the glass in front of viewers.
Figure 8.2 shows one possibility where one light from each side lights onto the
display from a position that does not throw a shadow onto the exhibits and gives
some fill-light to the adjacent side.
8.1.3 Sloping-top With desk-type cases the glass lid can act as a mirror, reflecting not just spotlights
aimed at the case but also the general room lighting and any roof-lights (Figure
case (viewed 8.3). If possible, either the case or the general room lights need to be positioned
downward so that they do not reflect in the normal directions of view. It will be beneficial if
from one side) the ceiling is of a low luminance to avoid a veiling reflection over the whole case
contents. To minimise the interference of reflected images it is helpful to line the
inside of the case with a light-coloured material.
8.1.4 Flat case (viewed These cases can normally be viewed from anywhere around their periphery,
although sometimes they may contain documents laid out to be viewed from
downward from a two opposing sides of the case. As well as the points made above for single-sided
number of sides) cases, it is also more difficult to locate spotlights so that they light the content
without being visible, reflected in the case lid when viewing the case contents
from certain sides (Figure 8.4). With most types of exhibit, if the lights come
from beyond the corners of the case they avoid the worst of reflections towards
viewers standing in front of the flat sides of the case.
Figure 8.2 [left] Externally lit case
designed to be viewed
from multiple positions
Figure 8.3 [right] While sloping-

top cases can bring the
viewers closer to the
exhibits, they can reflect
the lights being used to
highlight those exhibits
Figure 8.4 To avoid reflections of

bright objects in the front
Offending
glass of display cases, zone
Offending
bright objects should zone
be excluded from the Offending
zone
‘offending zone’. The
figure shows the offending
zones for three different
types of display case
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8.2 Internally For cases that are to be lit internally, there is much more scope to light the case
interior and the exhibits and labels in a more interesting way than is possible
lit cases with external lighting. As with room lighting, the designer needs to consider
the balance between soft general lighting and spotlighting. Soft lighting is good
for the back and sides of the case, where there may be graphics or exhibits,
and spotlighting is good for giving emphasis to exhibits and to improve their
modelling. By modulating the lighting levels within the case the interior can be
made to look far more interesting and the viewer can be led to look at specific
exhibits or graphics (Figure 8.5).
Various light sources may be used for lighting within cases. See section 7.2 for the
relative benefits of each type.
The lighting equipment should be isolated from the display volume of the case,
in a compartment with separate access, so that the lighting can be maintained
and lamps replaced without disturbing the exhibits. If the sheet of glass or plastic
that separates the lighting compartment from the display area is mounted with an
airtight seal, this will act as an extra barrier against dust and accidental damage
to the exhibit while re-lamping. If necessary, the glass or plastic can incorporate
a UV absorbing filter to reduce radiation damage within the showcase. Adequate
through ventilation of the lamp compartment is essential to prevent heat building
up within the compartment, which can lead to reduced lamp life and the heat
eventually being transmitted into the display case.
Fibre-optic lighting allows the light source to be remote, with the light
transmitted to the interior of the display case by flexible bundles of glass fibres
in sheathed tails. Usually a number of tails will lead to the display case from each
light source, with lenses mounted on the end of each tail to control the light.
The major advantage of this form of lighting is that the tails and the light output
ends are relatively small and can be concealed within the structure of the case.
Another advantage is that, because the light sources are mounted outside the
display section of the case, the likelihood of adverse heating effects within the
case is reduced. They also transmit almost no UV light or heat into the case.
The intensity of the light can be varied using dimming equipment. This is more
important if the display will be changed frequently or there is a requirement
to introduce animation into the lighting. If tungsten-halogen lamps are to be
dimmed, it should be noted that the colour of the light changes with reduction in
supply voltage. Another, though more cumbersome, method of reducing the light
level is to place mesh or neutral density filters in front of the lights or optics. This
is an inefficient technique for whole case lighting as no energy is saved, but can
Figure 8.5 Manchester Art Gallery:

case internally lit with
fibre-optics showing use of
optics with various beam
angles to give different
light spreads and levels over
the various object types
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be useful when placed in front of individual directional lights or optics to fine

tune the light level required on different exhibits.
For new cases the following should be borne in mind during discussions with
the various case manufacturers that may be tendering to supply the cases. Most
manufacturers have standard lighting systems that they will hope to supply
with their cases. Some of these are adaptable and provide separately dimmable,
soft, general lighting and directional lighting. Other case manufacturers supply
just pure, soft, downlight from the top of the cases, which is rarely adequate for
lighting exhibits well.
For existing cases there is often scope to modify the lighting or to add additional
directional lighting to provide better modelling and emphasis on the exhibits.
Where possible, light sources should be concealed or, if visible, suitably screened
to avoid distracting the viewer from appreciating the exhibits within the case.
Some light sources incorporate a cooling fan. This can be a source of noise,
particularly when there are many cases in the same room or gallery.
8.2.1 Wall case The display lighting will depend on the exhibits and the size of the case. Although
a general wash of light can provide adequate illumination, the appearance of the
(viewed from display will be enhanced by the addition of accent lighting (Figure 8.6). This
one direction) can be provided by fibre-optics or, if the heat output is not a problem, by LEDs.
These can be recessed into the top or sides of the cabinet where they can usually
be suitably screened from view.
For tall cases with many shelves it is usually an advantage to have accent lighting
installed within the left and right front corners of the case. Light from these
positions can light across the front of exhibits on each shelf.
For the display of some exhibits it may be advantageous to install lighting

equipment within the exhibit display structures as this will allow the light to
be projected into the interior or under exhibits. To avoid damage to the exhibits
caused by heat, and the requirement for access for re-lamping, fibre-optics are
usually the best choice for this situation.
8.2.2 Column cases For cases of small to moderate widths it is possible to have a light-box on top
of the case that can be accessed from a step ladder at the sides of the case for
(viewed from maintenance. For larger cases, it is more usual to have lighting from the sides
many sides) or corners of the case. This not only allows for easier maintenance but provides
better access for aiming and adjustment of the lighting. Such side lighting can be
built into the corner or door frame structures or be from freestanding columns
either coming up from the floor of the case or from above.
Column cases have the added problem that the viewer can usually look through
the case to the opposite side so if lighting is installed on vertical elements care
should be taken to avoid a direct view into a bright light source just beyond the
exhibit being viewed. A larger number of lower brightness points of light helps
to minimise this problem.
One technique that can be used to keep the top of the case free from light-boxes or
structures is to use a mirrored top to the case. Here the light sources (usually fibre-
optics) are located in recesses in the base of the case lighting up onto the mirrored
top and partially onto the lower parts of the exhibits through the glass shelves.
The light reflects down from the mirror onto the fronts and tops of the exhibits. It
is usually better to have the shelves decreasing in width as they go up so that the
light can pass by on the way from the optics to the mirror – see Figure 8.7.
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Figure 8.6 Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh: Figure 8.7 Manchester Art Gallery: Figure 8.8 Bronte Parsonage Museum,
side-lit cases are particularly mirrored-top case showing Haworth: fibre-optic ‘stick’ lights
suitable for figures and costumes light passing up beside object in corners to light down and
as even lighting can be achieved to bounce off the mirror and across display. Note also the
back down onto objects balance of lighting between the
case and the display panel above
Lighting from below can be useful for a wide exhibit with detail on the lower
side – such as bowls or statuary.
8.2.3 Sloping-top With this type of case the usual position for lighting is along the top and bottom
edge of the case lid. This gives the highest angle for lighting down onto the exhibits
case (viewed within. The lighting source can be concealed if the top and bottom edge of the
downward lid or the frame is wide enough. The normal lighting type is either adjustable
from one side) fibre-optics or rods containing one or more rows of fibre-optic points at pre-set
intervals. LEDs would be a possible alternative if heat were not a problem for the
exhibits and access for re-lamping was acceptable.
The actual lighting techniques that can be employed will depend on the
dimensions of the case and the type of exhibits to be lit but the techniques
described earlier can form the basis of a solution. The positioning of the lamps
may be critical where exhibits with polished surfaces are displayed because these
may reflect images of the lighting equipment back into the visitor’s field of view.
8.2.4 Flat case (viewed These cases range from glass-topped shallow cases to low pedestal cases where
the exhibits can be viewed through the sides of the case as well as the top. The
downward from problem with lighting such cases is that if lighting equipment is installed in a
various sides) good position for lighting it is often in the line of sight for the viewer – such as a
lighting bar installed at the join between the top and the front glass.
A solution that is often adopted is to mount adjustable optics at the top of corner
‘towers’ or to use fibre-optic posts with fixed curved or adjustable tops (Figure 8.8).
8.2.5 Drawers It is increasingly common for drawers which visitors can open to be provided
as part of a display unit or set underneath showcases. These can be lit externally
if it is possible to achieve a suitable location for spotlight fittings. It is also
possible to light them internally. If the latter approach is used then lighting can
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be incorporated within the drawers. LED strips are useful for this; however, these
should be switched so that the lights only operate when the drawer is open. This
will control cumulative exposure, prevent heat build-up within the case and is a
very useful way of displaying particularly light-sensitive exhibits.
9 Lighting At its simplest, lighting needs to be controllable to allow staff to turn on and off
some or all of the lighting as required. Beyond this, lighting can be controlled to
controls allow fine tuning of levels for conservation reasons and to allow energy savings
by linking to daylight where available.
9.1 General strategy Good quality modern dimmers and control gear allow for the smooth variation
of the light output from all incandescent lamps and many LEDs and fluorescent
lamp types. While it is not possible to dim fluorescent lamps all the way until the
light is extinguished, or to maintain their stability at very low light levels, the
colour temperature shift is low over the dimming range. With tungsten-halogen
lamps, dimming them by 10% or so will roughly double their life with little
visible effect on light output or colour. However, there will be a considerable
drop in colour temperature and rendering if they are dimmed below about 70%.
With dimmable LEDs there is little change to colour appearance as they dim, but
colour rendering can change depending on type.
Where daylight is available in reasonable quantities throughout the year it may

be possible to turn off or dim some or all of the electric lights when there is
sufficient daylight on the exhibits. Initially it will be necessary to consider the
methods, if any, for the control of daylight and whether the electric lighting
should be introduced in a stepped fashion or gradually without the visitor being
conscious of it. The control of natural lighting has already been considered
– refer to chapter 6.
A control system can also be used to control floor or wall sockets that have
showcases or lights integral to displays plugged into them (Figure 9.1). Turning
off these circuits at the end of the public opening period reduces both running
costs and light damage to the exhibits. It is important to leave normal 13A sockets
around the space for cleaners’ and maintenance use. The sockets for showcases
and display lights are normally of a non-standard pattern such as 5A round pin
sockets or 13A sockets with the earth pin socket rotated by 90°. However, it is
less easy for staff to see that these sockets are incompatible with the standard 13A
plug option.
The position of the lighting control panels needs careful thought. They have to
be in or near to the space so that there is some visual feedback that the lights
have responded to the user. However, they must normally be kept away or hidden
from visitors. This can be achieved by placing the controls behind small hatches
Figure 9.1 Simple push-button control
by the entrance to each space. This simple ‘out of sight, out of mind’ idea is
panel with labels to identify
the lighting scene that usually better than providing key-switches or code access as keys get lost and
each button will bring on. codes forgotten. It is also possible to use hand-held controllers, although there is
Touchstones, Rochdale then the problem of battery failure and losing the controllers.
9.2 Simple control For many small galleries simple dimming controls can be used to give better
control of the lighting levels on exhibits and displays. This is especially
of lighting important in temporary exhibition spaces or galleries where the exhibits are
moved or changed regularly. In smaller establishments simple controls using
switches or standalone dimmer switches can be used to give separate control over
the display lighting and general lighting. This allows staff to turn off the display
lighting when not needed for public viewing and so reduce running costs and
light damage to exhibits.
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Lighting controls 63
Dimming at its most basic can consist of a row of dimmer switches (rotary or
slider) with each dimmer controlling the lights in one area of the space or on one
track circuit. The problem with this kind of control is that everyone who is likely
to use the controls needs to know the agreed settings and be able to repeat them.
Often galleries resort to paper stickers or marks on the switch panel to denote
the dimmer settings for the desired level of light over an area. Alternatively, it is
possible to provide a master switch at the entrance to a gallery, which feeds a set
of dimmer switches – pre-set and locked behind a panel or in a cupboard.
Low-voltage tungsten-halogen and LED fittings for track lighting can be

obtained with an in-built dimming facility. In many cases this can provide
all the dimming required to set lighting levels for the protection of objects. If
this option is selected it may not be necessary to provide dimmers for lighting
circuits, although a ‘master dimmer’ would allow further control when required
for different activities within the space, or to balance electric lighting with
available daylight (see section 9.4 below).
9.3 Automatic For larger or more adaptable galleries a more sophisticated type of control is
generally required, which will allow simple setting of lighting levels in a
control repeatable way.
Due to the number of people usually involved in controlling the lighting in

larger establishments a simple system of push-button control is generally
recommended. These ‘scene select’ systems offer a series of buttons which bring
on pre-programmed settings for the entire space or even for the whole building.
These may have labels such as ‘Off ’, ‘Public Access’, ‘Cleaning’, ‘Access’ or
‘Special Event’.
Each scene is programmed to bring on, switch off or dim to a particular level
each lighting circuit to provide the lighting required for that scene and can be
reprogrammable as displays or usage of the space changes. The cleaners’ setting
would be programmed to bring on lighting only over the main floor areas, leaving
off any showcases and most spotlighting of sensitive exhibits. Special event
settings may just give a general boost, or reduction, to the lighting levels or bring
on special lights that are only used to light a presentation or performance area.
With any programmable system there will need to be a data connection point in
each space so that a programming unit can be plugged in to set up the lighting
scenes. For some smaller systems it is possible for the scene control panels
themselves to be used for limited re-programming.
9.4 Combined In chapter 6 it was noted that control of any daylight louvres or blinds allows
the maximum use to be made of the daylight without over-lighting the exhibits.
control of Daylight louvres or blinds can be controlled in isolation from the electric lighting
daylight and or by a combined system.
electric light
For spaces where there is a good level of daylight available, dimming controls can
be linked to light sensors to reduce the amount of electric lighting when there is
sufficient daylight on the exhibits. In some spaces a single daylight level sensor is
sufficient but more often two or sometimes four sensors are needed to respond to
differing lighting levels on the various walls of the space caused by the influence
of sunlight on the blinds or louvres over windows and roof-lights. In these cases a
sensor will be controlling the spotlights aimed at one wall in response to lighting
levels measured on that same wall (see chapter 6).
9.5 Light-measuring Light-measuring cells can be mounted on the walls receiving light or be aimed at
cells a wall to monitor the light reflected from it. Those mounted on the walls respond
directly to the amount of light falling on them but their locations can interfere
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with possible hanging positions. If they are mounted above the hanging zone
they may not accurately monitor the changing lighting levels on the exhibits
themselves. It is possible to use radio linked light sensors that can be mounted on
picture frames or adjacent to objects. These will give the most accurate response
according to the light impinging on the objects rather than a more general light
within the space. Light sensors at or near object level will give far more accurate
readings for assessing the cumulative exposure to light of sensitive objects.
With remote monitoring, the light cell relies on light reflected from the wall.
This means that it is monitoring a combination of the light reaching the wall and
the reflectance of the wall. If the wall covering is changed or the wall repainted
then the cells will need to be recalibrated to ensure that they are responding
in the correct way. If the wall covering has become lighter then more light
will be reflected back to the light cells and these will cause the lighting to dim
lower than intended. If the cell is aimed at the hanging zone there is the added
complication that if the exhibits on the wall change then the cell will again need
to be recalibrated.
Where the cells are being used to monitor a daylit gallery it is usually better to
monitor each wall separately as the moving sun, even when filtered through most
louvre systems, will light different walls to different levels. As daylight increases
on a given wall so the electric light on that wall alone is automatically reduced.
9.6 Sophisticated For large gallery complexes it is possible to specify a lighting control system
that can control the lighting in circulation areas as well as in the galleries. It
whole building can be programmed to turn off display lighting after public hours, to bring on
lighting controls patrol lighting, to respond to daylight levels, visitor numbers and even to bring
on special lighting during events or evening functions.
Presence detectors can be used with many systems to monitor activity in galleries.
These can be useful for switching patrol lighting in response to visits of security
personnel, at other times ensuring blackout conditions in the gallery. They can
also be used to control lighting during open hours in response to visitor flow;
for example, gallery lights can be dimmed to a very low level if no visitors are
detected, therefore reducing the light exposure of exhibits.
Today almost any level of control sophistication can be achieved; however, the
greater the sophistication the greater the likelihood of problems arising from
malfunction and difficulty for the end user in learning how to use the system. An
automatic daylight control system must be designed with fail-safes and reporting
systems to alert the museum staff to any malfunction. For this reason simpler
systems are often preferred.
Electronic lighting controls are a complex area of lighting design and new
developments are constantly being introduced. It is expected that during the
life of this publication there will be advancements offering new possibilities for
visual effects, conservation and energy efficiency.
9.7 Controls and Another area in which controls are important is where the lighting is made to
change to create different visual effects. These types of display are becoming
audio-visual popular in ‘tableaux’ or ‘experience’ exhibitions. The changes can be in intensity,
systems pattern, colour and, more recently, the aiming direction of the luminaire. This
type of lighting has been developed from that used in the theatre and is too
specialist for detailed coverage in this guide.
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Energy efficiency, maintenance and costs 65
10 Energy Most museums and galleries have little or no money for their day-to-day running
costs. They mainly survive on annual grants from local authorities, fund-raising
efficiency, and charitable bodies. Anything that the lighting designer can do to minimise
the running costs of the lighting, without compromising its quality, is to be
maintenance encouraged.
and costs A lighting design must be successful at all levels. It is not sufficient for a lighting
installation to work well when new; it must work well throughout its life. While
the lit effect is important, a design’s success will depend on other elements too.
These include the efficient use of energy and attention to the maintenance of the
installation to ensure optimum working throughout its extended life. The cost of
the lighting, both capital and operating, is another key element.
10.1 Costs (capital The capital cost of any part of a gallery, including the cost of materials and
construction, needs to be considered to ensure value for money, and lighting is
and operating) no exception. The cost of lamps and luminaires will vary widely depending on
the complexity and the quality of the equipment. However, even the most costly
will constitute only a small part of the total cost of the whole building services
installation and a tiny part of the total building cost. This does not mean that
lighting capital costs can be ignored but they should be seen as a part of the total
cost of the building and relative to the contribution that lighting makes to the
success of the gallery or museum.
Unfortunately, the installation of electric lighting usually occurs towards the

end of the building programme and if building costs have increased there is
a temptation to restore the cost balance by reducing the money spent on the
lighting. This will be a false economy because any reduction in the standards of
the lighting will have a major effect on the quality of the museum or gallery and
perhaps on its long-term success.
The operating costs of the lighting installation include energy, maintenance

and replacement of failed equipment. Maintenance costs will depend on the
regularity of cleaning and re-lamping and the ease with which these procedures
can be carried out. The operating costs of the installation will also be influenced
by the life of the equipment, including lamps, luminaires and lighting controls.
Energy costs will depend on the efficacy of the installation.
There will be no single answer as to how to minimise costs when designing a

lighting installation for a museum or gallery. The designer can only consider all
the variables and balance them to arrive at a system that provides the lighting
required and is good value for money, taking into account both capital and
operating costs.
10.2 Maintenance The light output of an installation will reduce with time, partly due to a reduction
in light output throughout the life of the lamp. The degree of reduction will
depend on the particular lamp type and advice on this matter must be obtained
from the lamp manufacturer. Lamp life will need to be considered as this will
affect the maintenance programme. Although lamp manufacturers will specify
the expected life of a lamp type, based on the average life to failure of a test
sample, some lamps will fail before this time and some will function much longer.
A decision will need to be made on whether to replace each lamp when it fails or
to wait until a number have failed and replace them all at one time.
Further reductions in the light available will be caused by dirt being deposited
on the lamp, the light-controlling surfaces of the luminaire and the room
surfaces of the gallery or museum. Hence the importance of a maintenance
programme which ensures that the lighting equipment and room surfaces are
regularly cleaned. The frequency of cleaning will depend on the air quality. The
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interval between cleaning can be longer for a gallery in a rural setting or with air
conditioning that incorporates air filtration than for a gallery in the centre of a
busy city and without air conditioning.
An important feature of a maintenance programme is the ease and safety with
which lighting equipment can be reached and cleaned. Where access is difficult,
maintenance will usually be poor; this applies not only to electric lighting
equipment but also to windows and roof-lights used for daylighting. It is also
important to ensure that the quality of the installation is not reduced when
lighting equipment is maintained, i.e. cleaned or re-lamped. This can sometimes
happen where the positioning or aiming of lighting equipment is critical and it is
moved during maintenance. To overcome this problem, the luminaires selected
should be capable of being firmly locked into position or include positioning
stops or indicators so the luminaire can be easily reset after maintenance. Steps
should be taken to ensure that no maintenance operations can damage or disturb
the exhibits.
To assist the client in becoming familiar with the lamp types used in the
installation, the lighting designer should ensure that spare lamp stock is provided
by the contractor at the end of the project. The number of each type of lamp
should relate to the average life and the numbers of that particular lamp used
in the building. It is also helpful if the designer provides a guide to the likely
re-lamping intervals and the cleaning intervals recommended for the various
room types.
In order to ensure that lamps are replaced correctly and focused as originally
intended the lighting designer should carefully record the fitting type, lamp
type, degree of dimming and use of accessories while finally setting up and
focusing the installation. This information should be supplied to the museum
staff in the form of clear drawings, schedules or spreadsheets to assist with
future maintenance of the gallery. The simpler and more diagrammatic this
documentation is, the more useful it will be to future maintenance operatives.
For instance, rather than written descriptions of a fitting’s lamp wattage and
beam angle, the fitting and spare lamp boxes could have colour-coded stickers
applied to them (see Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1 Example of a drawing

marked up and colour coded
for lamp type and a fitting
showing its coloured sticker
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Energy efficiency, maintenance and costs 67
10.3 Energy The effective use of energy is an important aspect of any lighting design. From
the user’s viewpoint, it will help to minimise the operating costs of the gallery.
efficiency The global benefits include helping to minimise the consumption of primary
energy and the production of CO2 and environmental pollution that can be
caused by its generation. Within the UK the lighting will need to comply with
the energy limits set out in the Building Regulations (England and Wales) and
in the Building Regulations (Scotland). The lighting of exhibitions and related
signage and graphics normally counts as ‘display lighting’ and generally has a
higher energy limit. All circulation and back-of-house areas have to comply with
the stricter limits set for those room types in the regulations.
In 2009, legislation was passed in the European Parliament mandating specific

efficiencies for various classes of light source. The effect of the legislation is to
restrict the availability of low-efficiency lamps, specifically conventional general
lighting service (GLS) incandescent lamps. Between the years 2009 and 2012,
progressively lower wattage lamps have been banned from the market. This
has major implications for existing lighting installations where the proposed
available replacements may not be suitable.
Appendix 4 contains a decision tree developed by the National Trust to determine

the suitability for lamp replacements within rooms on display in historic
buildings. This approach may be considered for other situations in museums. If
the conclusion is that traditional GLS lamps should remain in use it is suggested
that a sufficient stock of the appropriate lamp type is purchased for future re-
lamping while these lamps are still available. It is likely that higher wattage low-
voltage capsule lamps may also be removed from the market. This will impact a
considerable number of museums so consideration should be given to how best
to replace fittings that use these lamps.
Energy efficiency should encompass the use of the lighting, the lighting
equipment and the installation design. It should not, however, be allowed to
compromise the quality of the lighting, either in terms of the visibility of the
exhibits or the visual quality of the gallery or museum.
A strategy for achieving an energy-efficient lighting design is to ensure that

the minimum energy is used to produce the lighting required, in terms of both
visibility and visual attractiveness, and that the lighting operates only for the
time that it is required. This will mean using daylight, where available and
appropriate, with complementary electric lighting used only when necessary.
For this strategy to be effective the electric lighting should be controlled
automatically; in general, people are not very reliable in controlling energy use.
The degree of automation will depend on the particular gallery’s requirements,
but it should always be possible to override the automatic controls when necessary
(see chapter 9). Finally, the design must consider the need to minimise the use
of electric lighting outside the normal opening hours. There will have to be
sufficient lighting for cleaning and security, and it is normal to provide separately
controlled energy-efficient lighting for these purposes (see also chapter 3).
The lamps used should have the highest efficacy for the lighting quality required
(i.e. the minimum use of energy for the required lighting). In the past, lamps
with a good colour quality performance had poor efficacy; this is no longer the
case. In particular, fluorescent lamps and LEDs are available with both good
colour performance and high efficacy. Modern low-wattage compact metal-
halide lamps are better at producing acceptable long-term colour rendering and
should be considered for larger spaces. There have been improvements, too, in
the efficacy of tungsten-halogen lamps with both better light production using
infrared coatings (IRC types) and better beam efficiencies in the types with an
integral reflector.
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It is now possible to obtain LEDs with a colour rendering index over 90 in a

colour temperature of 3000 K. With energy efficiency continually improving
and approaching that of fluorescent or metal-halide lamp types, LEDs fitted
with suitable lenses do have high beam efficiency making it possible to use a few
lamps of 7 or 11 W each where previously halogen lamps of 35 or 50 W may have
been required. LEDs also offer the significant advantage of long operating life,
therefore reducing maintenance requirements in the long term. They are not
maintenance-free, however. If the units are not cleaned regularly light output
will be reduced and on some designs the heat dissipating system may not work
efficiently and the fittings may fail (see section 7.2.3).
Lighting designers should make every effort to use the minimum wattage of lamp
for any specific task and not rely entirely on dimming and filtering to achieve
exhibition and conservation light levels. Minimising wattages and the number of
fittings at the design stage can offer benefits to the budget for lighting projects.
Using efficient luminaires will also contribute to minimising energy consumption.

In the first instance this means using luminaires that have a high light output
ratio, i.e. they emit a high proportion of the lamp light output. However, this will
not be sufficient in itself; the distribution of the light output will also need to
be considered to ensure that the light being emitted from the luminaire is used
Figure 10.2 Birmingham Museum
and Art Gallery: LED lights
effectively. Luminaires which use fluorescent lamps now use high-frequency
are used for the cases, control circuits. These circuits use less energy than older fittings with wire-
in-structure adjustable wound ballasts. In addition, they tend to provide more comfortable lighting
lights and high-level because the high-frequency operation reduces lamp flicker and background noise
spots; giving low-energy, (hum). A further benefit is that these circuits can provide simple and accurate
low-maintenance
lighting throughout.
dimming of the light where this is required.
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Recommendations for lighting object categories 69
Appendix 1: As noted in the introduction, the lighting designer (as defined in this guide) is
responsible for agreeing with museum staff the light responsivity of the objects
Recommendations and materials to be lit, as well as the level of access required in order to create an
appropriate environment for viewing. Determining what is appropriate involves
for lighting knowledge of the object, both in terms of the materials of which it is composed
object categories – to allow its conservation status to be understood – and the intellectual and
institutional context in which it is to be presented. Whereas older objects
tend to be composed of materials whose long-term responsivity to light is
known, many contemporary objects are complex assemblies of materials with
as yet unpredictable rates of photochemical decay. This would suggest that an
increasingly conservative approach should be taken to light exposure unless
reassurance can be obtained that the object’s resistance to light is understood.
Finding professional advice on this subject is often difficult and may require
expertise outside the institution or owner’s competence.
Traditionally, lighting advice has been offered on the basis of taxonomical

definitions of collections, often with the materials of which they are composed
providing the definition of object types. These categories form the basis for the
advice below, but the lighting designer must proceed with caution, especially
where objects are composed of a variety of materials, some of which may not be
immediately identifiable.
For each of the object categories, the typical visible light responsivity of the
materials involved is described. Where the identity of the material or its
responsivity is in doubt, more detailed analysis may be needed. Table A1.1 gives
a summary of the detailed recommendations in chapter 5 for each category.
Accompanying the guidance on light responsivity is general advice on the

techniques for display lighting in each object category. This advice is intended
to draw attention to widely experienced problems and well-tried solutions, these
being generalised to avoid putting a brake on creativity. The lighting designer,
however, must familiarise themselves with the nature of the object, its size, shape,
surface finishes and colours, its significance and the context in which it is to be
displayed before forming a lighting solution. Context is particularly important
where objects in various media are present and the light levels employed are
usually determined by the conditions required for the most responsive pieces
present. Lighting solutions for display tend to involve a blend of experience and
hands-on experimentation to create a suitable visual ensemble employing the
least amount of light for responsive objects in viewing conditions which are both
adequate and enjoyable.
Table A1.1 Conservation derived categories for materials and typical display environment
parameters
Conservation Lighting display parameters Exposure
category (lux hours)
Irresponsive No conservation limit but there may be adaptation, visibility No limit
or heat effects if high light levels are used on irresponsive items
Low responsivity May be permanently displayed at up to 200 lux. UV control 600 000
should be used
Medium responsivity May be permanently displayed at 50 lux. UV control required 150 000
High responsivity Cannot be permanently displayed. When being viewed, a light 15 000
level around 50 lux should be used. UV control required
A1.1 Archaeology
A1.1.1 Stone or metal Stone and metal objects are usually irresponsive to light unless their surfaces are
objects finished with light-sensitive materials. A number of minerals are responsive to
light and their exposure to visible light is controlled.
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A1.1.2 Organic materials These objects can vary greatly in their responsivity. Materials that have been
protected from light for a very long time, perhaps through being buried, may be
of high responsivity and can deteriorate rapidly on initial exposure to light. This
rate of change is likely to be related to other environmental factors, such as a shift
in relative humidity. For objects where substantial deterioration of pigmentation
and other high responsivity components has already occurred, their overall status
may be regarded as being of medium or even low responsivity in some cases.
Archaeological specimens often rely on their three-dimensional form and texture

for interest. Directional light, in additional to ambient light, is generally needed
to make such objects easy to read. Traditionally, light from windows served this
function, but today this is often excluded and most displays are lit with spotlights
or fibre-optic lighting. Point sources are useful for revealing small reflective
elements and the visual excitement of polished materials.
A1.2 Non-fine arts These objects usually comprise a range of parts, such as bindings or covering,
page media (e.g. paper or parchment) and text and images, most of which are
and cultural likely to be highly responsive to light exposure. It is often tempting to display
history only the most visually exciting texts or pages in books and this can lead to
disproportionate exposure in long-term displays. As their rates of deterioration
A1.2.1 Books and are also closely related to other factors (e.g. relative humidity) most books and
manuscripts manuscripts are displayed behind protective glazing. Any lighting system
emitting heat within such an environment can affect temperature and humidity
and its presence needs to be carefully considered. Regular turning of pages is a
technique employed to manage exposure, but this requires access to showcases
with the concomitant security risks.
Where fine detail or small-scale print is displayed, the viewer will expect to be
able to approach the object closely and this restricts the location of lighting.
Delivering satisfactory levels of illumination while avoiding temperature rises
in showcases is a common challenge and fibre-optics have been widely used as a
solution. As these are point sources, care must be taken to deliver an appropriately
even distribution of light over the exhibit and in a way that does not give rise to
shadows where the surface of the object is uneven. Raking light tends to over-
represent surface texture and distract from the overall presentation of the sheet or
page. Most historic books cannot be opened flat and the deep ‘crevasse’ between
the pages can become just a dark shadow unless the book is lit along the length of
the ‘crevasse’ from above or below.
A1.2.2 Textiles: carpets, Most textiles are highly responsive to light and this is not restricted to those
composed of natural fibres. Determining the nature of the materials present as
soft furnishings, well as their colouration and treatment may be difficult. Many contemporary
tapestries and manmade textiles include UV absorbers and, when saturated, these can swiftly
costumes deteriorate. The exposure which the object has already received can rarely be
determined, though it is often reflected in the loss of colour and mechanical
strength. Exposure across the surface of textiles may also be highly variable,
reflecting earlier presentation or use and whether it was folded or gathered. Such
variability in exposure may also be a result of using uneven lighting in showcases
and pieces, particularly costumes, must be comprehensively checked using a
light meter to avoid undesirable ‘hot spots’ of higher light levels.
Textiles need to be considered as three-dimensional objects, even when presented

as planar. With woven or embroidered fabrics the lighting has to express the
richness of the fabrics, which is often contained in the texture. It is usually
better to create a flow of light across the fabric so that the texture and weave
are emphasised, rather than to light it face on, which tends to flatten detail. For
carpets, the converse is usually true. It is better to try to light the carpets face on
(easy when displayed at or near floor level, but difficult when wall hung), so that
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light penetrates into the pile where more colour is likely to persist, especially
where the surface colour has faded noticeably. Textiles can be substantial in size
and the lighting designer has the choice of relatively simply installed area light
sources, such as fluorescents, or the more challenging arrangement of point
sources, which may be preferable for the reasons given above. Experimentation
is often needed to find the optimum balance and the most appropriate colour
output of the light source – particularly when the textile has lost some of its
original colouration.
A1.2.3 Ceramics and These types of materials are generally unresponsive to light; however, recent
research suggests that some types of glass are light sensitive and it has been found
glass, including that where the material is ‘massive’, non-uniform heating can cause mechanical
stained glass damage. Care should be taken to determine whether any applied finishes are light
responsive.
Glass and glazed ceramics are sources of specular reflection and thus the location
and type of light source used need to be considered with respect to both the
visibility of the object and optical effects that might arise – hands-on tests are a
useful means of checking for optimum angles and for unexpected results. Light
should help the form and texture of ceramic and glass objects to be read and there
is a range of well-tried techniques, for instance transparent and translucent blown
glass objects will often benefit from being displayed against a low luminance back-
lit diffusing panel. This may need to be combined with soft accent lighting to
reveal the form of the objects. Cut glass is often displayed using accent lighting to
provide sparkle and placed against a dark surface to enhance the effect. Engraved
glass usually needs light to be introduced into the glass itself in such a way that
it will emerge to express the pattern. This can be achieved by edge lighting or by
standing the exhibit on an illuminated shelf.
The brightness of the sky behind allows stained and painted glass windows to
be read with the sky effectively acting as a large area diffuse light source. Where
placement in front of windows is not possible the same effect can be achieved using
a diffuse light source behind the glass panels. Traditionally ‘light-boxes’ have
employed fluorescent tubes and diffusing materials to achieve the uniformity and
intensity required and LEDs are now being used as an alternative light source. As
self-luminous surfaces will tend to be of higher brightness than other surfaces in
a display or gallery, care needs to be taken to ensure a comfortable visual balance.
It is easy to make such panels too bright unless dimming is provided.
A1.2.4 Timber: Some species of timber fade and other darken in appearance when exposed to
light. This affects all objects made of timber, such as furniture and musical
furniture, musical instruments, placing them in the category of low to medium responsivity. Each
instruments piece needs to be individually considered since those objects that have already
and clocks received large exposures may not change further and thus may be regarded as
being of low responsivity. However, if textiles and or sensitive materials are
present the object may need to be treated as highly light responsive.
The objects in this category can vary in size from very small to large. They may
be displayed individually, in a showcase or in a room setting and this will, to
some extent, affect the lighting technique that can be used. The ideal, however,
is a combination of general lighting and soft beam accent lighting that provides a
small amount of highlighting, but not so much that dark shadows are cast.
A1.2.5 Jewellery, coins Precious and semi-precious stones and metal objects are generally insensitive
to light. Where organic materials are present, such as fabric, leather, feathers
and metal objects or plastics, these become the reference for the responsivity of the object. Equal
consideration may need to be given to the cases in which smaller objects were
kept and presented as these are often composed of more responsive materials.
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As many objects within this category have polished surfaces, consideration needs
to be given to reflections and highlights. For instance, silver objects both reflect
sources of light and act as a mirror to the display around them. Where objects are
small, such as coins, with low relief surfaces the viewer needs to be both close and
provided with oblique light to read texture and form. Choice of background material
and colour is critical where objects are small and too much contrast can interfere
with viewing. Current practice with the display of jewellery is to highlight pieces
using point light sources against relatively dark light-absorbent backgrounds. This
may look dramatic but can lead to strong shadowing making pieces difficult to read
from different angles. Point light sources are useful in giving sparkle and revealing
‘fire’ in faceted objects such as gem stones. Where these are coloured, care should
be exercised in the colour rendering of the light source, for instance sapphires are
best lit with a blue rich source and rubies with a warmer source with more red light.
Fibre-optic lighting has been widely used for lighting jewellery as it provides tight
beams of light and can be placed in cases without the security issues of other sources
that would require access for relamping. LEDs are now an alternative, though when
placed within a showcase must be considered as a heat source.
A1.2.6 Room settings in This type of display is likely to contain a wide range of objects, probably with
different degrees of light responsivity. The designer will need to plan the lighting
historic buildings to take account of this, referring, if necessary, to other sections of this guide. Where
and period light-responsive materials are present, daylight is generally excluded from most
recreations such room-setting displays. This may not be desirable in historic buildings and
the distribution of daylight exposure and its cumulative effect may determine the
presentation of the interior and the level of access that is considered sustainable.
Examples of this approach have been published by the National Trust.
Where daylight is excluded, reliance is placed on electric light sources and these
may be integrated with historic lighting equipment or kept separate. Where
historic fittings are used there is often a wish to create a ‘period’ atmosphere
and low wattage or dimmed lamps are employed. This does not always meet the
needs of the viewer to see detail and may require supplementary lighting and/or
the use of dimming. Solutions to these specific issues of balance and visibility are
highly customised and a good example of the scale of investment required can
be seen at Winterthur (USA) where period-style interiors are lit from historic
fittings and supplemented by concealed sources, allowing the appearance of the
interior and light levels to be varied substantially. Where single viewpoints, such
as doorways, are used it is easier to conceal light sources from the viewer and
lighting solutions become more reliant on discrete ambient lighting as increasing
proportions of the floor area become accessible. Consideration should be given to
the distribution of light, as this will affect the viewer’s overall impression, and a
balance found for any highlighting of individual objects, which might otherwise
prove distracting from the overall ensemble.
Where daylight is excluded, back lighting of the windows is a widely used

technique. Psychologically, this signals a daytime atmosphere to the viewer. Light
sources, traditionally fluorescent tubes, but more recently dimmable linear LED
strips, are assembled into light-boxes on the outer side of the window to simulate
diffuse daylight and occasionally point sources imitate sunlight. The objective is
normally to light an interior naturalistically at relatively low light levels and it is
helpful if the viewer’s vision is well adapted before entering. Achieving a visually
convincing appearance needs careful consideration, in particular of the colour
temperature of the light sources and the brightness of the lighting in relation to
the rest of the period setting.
Dimming control systems allow increasing integration of lighting and audio

presentations and this provides creative opportunities in larger displays where
attention can be directed by a blend of sound and highlighting.
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A1.3 Fine arts Most objects in this category are of moderate light responsivity. Lighting
designers should be alert to those where painting media are mixed and where the
‘freshness’ of the work may be of intrinsic value and thus require more careful
A1.3.1 Oil and acrylic use of light exposure. Older objects, usually assumed to have received large light
paintings exposures, may have already changed substantially, and once the more responsive
pigments have faded they be regarded as relatively light stable. In these cases,
protective varnishes (applied since execution of the object) may be, effectively,
the most light-responsive part of the painting.
Display of low responsivity paintings is one of the few areas where daylight
is regularly considered as a primary light source. Where daylight is admitted,
the design of the gallery or interior and its subsequent management will be
determined by the relationship between windows and objects, both in terms of
exposure and viewing performance. Many paintings are glazed and/or varnished,
making them behave like mirrors at oblique angles, and some have surface
textures that can also cause highly distorting reflections. As windows lack the
flexibility of electric lighting, paintings need to be hung taking into account
their geometric relationship. In the past this has led to paintings being tilted in
toplit galleries and walls being placed between windows. Outside opening hours,
daylight should be minimised with near or total blackout.
A common objective in lighting paintings is the avoidance of distortion in their

appearance. For instance, uneven distribution of brightness across the painting
can change the interpretation of the subject. Avoidance of visual distortion
becomes more difficult to achieve when paintings are large or have highly textured
surfaces. Very large paintings and murals can be lit by diffused and reflected
light and be treated as ‘architectural surfaces’. Smaller paintings provide the
lighting designer with a number of choices, notably finding a balance between
ambient lighting and the light focused on the object, and all solutions need
to take into account the appearance of surrounding wall surfaces, their colour
and reflectance, as well as reflection angles from common viewing positions.
Experience has shown that the optimal angle of incidence for overhead lighting
onto paintings is approximately 30° to the painting surface. The closer the light
fitting is placed to the painting, the more difficult it is to achieve an appropriate
degree of uniformity and avoid reflections of light sources for the viewer.
In addition to daylight, almost any electric light sources may be employed to light
paintings. In practice, fluorescent fittings are usually the first choice of ambient
lighting, given their high efficiency, and halogen lamps have been the primary
light source for focused lighting. Both of these sources are being superseded by
LEDs as they reach comparable levels of colour quality and output.
A1.3.2 Water colours, Most objects in this category are highly light responsive and cannot be placed
on permanent display without measures in place to control light exposure to the
miniatures, prints, minimum in concert with a considered level of access. In many cases, it is the
drawings and medium which is the most light-responsive part of the object, for instance inks
photographs may be relatively light fast, but the paper used may not. This may allow some
uncoloured objects to be categorised as of medium to low responsivity, but only
on the advice of conservators.
Daylight is usually excluded from the display of this object category, principally
because interiors with low levels of daylight tend to look dull and objects, usually
behind glass, are not easy to see and tend to look unattractive in appearance.
Maintaining low levels of daylight is challenging and it is usually only retained
as a ‘psychological light source’. Care needs to be taken with reflections from
windows and views into brighter areas.
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Techniques for electric lighting closely match those used for paintings; however,
the light levels are considerably lower and control of exposure must be more
closely managed. Where displays are rarely visited, light systems may be operated
by viewers manually or automatically. As many of these objects are composed
of thin materials they are sensitive to variation in temperature and relative
humidity, both of which can be triggered by lighting due to radiant or convective
heating. This may be avoided if sources of heat are separated from the object,
typically spotlights placed far enough away to avoid radiant heating or sources
such as spots or fibre-optic projectors in showcases isolated from the volume in
which the objects are located.
A1.3.3 Sculpture and This type of object can be executed in a wide variety of media and at different scales
and professional advice may be needed to identify the materials employed before
installations, determining their light responsivity. Traditional materials such as bronze, plaster
including self- and stone are irresponsive, while plastics and composites may be of medium or
illuminated works potentially high responsivity. Attention should also be paid to finishes such as
paint and varnishes, which may behave differently to background media.
Both sculpture and installations are conceived to be read in three dimensions

and encourage the viewer to move and interpret the piece from different angles
and locations. The lighting designer’s task is to make the piece read using
directional and diffuse light to present form and texture. Traditionally, daylight
from windows provided diffuse and directional light to sculpture; sunlight
providing highlights on occasions and the reflected light within a room giving
diffused light to all sides of the piece, reducing the strength of shadows. Close
consideration was given to the placement of objects with respect to the flow of
light from windows and the background against which they were viewed, with
colours and reflectance values selected to enhance materials such as dark bronze
or marble. This type of scenario is still employed for low or non-responsive
objects in permanent displays.
For more light-responsive objects and installations or where electric lighting

is preferred, the same principles apply. Pieces to be read three-dimensionally
require some directional light and this should be balanced with diffuse light.
Where spotlights are employed it is easy to create strong shadows that make a
piece look dramatic, but render areas difficult to see due to excessive contrast.
Shadows will be reduced by light reflected from adjacent surfaces and by adding
luminaries to light from different angles, though care is required to avoid these
becoming sources of glare from usual viewing angles. As pieces of sculpture
can vary in size from freestanding pieces to small objects in showcases, these
techniques need to be tailored to the specific display and it is common practice
to create a flexible grid of track and light sculpture by trial and error rather than
planning every luminaire’s position.
Where objects and installations incorporate light sources these must be supplied
with power, usually from floor or wall recessed power outlets. Cables across floors
should be avoided and floor boxes provide a means of minimising cable lengths.
Internal light sources may also be connected to the building/lighting management
system. Where the brightness of self-illuminated objects is predetermined, this
will affect the way the interior is lit, for instance ambient light levels may need to
be reduced. Some artists work with complete spaces and all other lighting may be
excluded to avoid undermining the effects sought.
Where installations and objects contain moving parts the lighting designer needs
to be aware of the range of locations and configurations to ensure that pieces are
lit when required. As this may involve light from different sources, care must
be taken to avoid glare from common viewing positions and the visual effects of
moving shadows.
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A1.3.4 Art structures Installations may be large enough to walk in or climb through. These are usually
conceived with specific lighting conditions, which need to be integrated with
– art to walk or the adjacent areas of the building and relevant health and safety requirements.
climb within Where permanent emergency lighting is obstructed such installations will
require additional emergency lighting. The presence of light-responsive objects
or materials may add a further dimension to this designer’s brief.
A1.3.5 Moving images, Projected images and screens are widely used in display and are now of sufficient
brightness that it is often unnecessary to reduce ambient light levels to assure
projection and good visibility. Low levels of ambient lighting may, in practice, be part of the
display screens display design and consideration should be given to adaption from brighter
adjacent areas and to ensuring that people can move safely while adapting
to low light levels, especially if others are sitting on the floor or along walls.
Screen brightness is a growing issue with respect to other elements of display
since moving images may be distracting and are easily reflected in other glazed
surfaces.
A1.4 Militaria Purely metal items are not responsive to light and temperature, but many objects
in this category are of mixed media and contain materials such as timber, leather,
ivory and, in more recent examples, plastics. The presence of these materials will
A1.4.1 Armour and determine the lighting conditions in which such objects may be displayed.
weaponry
Objects in this category can range substantially in scale from pieces that may
fit in the hand to large vehicles, such as aircraft. Most may be treated as pieces
of sculpture in the sense that their three-dimensional qualities need to be read
and that they may be viewed from different positions. Larger objects, such as
vehicles, may require internal lighting, either using (original) integrated lighting
systems or newly introduced luminaries. Large surfaces may be best illuminated
by reflected light, for instance a high reflectance floor in the case of the underside
of aircraft. Smaller objects, especially those placed in showcases, require the same
level of care as other categories of objects. Dramatic effects can be achieved using
point sources of light and use of these must be balanced with the light needed to
adequately read the whole piece.
A1.4.2 Uniforms and All textile-based objects are highly light responsive as well as being sensitive to
temperature and humidity. Such objects are rarely placed on permanent display, but
banners where this is considered light levels and exposure need to be carefully controlled.
Most objects in this category will be displayed behind glass. Where presented
with other less light-responsive objects care should be taken to balance the
relative brightness of the different elements in a display.
A1.5 Natural history Animal specimens are highly light responsive. As temperature and humidity
control are also important, most such objects are displayed in regulated
environments such as sealed showcases. Light sources must be separated from
A1.5.1 Animal such objects and it is common practice to use fibre-optics. With larger specimens
specimens more extensive lighting may be required, such as spot or wash lighting, and this
must be positioned to avoid localised heating. Traditional displays have often
included a contextual background for these objects and appropriate lighting is
helpful in giving a sense of the natural habitat of the animal. A range of lighting
effects can be employed to give a sense of colour, using coloured filters, and
accessories to derive a sense of naturalistic illumination. Such techniques may
involve timed variation and co-ordination with a sound track. This kind of effect
may, however, interfere with sustained visual examination of the object and thus
must be used with restraint.
Some animal specimens, e.g. insects, are displayed in shallow cases or in

drawers. General diffuse lighting, either within the case or installed externally, is
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appropriate for these exhibits. If the lighting is mounted externally it is essential

to avoid reflected images of the light sources, or any other bright object, on the
glass surfaces of the case.
A1.5.2 Skeletons These objects are not responsive to light, though can be affected by changes in
temperature and relative humidity. The lighting should comprise both general
and fossils and accent lighting, and it is important that it provides modelling to show form
and texture in an object that may have only limited variation in colour and
reflectance. The techniques used will depend on whether the objects are small or
large and whether they are displayed in cases or are freestanding.
A1.6 Machinery Those objects in this category of mainly metal construction are of low light
responsivity although they may include other media such as timber, paint, leather
and vehicles or textiles, some of which are of greater responsivity. More recently manufactured
objects are likely to contain a wider range of materials. It is not clear how light-
stable are some of the new plastics commonly used and specialist advice may be
necessary to determine a lighting strategy.
This group of objects can range in size from the very large to the tiny. The visitor
must be able to examine the intricacies of the machine, which means that the
lighting needs to be relatively even over the whole exhibit, without causing
conflicting shadows. It will also be necessary to provide a modicum of accent
lighting to provide visual interest through highlighting. Large vehicles may
require interior lighting; where possible this should make use of the vehicle’s
own internal lights. Where this is not possible the lighting equipment should be
concealed from view.
A1.6.1 Scientific Instruments made from metal or ceramics are irresponsive to light and where
made of other materials measures may be required to control light exposure once
and medical the media have been determined.
equipment
A1.7 ‘Experience’ Displays where the overall effect or atmosphere is the primary objective of the
designer require a wider range of light skills and techniques to be exercised by
displays the lighting designer. Many such displays do not contain original or conserved
objects and in these circumstances the lighting may be purely theatrical in design
and free of control with respect to visible or UV light exposure. Where original
material is present the issues raised in the rest of this appendix apply.
Most ‘experience’ displays start as spaces without daylight. They may be static
or dynamic, be laid out as a walk and in some cases involve moving visitors on
rides. Lighting combined with sound and other atmospheric effects, such as
smoke or smells, can form powerful images and experiences. The design and
technology of such displays draws strongly on the practical developments made
in the entertainment industry and will continue to extend the boundaries of
what it is perceived as normal practice within museums and environments where
conservation is a primary concern.
Experience displays tend to require the skills of a range of professionals, with

whom the lighting designer will have to work closely. Much of this work is
carried out by specialist companies and the long-term sustainability as well as
cost of the systems involved should be closely considered when including them
in installations with long life expectancies. It should also be noted that such
displays may need additional emergency lighting.
A1.8 Exterior displays Objects and installations placed outside inevitably receive substantial visible light
exposure as well as UV. To put this into context, 8 hours a day of incident sunlight
for a year is roughly equivalent to 500 times the maximum dosage recommended
for low responsivity objects. It is not surprising that most institutions restrict
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Beam angles from spotlights 77
externally displayed objects to those which are irresponsive to light or are

regarded as dispensable. The former category contains metal and stone sculpture
as well as forms made of concrete, though other factors such as water and frost
may affect the choice of location and the duration of display.
During daylight hours there is rarely any need for additional lighting. This
situation is reversed at night when the lighting techniques employed are
equivalent to those used in a dark display space. The main differences between
internal and externally sited displays are the need for outdoor lighting equipment,
which is less flexible than that commonly used in interior applications, and the
limitations experienced when siting external luminaries. Consideration of glare is
an important factor in the location of luminaries, particularly when the multiple
viewing points and the legibility of objects can be reduced by overly strong
directional lighting. Advice on exterior lighting is available in SLL Lighting
Guide 6: The outdoor environment (SLL, 1992).
As with lighting objects in dark interiors, lighting at night provides many

opportunities to create dramatic effects and attract attention. For instance, a lit
piece of sculpture in front of a building will create focus and a sense of depth.
With multiple objects this may lead to a visual ensemble quite different to the
daytime appearance and a different set of interpretations. Coloured and dynamic
lighting systems as well as self-luminous display systems are introducing
further richness to the range of options open to the lighting designer, while also
presenting issues of appropriateness and interpretation, most notably the artist’s
wishes or intentions, when lighting contemporary art.
A1.9 Ephemera For a long time the term ‘ephemera’ helpfully covered those objects not
immediately included in the above categories, such as everyday objects. Often
made from materials not destined for long-term survival, many are highly
light responsive and their presentation requires careful review. As the range of
materials grows this category widens, making the term more encompassing, but
not aiding the lighting designer in terms of identification of risk. The lighting
designer’s initial response should be cautious and, until materials and their
light responsivity are determined, overall responsibility for display suggests a
conservative approach to light levels and exposure.
Appendix 2: Some lamp and luminaire manufacturers produce cone diagrams for their
products that give an indication of illuminance and beam coverage for varying
Beam angles distances from the lamp. These can be useful when comparing lamps or when
trying to select a lamp power and beam angle to give a certain illuminance or
from spotlights coverage over an object. However, there are a few pitfalls of which you must
be aware.
Figure A2.1 Typical cone diagrams, For low-power lamps the distances given on manufacturers’ cone diagrams tend
giving beam width and
to be 1, 2, 3 and 4 m from the lamp as shown in Figure A2.1. For higher power
intensity at different
distances from the light
h Emax h Emax h Emax

(m) (lux) (m) (lux) (m) (lux)
1.0 40 000 1.0 6800 1.0 2600
2.0 11000 2.0 1702 2.0 700
3.0 5200 3.0 749 3.0 311
4.0 3000 4.0 420 4.0 175

2.0 1.0 0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 0 1.0 2.0
Diameter (m) Diameter (m) Diameter (m)
cone 8° 2200 lm cone 24° 2200 lm cone 45° 2200 lm
100 W 8° lamp 100 W 24° lamp 100 W 45° lamp
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lamps the intervals may increase to 2, 4, 6 and 8 m. When comparing lamps

make sure that the intervals shown on their respective diagrams are the same.
The beam diameter given is normally measured at the point where the intensity
of the beam is 50% of the peak (normally the beam centre). This means that the
illumination at that diameter will not be 50% of the illumination at the centre (see
section A2.3 on cosine correction, below). For narrow beam lamps this difference
is small, but for wide angle lamps the fall in illumination will be marked.
The illuminance figure for lamps, and some luminaires, is normally given as ‘lux’
or Emax which is the value of the maximum illumination within the beam. Some
cone diagrams for luminaires use the same convention but others give the figures
as ‘lux per kilolumen’ (lux per 1000 lamp lumens). Thus if the figure is given as
125 and the lamp emits 2200 lumens, the actual lux will be 275. This makes sense
where a single luminaire can take a number of lamp wattages; one diagram serves
them all but the user needs to remember to multiply by the correct lamp lumen
figure.
A2.1 Beam shape Cone diagrams are useful for getting an idea of coverage over objects, but it must
be remembered that the beam diameter figures given are for a circle on a flat
correction surface straight in front of the lamp. As most objects in museums and galleries
are lit from an angle, the actual beam will be an oval. Figure A2.2 shows that the
beam from a light aimed at a wall in front of it will produce an oval beam. The
proportions of the beam shown are for a light elevated towards the wall at 35° from
the downward vertical. The beam is expanded a lot further below the aim point
than above it. The intensity of the light also decreases. In this case, if the intensity
of light from the beam 15° above the centre beam is the same as that 15° below it
then the resulting light intensity will be over twice as bright at the top (0.77/0.35).
Figure A2.2 Beam shape correction

diagram
35° 15°
15°
15° 15°
40° Cos 40 = 0.77
~1.2 r
55°
Cos 55 = 0.57
r r
~2.7r
70°
Cos 70 = 0.35
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Beam angles from spotlights 79
For a light to one side of a painting on a wall the oval will slant across the
painting. With a soft edged beam (one where the illuminance drops off slowly
with distance from the beam centre) the effect will not be noticeable as long as
there is some general light on the wall as well. With a relatively hard edged beam
in a room without general lighting the effect will be noticeable.
A2.2 Distance The other factor to take into account is that the distance to the object will not
usually be the height of the lamp over the height of the object but the diagonal
correction distance from lamp to object. Diagram A2.2 also demonstrates that the distance
to the point at the bottom of the oval of light is greater than the distance to the
aiming point. At a typical aiming angle of about 35° from downward vertical and
with a slight offset to one side, the actual distance to an object will be about 1.4
times the vertical height above the object. Thus for a painting with its centre
1.5 m above floor level (typical adult eye height) and the lamps at 3.0 m above
floor level the distance to the painting centre will be about 2.1 m away from the
aiming point rather than the 1.5 m vertical height above it.
A2.3 Cosine The lighting levels quoted in the cone diagrams assume that the plane being lit is
perpendicular to the beam direction. If the surface being lit is at an angle to the
correction perpendicular then the illumination will be less. At the typical lighting angles
mentioned above, the illumination at the centre of the beam is almost halved. As
the angle moves further away from the perpendicular, the illumination reduces
more.
Note also that, although the intensity of light at the top and bottom of the beam
is the same, the resulting illumination at the bottom of the beam will be less than
half that at the top. This is because the cosine of the angle at the bottom of the
beam is less than half that at the top.
Appendix 3: List Skydome

Welsh School of Architecture
Sir John Cass Faculty of Arts,
Architecture and Design
of artificial skies Cardiff University London Metropolitan University
Bute Building Spring House
available for King Edward VII Avenue 40–44 Holloway Road
hire in the UK Cardiff
CF10 3NB
London
N7 8JL
Tel: +44 (0)2920 874430 Tel: +44(0)207 133 4446

Fax: +44 (0)2920 874623 Email: l.brotas@londonmet.ac.uk
Bartlett Lighting University College Dublin

Faculty of the Built Environment Belfield
University College London Dublin 4
Gower Street Ireland
London
WC1E 6BT Tel: 353 1 716 7777
Email: collegeea@ucd.ie
Tel: +44(0)207 679 4853
Email: sky.bartlett@ucl.ac.uk
Southbank University
103 Borough Road
London
SE1 0AA
Tel: +44(0)207 815 7214

Email: gordon.lowry@lsbu.ac.uk
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Appendix 4:
Decision tree
for lighting
within historic
showrooms
Check for loose cable connections, overheating, damaged flexes (cables) or exposed inner cables of double insulated
cables. If there is any doubt about safety, or damage is detected, staff should consult a qualified electrician.
Is the lamp a traditional Specialist fittings, e.g. picture lights, fibre optics,
incandescent GLS style or xenon cabinet lighting. Some of these are low
candle lamp with screw or No
energy already. If not, alternative options may be
bayonet fitting? found on the lighting web site, or it may be
necessary to retain the current lamp.
Yes
Chandelier. Check hanging system can take
increased weight if multiple lamps are being
Could weight or size of the lamp be an issue? Some replaced.
energy-saving alternatives are heavier than standard
equivalents. Further assessment will be required if to Glass armed fittings. Not recommended.
Yes
be used as part of a chandelier or glass armed fittings. Please consult with your conservator first to
They can also be broader and taller, which may result in see if lamp replacement is an option for this
changing the bulb’s proximity to fitted lampshades. object.
Close-fitting lampshades. Not recommended.

Please consult with your conservator first to
see if lamp replacement is an option for this
No
object.
Is any light-sensitive material Is there a light-sensitive

No Is the lamp visible? No No
directly illuminated by light lampshade of historic
from this lamp? significance?
Yes
Yes Compact fluorescent lamp might

be appropriate. Consult
conservator/curator.
Does the lamp’s Issues to consider

appearance significantly − Colour rendering ability is lower than
Yes No
traditional incandescent lighting
compromise the design of
therefore not appropriate for
the light fitting? illumination of objects where colour is
significant
− Unsuitable for dimmer switches
Energy-saving tungsten-halogen could

be an option, but note this lamp type What is the shape of the bulb? CANDLE
is, as yet, unproven in Trust properties.
Is the wattage of the current lamp...

GLS
40W? 25W?
Replacements for 40W (25W) and 60W

(42W) lamps available Could replace with 25W bulb Keep traditional
incandescent lamp
There may be problems with glare and shadow from There may be problems with glare and shadow
the lamp components. Test the specific location to from the lamp components. Test the specific No suitable replacement
assess these issues. This may require consultation location to assess these issues. This may require available yet.
with your curator/conservator. consultation with your curator/conservator.
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List of artificial skies 81
Glossary The explanations and definitions given in this glossary are intended to help
readers to understand this SLL Lighting Guide. National definitions are
contained in British Standard BS 4727: Part 4: 1971/2 Glossary of terms
particular to lighting and colour. International definitions are contained in
the third edition of the International Lighting Vocabulary issued jointly by
the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). These documents should be consulted if
more precise definitions are required.
accent lighting The highlighting of individual exhibits or features of the building.
adaptation The process that takes place as the visual system adjusts itself to the brightness
or the colour of the visual field. The term is also used, usually qualified, to denote
the final state of this process. For example ‘dark adaptation’ denotes the state of
the visual system when it has become adapted to a very low luminance.
asymmetric distribution A luminous intensity distribution which is not symmetrical about the vertical
axis through the luminaire.
average illuminance The illuminance averaged over a particular surface area at a particular point in
time in the life of the installation. For museums, the surface area could be a
display area or a room surface.
ballast Part of the electrical control equipment used with discharge lamps to stabilise the
electrical discharge passing through them.
candela (cd) The SI unit of luminous intensity, equal to one lumen per steradian.
chroma In the Munsell system, an index of saturation of colour ranging from 0 for neutral
grey to 16 for strong colours. A low chroma implies a pastel shade.
colour appearance Of a light source: subjectively, the hue of the source or of a white surface
illuminated by the source; the degree of warmth associated with the source
colour. Lamps of low correlated colour temperature are usually described as
having a warm apparent colour and lamps of high correlated colour temperature
as having a cold apparent colour.
colour rendering A general expression for the appearance of surface colours when illuminated by light
from a given source compared, consciously or unconsciously, with their appearance
under light from some reference source. ‘Good colour rendering’ implies similarity
of appearance to that under an acceptable light source, such as daylight.
colour rendering index (CRI) A measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given
light source conform to those of the same surfaces under a reference illuminant,
suitable allowance having been made for the state of chromatic adaptation (CIE
Publication 13.3 (CIE, 1995). For art galleries and museums, lamps with a CRI of
not less than 80 should normally be used.
contrast A term that is used subjectively and objectively. Subjectively it describes the
difference in appearance of two parts of a visual field seen simultaneously
or successively. The difference may be one of brightness or colour or both.
Objectively, the term expresses the luminance difference between the two parts
of the field by such relationships as:
L–L
contrast = –––––1
L1
Quantitatively, the sign of the contrast is ignored. L1 is the dominant or
background luminance. L is the object or task luminance.
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correlated colour The temperature of a full radiator which emits radiation having a chromaticity
temperature (unit: K) nearest to that of the light source being considered, e.g. the colour of a full radiator
at 3500 K is the nearest match to that of a ‘white’ tubular fluorescent lamp.
daylight factor The illuminance received at a point indoors, from a sky of known or assumed
luminance distribution, expressed as a percentage of the horizontal illuminance
outdoors from an unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct sunlight is
excluded from both values of illuminance.
dazzle See disability glare.
diffuse reflection Reflection in which the reflected light is diffused and there is no significant
specular reflection, as from matt paint.
diffused lighting Lighting in which the luminous flux comes from many directions, none of which
predominates.
dimming (regulating) The control of the amount of light from the light source by electrical, resistive
or electronic methods. The term ‘regulating’ may also be used, particularly with
regard to high-frequency electronic control gear, where the full range of dimming
is not always available.
direct glare Glare caused when excessively bright parts of the visual field are seen directly,
e.g. lamps which are inadequately shielded.
direct lighting Lighting in which the greater part of the luminous flux from the luminaires
reaches the surface directly, i.e. without reflection from surrounding surfaces.
Luminaires with a flux fraction ratio less than 0.1 are usually regarded as direct.
For display purposes, the direct lighting will often be the accent light.
directional lighting Lighting designed to illuminate an exhibit or surface predominantly from a

particular direction.
disability glare (dazzle) Glare which impairs the ability to see detail without necessarily causing visual
discomfort.
discharge lamp A lamp in which the light is produced either directly or by the excitation of
phosphors by an electric discharge through a gas, a metal vapour or a mixture of
several gases and vapours.
discomfort glare Glare which causes discomfort without necessarily impairing the ability to see
detail.
illuminance (E) (unit: lm/m2, The luminous flux density at a surface, i.e. the luminous flux incident per unit
lux) area. (The quantity was formerly known as the illumination value or illumination
level.)
illumination The process of lighting.
indirect/direct luminaire A luminaire that is designed to give controlled downlight and widespread uplight.
The ratio of uplight to downlight can vary between manufacturers.
indirect lighting Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches a particular exhibit or
surface only after reflection at other surfaces and particularly at the roof or
ceiling. Luminaires with a flux fraction ratio greater than 10 are usually regarded
as indirect.
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Glossary 83
ingress protection (IP) number A two-digit number associated with a luminaire. The first digit classifies the
degree of protection the luminaire provides against the ingress of solid foreign
bodies. The second digit classifies the degree of protection the luminaire provides
against the ingress of moisture. Details of the nature of the protection achieved at
different levels are given in BS EN 60529.
initial light output (unit: lm) The luminous flux from a lamp after 100 hours of operation.
isolux curve A line joining points of equal illuminance on a surface (also sometimes called an
equilux curve).
isolux diagram A diagram showing contours of equal illuminance.
light emitting diode (LED) (see A semiconductor crystal that emits light when a voltage is applied. These are now
also organic light emitting diode) a light source capable of application in museum and gallery lighting. They are
typified by having low output so in many applications several are used to provide
an appropriate amount of light.
lighting design lumens (LDL) Lamps vary in flux output, both between themselves and throughout their
(unit: lm) operating life. The lighting design lumen is a nominal value which is representative
of the average light output of each type or size of lamp throughout its life.
limiting glare index The maximum value of the glare index which is recommended for a specific
lighting installation.
louvre An open grid of translucent or opaque elements attached to a luminaire to screen

or diffuse the light. The prime purpose is normally to prevent the light source
being seen beyond a given angle.
lumen (lm) The SI unit of luminous flux, used in describing a quantity of light emitted by
a source or received by a surface. A small source which has a uniform luminous
intensity of one candela emits a total of 4π lumens in all directions and emits one
lumen within unit solid angle.
luminaire An apparatus which controls the distribution of light given by a lamp or lamps
and which includes all the components necessary for fixing and protecting the
lamps and for connecting them to the supply circuit. Luminaire has superseded
the term ‘light fitting’.
luminance (L) (unit: cd/m2) The physical measure of the stimulus which produces the sensation of brightness
measured by the luminous intensity of the light emitted or reflected in a given
direction from a surface element, divided by the area of the element in the
same direction. The SI unit of luminance is the candela per square metre, the
relationship between luminance and illuminance is given by the equation
illuminance × reflectance
luminance = –––––––––––––––––––––––
π
This equation applies to a matt surface. For a non-matt surface, the reflectance is
replaced by the luminance factor.
luminous efficacy (unit: lm/W) The ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by
the lamp. When the power consumed by control gear is taken into account this
term is sometimes known as lamp circuit luminous efficacy and is expressed in
lumens/circuit watt.
luminous flux (unit: lm) The light emitted by a source, or received by a surface. The quantity is derived from
radiant flux by evaluating the radiation in accordance with the spectral sensitivity
of the standard eye as described by the CIE Standard Photometric Observer.
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luminous intensity (unit: cd) A quantity which describes the power of a source or illuminated surface to emit
light in a given direction. It is the luminous flux emitted in a very narrow cone
containing the given direction divided by the solid angle of the cone: the result
is expressed in candelas.
luminous intensity distribution The distribution of the luminous intensity of a lamp or luminaire in all spatial
directions. Luminous intensity distributions are usually shown in the form of a
polar diagram or a table for a single vertical plane, in terms of candelas per 1000
lumens of lamp luminous flux.
lux (lx) The SI unit of illuminance, equal to one lumen per square metre.
maintained illuminance The illuminance at which maintenance should take place. Hence the lighting
design will have planned to allow for depreciation from the initial illuminance
for the installation.
maintenance factor (MF) The ratio of the illuminance provided by an installation in the average condition
of dirtiness expected in service, to the illuminance from the same installation
when clean. The maintenance factor is always less than unity.
minimum illuminance The lowest illuminance occurring at any point and at any time on the working
plane for a predetermined set of conditions.
Munsell system A system of surface colour classification using uniform colour scales of hue, value
and chroma. A typical Munsell designation of a colour is 7.5 BG6/2, where 7.5 BG
(blue-green) is the hue reference, 6 is the value and 2 is the chroma reference
number.
narrow distribution The luminous intensity distribution of a class of luminaires, characterised by a

spacing-to-height ratio of approximately 1.0 or less.
organic light emitting An organic material that emits light when a voltage is applied to it. Typically
diode (OLED) (see also these are formed into sheets encapsulated in a plastic material and are commonly
light emitting diode) used in flat panel TVs and computer displays. The technology is being developed
to use as a general light source.
reflectance (R) The ratio of the luminous flux reflected from a surface to the luminous flux
incident on it. Except for matt surfaces, reflectance depends on how the surface
is illuminated but especially on the direction of the incident light and its spectral
distribution. The value is always less than unity and is expressed as either a
decimal or as a percentage.
reflected glare (veiling A term used to describe various visual effects, such as the reduction of contrasts,
reflectance) discomfort or distraction, produced by the reflection of light sources or other
bright areas in non-matt surfaces.
reflector A device for redirecting or controlling the direction of flux from a lamp by
reflection from suitably shaped surfaces. These may be specular (e.g. polished
metal or mirror glass) or diffuse. In the former, the light is reflected according to
the laws of optical reflection, but in the latter light is redirected generally without
any particular dominant direction. An intermediate situation where, although
the reflected light is generally diffuse there is a dominant direction involved, is
called preferential reflection.
sky component of the The illuminance received directly at a point indoors from a sky of known or
daylight factor (SC) assumed luminance distribution expressed as a percentage of the horizontal
illuminance outdoors from an unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct
sunlight is excluded from both values of illuminance.
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Glossary 85
solid state lighting (see A general term covering LED and OLED technology.
light emitting diode)
specular reflection Reflection without diffusion in accordance with the laws of optical reflection as
in a mirror.
standby lighting Emergency lighting provided to enable normal activities to continue.
symmetric distribution A luminous intensity distribution which is symmetrical about the vertical axis
through the luminaire.
transmittance The ratio of luminous flux transmitted by a material to the incident luminous
flux.
uniformity ratio The ratio of the minimum illuminance to the average illuminance. In some
instances, the ratio of the minimum to the maximum illuminance is quoted. The
ratio usually applies to values on a horizontal plane.
uplighter Luminaire which emits the majority of its light output upwards.
utilisation factor (UF) The proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps which reaches a
particular surface, often the horizontal plane.
value In the Munsell system, an index of the lightness of a surface ranging from 0
(black) to 10 (white). Approximately related to percentage reflectance by the
relationship:
V
R = ––––––
(V – 1)
where R is the reflectance (%) and V is the value.
veiling reflectance See reflected glare.
visual environment The environment either indoors or outdoors as seen by an observer.
visual field The full extent of what can be seen when looking in a given direction.
widespread distribution The luminous intensity distribution of a class of luminaires characterised by a

spacing-to-height ratio greater than approximately 1.5.
LG8 (AD v2).indd 85 16/12/2014 15:43

References
British Standards BS EN 60529:1992+A2:2013: Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code)
Available from CIBSE: www.cibse.org

CIBSE/SLL publications
CIBSE (2006) CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design
SLL (1992) Lighting Guide 6: The outdoor environment
SLL (2014) Lighting Guide 10: Daylight; a guide for designers
SLL (2014) Lighting Guide 12: Emergency lighting design guide
SLL (2009) The SLL Lighting Handbook
SLL (2012) The SLL Code for Lighting
CIE (1995) Method of Measuring and Specifying Colour Rendering Properties of Light Sources,
Other publications Publication 13.3 (Vienna: CIE)
ILE/SLL (2001) Guide to fibre-optic and remote source lighting
Lighting Industry Liaison Group (2012) A guide to the specification of LED lighting products
2012
Bibliography and Ashley-Smith J, Pretzel B and Derbyshire A (2002) The continuing development of a practical
lighting policy for works of art on paper and other types of object at the Victoria and Albert Museum,
further reading conference preprints of International Council of Museums, Committee for Conservation,
Rio de Janeiro, 22–27 September 2002, pp 3–8
Bullock L and Saunders D (1999) Measurement of cumulative exposure using blue wool
standards, conference preprints of International Council of Museums, Committee for
Conservation, Lyon, 29 August – 3 September 1999
Colby K (1992) ‘A suggested exhibition policy for works of art on paper’, Journal of the
International Institute for Conservation, Canadian Group, 17: 3–11
Derbyshire A and Ashley-Smith J (1999) A proposed practical lighting policy for works of art on
paper at the V&A, conference preprints of International Council of Museums, Committee
for Conservation, Lyon, 29 August – 3 September 1999
Ishii M, Moriyama T, Toda M, Kohmoto K and Saito M (2008) ‘Colour degradation of
textiles with natural dyes and of blue scale standards exposed to white LED lamps’, Journal
of Light and Visual Environment, vol 32
Lavédrine B (1998) ‘The blue pink scale: a new light dosimeter for the exhibition
of photographs and sensitive artefacts’, Care of photographic, moving image and sound
collections, College of Ripon and York St John, York, England, 20–24 July 1998 (Leigh,
Worcestershire, Institute of Paper Conservation) pp 124–128
Michalski S (1987) ‘Damage to objects by visible and ultraviolet radiation’, Lighting in
museums, galleries and historic houses (Museums Association, London) pp 3–16
Michalski S (1990) Towards specific lighting guidelines, conference preprints of International
Council of Museums, Committee for Conservation, 9th Triennial Meeting, Dresden,
German Democratic Republic, 26–31 August, 1990, ed. K Grimstead, vol 2 (Marina del
Rey, California: The Getty Conservation Institute) pp 583–588
Michalski S (1997) ‘The lighting decision’, Fabric of an exhibition, preprints of Textile
Symposium 97 (Ottawa: Canadian Conservation Institute) pp 97–104
Padfield T (2004) Conservation physics, available at http://www.padfield.org/tim/cfys/index.
php
Padfield T and Landi S (1966) ‘The light fastness of the natural dyes’, Studies in conservation,
1966, vol 11, pp 181–196
Pretzel B (2000) ‘Determining the colour fastness of the Bullerswood carpet’, Tradition
and innovation: advances in conservation, ed. A Roy and P Smith (London: IIC) pp 150–154
Saunders D (1995) Photographic flash: threat or nuisance, National Gallery Technical Bulletin
16 (London: National Gallery Publications) pp 66–73
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References 87
Cuttle C (2007) Light for art’s sake: lighting for artworks and museum displays (Oxford:
Further reading Butterworth-Heinemann)
RP-30-96 Recommended practice for museum and art gallery lighting (New York: Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America)
Boyce PR (2003) Human factors in lighting, 2nd edn (Abingdon: Taylor and Francis)
Electric lighting
Coaton JR and Marsden AM (eds) (1997) Lamps and lighting, 4th edn (London: Edward
Arnold)
Cuttle C (2003) Lighting by design (Oxford: Architectural Press)
Rea M (ed) (2000) The IESNA lighting handbook, 9th edn (New York Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America)
Simons RH and Bean AR (2001) Lighting engineering: applied calculations (Oxford:
Architectural Press)
Ander GD (1995) Daylighting performance and design (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold)
Daylighting
Button DA and Pye B (eds) (1993) Glass in building: a guide to modern architectural glass
performance (Oxford: Butterworth Architecture)
International Energy Agency (2000). Daylight in buildings: a source book on daylighting
systems and components, report of IEA SHC Task 21/ECBCS Annex 29 available at http://
www.iea.shc.org
Moore F (1991) Concepts and practice of architectural daylighting (New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold)
Ashley-Smith J (1999) Risk assessment for object conservation (Oxford: Butterworth-
Conservation Heinemann)
CIE 157:2004 Control of damage to museum objects by optical radiation (Vienna: International
Commission on Illumination)
Horie CV (2005) Materials for conservation (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann)
Keene S (2002) Managing conservation in museums, 2nd edn (Oxford: Routledge)
Thomson G (2003) The museum environment, 2nd edn (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann)
Viñas SM (2005) Contemporary theory of conservation (Oxford: Elsevier)
LG8 (AD v2).indd 87 16/12/2014 15:43

Index coloured filters 49

column cases 60–61
disabled access see accessibility
issues
compact fluorescent lamps 47 discharge lamps 45, 47–48, 82
Note: page numbers in italics refer to compact metal-halide lamps 67 discomfort glare 6, 82
figures; page numbers in bold refer to computer modelling 41–42 display area 8–19
tables concealed lighting 12, 13, 54–55 display cases see showcases
concrete objects 77 display lighting 20–34
accent lighting 7–8, 23, 60, 81 cone diagrams 77–78 display screens 75
access equipment 17, 22 conservation categories 26, 26–27, documentation 66
access lighting 9–10 69, 69–77 drawers 61–62
accessibility issues 22, 27 conservation of materials 24–34 drawings 73–74
acrylic paintings 73 contrast 5, 7, 23, 81 dyes 29
acrylic sheets 32 contrast ratios 2, 23
adaptation 2, 81 controls efficacy see luminous efficacy
animal specimens 75–76 control panels 62 electric lighting 9, 42–56
archaeological objects 69–72 daylighting 12, 35–42, 63, 64 accessories 48–49
armour 75 dimming 23–24, 26–27, 41, 63 alternatives to track 52–53
art structures 75 electric lighting 43, 62–64 combined with daylighting 9, 12,
artificial sky 41, 79 for temporary exhibitions 16 40–41, 62, 63
asymmetric distribution 81 whole building 64 concealed and indirect lighting
audio-visual systems 64 wireless 13, 64 54–55
automatic controls 63, 67 cornice lighting 54–55 fibre-optic systems 55
automatic window shades 40 corporate entertainment 17 framing projectors 49
average illuminance 35, 81 correlated colour temperature (CCT) lamp types 43–48
46, 82 lighting walls 53
background illumination 5–6, 7, 9, costs 65 picture lights 56
43 costumes 70–71 track systems 50–52
see also contrast CRI (colour rendering index) 5, 81 electrical sockets 62
backscatter 6 electrical wiring 13
ballasts 48, 81 daylight factor 41, 82 electronic control gear 48
banners 75 daylighting 8–9 ELV (extra-low-voltage) lamps
barn-doors 48 combined with electric lighting 44–45
beam angles 7, 77–79 9, 12, 40–41, 62, 63 emergency lighting 10–11, 13, 15
beam shapers 48, 78 control 12, 35–40, 63, 64 energy efficiency 67–68
blinds 35, 37–38, 40, 63 damaging effects 31, 32 energy-related products (ErP)
books 70 evaluation techniques 41–42 Directives 43
Building Regulations 67 modelling effects 7 ephemera 77
monitoring 64 EU Directives 43, 43–44, 67
cafés 19 paintings 73 events lighting 17
candela (cd) 81 roof-lights 35–38, 39 exhibits lighting 20–34, 43
capital costs 65 spectral distribution 4, 31 ‘experience’ displays 76
capsule lamps 44, 45 dazzle see disability glare experimentation 24
carpets 70–71 decision tree 80 exposure limits 33, 33–34, 35, 69
CCT (correlated colour temperature)
desk-type cases 58 exterior displays 76–77
46, 82 dichroic reflectors 44 externally lit cases 57–58
centrally located exhibits 21–22 diffuse reflection 82 extra-low-voltage (ELV) lamps
ceramic discharge metal-halide dimming 62, 82 44–45
lamps (CDM) 45 and colour appearance 3–4, 59,
ceramics 29, 71 62 fading see colour changes
chandeliers 12 controls 23–24, 26–27, 41, 63 fibre-optic systems 55, 59
chroma 81 daylighting control 63 field angle 7
clocks 71 fluorescent lamps 48 fine art objects 73–75
coated glass filters 31, 32, 38 internally lit cases 59 flat cases 58, 61
coins 71–72 LEDs (light emitting diodes) 45, floor sockets 62
cold-cathode lamps 54 46, 62 floor-standing luminaires 13
colour appearance 3–4, 81 tungsten halogen lamps 62 fluorescent lamps 47–48
colour changes 28, 29, 73 tungsten-halogen spotlights 45 efficacy 67
colour of backgrounds 5–6 direct glare 6, 82 luminaires 68
colour rendering 4, 81 direct lighting 82 spectral distribution 4
fluorescent lamps 48 directional lighting 7, 60, 82 UV filters 31
LEDs (light emitting diodes) 46
see also spotlights fossils 76
metal halide lamps 45 disability glare 6, 82 framing projectors 49
colour rendering index (CRI) 5, 81 furniture 71
colour temperature 3–4
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References 89
general lighting 8–19 lamp failure 48 modelling effects 7

access and security lighting 9–10 lamp life 45, 46, 65 monitoring light exposure 34
events and corporate lamp replacement 48, 66 mono-point sockets 52
entertainment 17 lamp types 43–48 moving images 75
historic interiors 11–15 LDL (lighting design lumens) 83 multi-circuit track systems 15–16,
ratio of general lighting to LEDs (light emitting diodes) 45–47, 21–22, 50
exhibit lighting 43 83 multiple emitters (LEDs) 47
shops, cafés and restaurants colour rendering 68 Munsell system 85
18–19 cornice lighting 54 musical instruments 71
temporary exhibition galleries dimming 4, 62
15–17 efficacy 67, 68 narrow distribution 84
use of daylight 8–9 spectral distribution 4 natural history exhibits 30, 75–76
glare 6 wall-washers 53 neutral density filters 45, 49, 59
glare shields 48 light exposure see exposure limits
glass objects 29, 71 light fittings 16, 48–49 object categories see conservation
glazed ceramics 71 light leaks 6 categories
glazing 32, 36, 38, 57 light sensors 34, 63–64 oil paintings 73
glossary 81–85 lighting design lumens (LDL) 83 oils 30
gobos 49 light-measuring cells 63–64 operating costs 65
light-sensitive materials 24–34 organic light emitting diodes
hand-held controllers 62 see also conservation categories (OLED) 84
heat dissipation 44, 45, 46, 57, 59, limiting glare index 83 organic materials 29–30, 70, 75–76
68 lobbies 2 outdoor displays 76–77
see also ventilation of lamps logging light exposure 34 overall balance 23–24
heat-sensitive objects 27, 70, 74 louvres 35, 37–38, 63, 83
historic interiors 11–15, 14–15, 67, low voltage lighting 40, 44, 46, 53, paintings 7, 20, 21, 73–74
72, 80 56, 63 paper 30, 70, 73–74
low-reflectance glass 57 parabolic aluminised reflectors
illuminance 82 lumen (lm) 83 (PAR) 45
see also recommended luminaires 83 period-style interiors 72
illuminances efficiency 68 photochemical degradation 27,
illumination 82 for historic interiors 12 28–30
image projectors 24, 49, 75 for temporary exhibitions 16 photographs 73–74
incandescent lamps luminance 83 picture lights 12
colour rendering 4 luminance ratios 2, 5 pigments 28, 29, 73
controls 62 luminance sensors 34 polycarbonate sheets 32
cornice lighting 54 luminous efficacy 67, 68, 83 polyvinyl butyral (PVB) 38
dimming 3 luminous flux 83 presence detectors 64
spectral distribution 4 luminous intensity 84 prints 73–74
withdrawal 43, 67 lux (lx) 84 programmable controls 63
indirect lighting 54–55, 82 projected images and screens 24,
indirect/direct luminaire 82 machinery displays 76 49, 75
infrared coatings (IRC) 45, 67 maintained illuminance 65, 84 PVB (polyvinyl butyral) 38
infrared controls 13 maintenance 65–66
ingress protection (IP) number 83 costs 65 Radiance 42
initial light output 83 lamp cleaning 46, 65–66 radio controls 13, 64
inorganic materials 29 maintenance factor (MF) 84 recommended illuminances
installations (art) 74 manuscripts 70 for light-sensitive materials 26,
integral dimming 45 material categories see conservation 27, 32–34
interior lighting see general lighting categories reflectance 2, 84
internally lit cases 59–60 materials conservation 24–34 reflected glare 7, 20, 84
IP (ingress protection) number 83 maximum cumulative exposure 33 reflections 6, 20, 21, 57
IRC (infrared coatings) 45, 67 mesh screens 45, 49, 59 reflector lamps 44, 84
island cases 57, 58 metal objects 69, 71–72, 76, 77 LEDs (light emitting diodes) 46
isolux curve 83 metal-halide lamps 45, 67 light leaks and backscatter 6
isolux diagram 83 metals 29 regulations 43–44
MF (maintenance factor) 84 regulations 43, 43–44, 67
jewellery 71–72 militaria 75 remote monitoring 64
minerals 29 remote phosphor emitters (LEDs)
labels 1 miniatures 73–74 46
laminated glass 32, 38, 40 minimum illuminance 33, 53, 84 resins 30
lamp cleaning 46, 65–66 mock-ups 24 restaurants 19
lamp efficacy 67 modelling see computer modelling roof-lights 8, 35–38
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room lighting see general lighting beam angles 7, 77–79 uniformity ratio 85
room settings 72 for externally lit cases 57, 58 uniforms 75
LEDs (light emitting diodes) uplighting 42, 54, 85
SC (sky component of the daylight 45–46 utilisation factor (UF) 85
factor) 84 locating 20–22, 74 UV see ultraviolet (UV)
scene select systems 63 metal halide 45
scientific and medical equipment track systems 50–52 value 85
76 tungsten-halogen 44–45 vehicles display 76
sculpture 74, 77 spread lenses 49 veiling reflectance see reflected glare
sculpture lenses 49 stained glass 71 ventilation of lamps 55, 56, 59
security lighting 9–10 standby lighting 10–11, 85 viewing conditions 1
self-luminous displays 24, 74 stone objects 29, 69, 77 visibility against a background 5
see also display screens sunlight restriction 9, 35–36 visual adaptation see adaptation
shading devices 35 symmetric distribution 85 visual effects 64
shadows 20, 21 visual environment 85
shops 18–19 tapestries 70–71 visual field 85
showcases 6, 15, 56–62 temporary exhibitions 15–17
skeletons 76 textiles 29–30, 70–71 wall cases 57, 60
sky component of the daylight texture 7 wall sockets 62
factor (SC) 84 theatrical lighting equipment 16 wall-mounted exhibits 20–21
skylights 8 thermal changes 27 wall-washing 53
sloping-top cases 58, 61 see also heat-sensitive objects watercolours 73–74
soft furnishings 70–71 timber 71 weaponry 75
software simulations 41–42 track systems 15–16, 21–22, 50–52, wheelchair users see accessibility
solid state lighting 85 63 issues
space lighting 8–9 transmittance 32, 85 ‘white’ glass 57
spare fittings 17 tungsten halogen lamps 40, 43–45 ‘white’ LED light 46
spare lamps 66 efficacy 67 whole building lighting controls 64
spectral distribution 4, 31 spectral distribution 4 widespread distribution 85
spectral transmittance 32 UV filters 31 windows 8, 39–40
specular reflection 71, 85 see also glazing; roof-lights
spill light 7 ultraviolet (UV) filters 27, 31–32, wireless controls 13, 64
spotlights 38, 40, 45, 47 wooden objects 30, 71
accessories 48–49 ultraviolet (UV) radiation 27, 31–32 working light 15
alternatives to track 52–53 ultraviolet (UV) sensors 34
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Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
Downloaded by [88.245.101.215] at 04:30 26 April 2015
Museum Management and Curatorship, 2015
Vol. 30, No. 1, 63–74, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09647775.2015.1008392
An exhibition design checklist for visitor circulation

Kutay Guler*
Department of Interior Architecture, Dumlupinar University, Kutahya, Turkey

(Received 2 June 2014; accepted 22 September 2014)
Visitors’ time, energy, and perception limitations, as well as their physical charac‐
teristics, create complex circulation patterns arising from these visitors’ interaction
with exhibition layouts. Understanding the dynamics of these interactions is important
for improving visitor circulation. In this research, a condensed exhibition layout
design checklist is created based on data compiled from previous research on visitor
circulation and behavior in various exhibition environments. The checklist is
comprised of 20 items grouped under seven categories. In order to evaluate the
proposed checklist, an experiment was devised involving 76 fourth-year students from
various fine arts departments who were required to design the layout for an exhibition
in a pre-determined space. Key findings of the experiment suggest that the checklist is
helpful in understanding the exhibition environment, providing improved circulation
continuity, judging more accurately the temporal aspects of visiting, and in better
handling the exit gradient and backtracking effects of visitors. However, the checklist
fails to be helpful in determining design requirements for the visitor profile and toward
compensating a lack of spatial planning skills.
Keywords: design checklist; exhibition design; visitor behavior; visitor circulation;
visitor satisfaction
Introduction
Visitor behavior in an exhibition space can be thought of as a series of reactions against
the design of an exhibition in accordance with visitors’ time, energy, and perception
limitations, as well as visitors’ physical characteristics. These reactions create a complex
web of interactions between exhibit elements and other visitors. An understanding of the
interrelation between visitors and exhibition spaces is an important skill for exhibition
designers (Bitgood and Loomis 1993; Bitgood, Patterson, and Benefield 1988). Although
the exhibition design process relies on artistic preference to a degree, a previously
acquired knowledge of visitor needs, expectations, and behavior is a requirement for
improved visitor satisfaction (Dean 1994; Eckel and Beckhaus 2001; Neal 1987). Visitor
behavior in exhibition spaces is influenced by a range of parameters which previous
research has listed and thoroughly analyzed (Bitgood and Loomis 1993; Bitgood,
Patterson, and Benefield 1988; Bollo and Pozzolo 2005; Gorman 2008; Loomis 1987;
Screven 1976; Serrell 1996, 1997; Soren 1999).
In this research, a 20-item exhibition layout design checklist is created from the data
compiled from previous research on exhibition design and behavior. The 20 items in the
checklist are grouped under seven criteria groups: target audience, exhibition space,
*Email: ktguler@gmail.com
© 2015 Taylor & Francis
64 K. Guler
circulation quality, circulation continuity, exhibit element interrelations, visitors’ time

limitations, and backtracking and exiting behavior. This checklist will help remind
exhibition designers of certain characteristics and dynamics involved in visitor-exhibition
interaction to improve visitor circulation.
Because of its singular focus on visitor circulation, the simplified approach to visitor
behavior in this study poses an important limitation. In order to create a comprehensible
checklist for the inexperienced exhibition designer and to effectively isolate criteria
groups in the checklist from each other, the learning and meaning aspects of the visitor-
exhibit element relationship are mostly left out. Although the checklist is mainly
influenced by behaviorist paradigms, it was also supplemented with ideas from others,
such as incorporation/resistance and the spectacle/performance paradigms (Abercrombie
and Longhurst 1998; Stylianou-Lambert 2010). Another limitation of this study is the
scale of the design scenario of the experiment, which covers a small imaginary exhibition
space to be planned individually. This might not be fully representative of the larger-scale
efforts in museums and larger galleries. In future studies, an experiment involving real-
life scenarios and environments might provide better insight on the effectiveness of
the checklist.
The exhibition layout design checklist

In this research, the exhibition layout design process is structured around the flowchart
shown in Figure 1. The exhibition layout design checklist is created based on this
flowchart. The flowchart and the checklist are formed through careful analysis of
previous research on visitor circulation and behavior in various exhibition environments
(Bitgood and Loomis 1993; Bitgood, Patterson, and Benefield 1988; Bollo and Pozzolo
2005; Gorman 2008; Loomis 1987; Screven 1976; Serrell 1996, 1997; Soren 1999).
Figure 1. Flowchart explaining the exhibition layout design framework.

Museum Management and Curatorship 65
The flowchart identifies nine steps that exhibition designers might follow during the
exhibition design process. According to the flowchart, exhibition designers should first
define the target audience, and then they should understand the exhibition space. The next
step is to read through the checklist to gain familiarity. This is followed by the design of
the first iteration of the exhibition layout. The first iteration of the exhibition layout
design should be checked against the following exhibition layout checklist steps: visitor
circulation area, visitor circulation continuity, exhibit element interrelations, visitors’ time
limitations, and backtracking and exiting properties. If the layout design does not meet
the criteria provided in any step, it should be corrected to form a second iteration of the
design. This process continues until the exhibition layout design is in concordance with
the checklist.
The exhibition layout design checklist is provided in Table 1. This checklist
comprises 20 items grouped under seven categories, or criteria groups, which correspond
to seven of the nine steps of the exhibition layout design framework (Figure 1). The
exhibition layout design checklist provides designers with written instructions throughout
the exhibition layout design process. The 20 items included in the checklist were created
after distilling the data and findings from previous research on visitor circulation and
behavior in various exhibition environments. In Table 1, each item is listed with its
corresponding references.
The experiment
In order to evaluate the proposed checklist an experiment was devised involving 76
fourth-year fine arts students from departments such as graphic design, painting, and
animation. The sample group was required to have a rudimentary understanding of visitor
behavior and exhibition design, and a relative homogeneity in design skill level. Because
of specific sampling requirements, purposive sampling proved suitable for this qualitative
study (Given 2008; Salkind 2006).
All students had successfully completed the University faculty’s Space and Exhibition
Design course. This course focuses on visitor behavior and visitor space interaction. All
the students acquired fundamental skills in spatial thinking, spatial design, technical
drawing, visitor behavior, and exhibition design during this course. Therefore, it was
deemed possible that the students could understand the problem presented in the
experiment, and could design an exhibition layout, according to the parameters provided.
The sample population was divided into a test and a control group, each consisting of
38 students. The students’ grade point average indicated that, on average, the members of
both groups have achieved academic success. Each student was asked to design a layout
in which exhibit elements were provided with specific properties in a pre-determined
exhibition space. The members of the test group were given the exhibition layout design
checklist during the design process, and the members of the control group relied only on
their previous knowledge and experiences.
The exhibition design scenario was limited to an art exhibition with two- and three-
dimensional artworks to be exhibited in a single-level exhibition space. The exhibition
space provided for the layout design was a compound space consisting of two rectangular
areas, one of which was larger, with a filleted wall (Figure 2). The two areas were
connected by a narrow passage, covering 113 square meters. The exhibition space had
two openings that functioned as entrances and exits. The dashed lines and circles on the
66 K. Guler
Table 1. Checklist for exhibition layout design.
Item group Item no. Explanation References
Criteria group 1: 1A The target audience of the exhibition Andrews and Asia
Understanding the should be defined. Do the members of (1979); Bitgood
target audience the target audience haveunusual (2002); Davies
physical, perceptive, or social traits? (1994); Dean (1994);
(e.g., children’s eye level, accessibility Hooper-Greenhill
limitations for the disabled, perception (1999); McManus
limitations for the elderly) (1991);
Sparacino (2002)
1B Are visitors at the exhibit for Falk and Dierking
entertainment purposes, learning (1992); Hooper-
purposes or both? (Learners will spend Greenhill and
relatively more time with exhibit Moussouri (2001);
elements.) Leinhardt and
Crowley (1998)
Criteria group 2: 2A Visitors should be able to see the Spencer (1999)
Understanding the exhibition space so they can create a
exhibition space visit plan. If the exhibition space does
not have a regular and simple geometric
plan and/or has a compound plan of
multiple simple volumes, visitors will
need clues indicating the exhibition’s
continuity (e.g., partially seen exhibit
elements or visual cues for different
exhibition sections)
2B Because of an exhibition space’s shape, Spencer (1999);
some areas might attract more attention Tröndle et al. (2014)
than others. The exhibition layout
design should be checked for any
problematic areas
2C When entering an exhibition visitors Bitgood (1996);
will orient themselves towards the Klein (1993); Whyte
closest and most interesting exhibit (1980, 1988)
element. In a balanced and symmetrical
situation, visitors usually follow the
right-hand path
Criteria group 3: 3A A visitor circulation path should be Pheasant and
Checking the 70–90 cm wide for a single visitor in a Haslegrave (2006)
visitor crowded situation. For multiple visitors,
circulation area this width should be increased
accordingly (e.g., couples, families,
school tour groups)
3B Every exhibit element should be viewed Neal (1987); Guler
from a distance depending on the (2009); Schwarz,
exhibit’s size andphysical features. The Bertron, and
viewing distance is directly Frey (2006)
proportional with the size of the exhibit
element. The exhibit element’s viewing
areas should not overlap with
circulation paths or the viewing areas of
other exhibit elements
Table 1 (Continued)
3C Every visitor will take up space during Bitgood (1996,

viewing. Viewers may cluster around 2002); Deans
exhibit elements and block other et al. (1987)
visitors’ sight and circulation paths
3D Exhibit elements in narrow passages
may block visitor circulation due to
viewer inertia and decreased visitor
flow. Possible bottlenecks should be
checked and prevented
Criteria group 4: 4A Exhibit element locations should create Bitgood (1996);
Checking visitor a sense of connectedness and Bitgood et al. (1992);
circulation continuity. Visitors will usually orient Melton (1935);
continuity themselves towards the closest exhibit Parsons and Loomis

element and follow the path that (1973); Weis and
requires the least amount of effort Boutourline (1963);
4B The spaces between exhibit elements Schwarz, Bertron,
should be balanced, and any unusually and Frey (2006)
distant or close situations should be
eliminated
4C The main circulation path should not be
subject to interferences or suffer from
breaks and discontinuity. The
distribution of exhibit elements on the
main circulation path should be
balanced (e.g., avoid congesting one
area with the most interesting exhibit
elements)
4D Visitors will only deviate from the main
circulation path in the presence of a
highly interesting exhibit element. In
the presence of a discontinuity situation
or an orientation problem, highly salient
exhibit elements should be utilized
Criteria group 5: 5A The placement of exhibit elements Bitgood and Loomis
Checking exhibit should not block the view of other (1993); Kaynar
element exhibit elements or circulation paths. (2004); Peponis et al.
interrelations Clues should be placed indicating the (2004); Peponis and
exhibition’s continuity, to prevent Stravroulaki (2003);
visitors from wandering off the Schwarz, Bertron,
determined circulation path and Frey (2006)
5B Exhibit elements are static and should
not be moved or turned around while
being exhibited, unless intended by
design. All 2D and 3D artworks should
be viewed as intended without
obstruction
5C Exhibit elements should not steal
attention from other exhibit elements
68 K. Guler
Table 1 (Continued)
Criteria group 6: 6A Visitors will estimate the benefit of Bitgood (2010);

Checking visitors’ viewing an exhibit element and the time Rounds (2004)
time limitations and energy spent during the effort.
Depending on the type of exhibit
element and visitor’s interest, the time
spent viewing an exhibit element may
range between 10 seconds and 6
minutes
6B Visitors’ attention capacities will Bitgood (2010); Falk
largely diminish after 30–45 minutes et al. (1985);
due to museumfatigue and object Hein (1998)
satiation
Criteria group 7: 7A Due to the exit gradient effect, tired Bitgood (2006,
Checking visitors will exit the exhibition space in 2013); Melton (1935)
backtracking and the absence of an interesting exhibit
exiting element. The possible loss of visitors
due to the exit gradient effect should be
prevented by utilizing interesting
exhibit elements
7B Visitors will usually not backtrack. In Klein (1993);
order for backtracking to occur, a very Taylor (1986)
interesting exhibit element must be
present
drawing in Figure 2 were used as a design aid for measuring and placing exhibit
elements. Both groups had 40 minutes to complete the design task.
Using the exhibition space provided, individuals in both sample groups were required
to plan an exhibition layout that included the 19 exhibit elements (Table 2). These 19
exhibit elements included paintings and sculptures of varying sizes. Each exhibit
element’s dimensions, quantities, and attraction levels were provided. The attraction
level was based on the exhibit element’s saliency. Larger exhibit elements that are more
salient and visible generate more attraction compared to smaller ones (Bitgood 2002;
Peponis et al. 2004).
Figure 2. The exhibition space (seen from the top, in orthographic form, not to scale).
Table 2. Exhibit elements to be placed within the given exhibition space.
Measurements (cm)
Item code Item type Depth Width Height Quantity Attraction level
A1 Sculpture 80 80 180 1 High

A2 Sculpture 100 100 25 1 Medium
A3 Sculpture 50 50 110 5 Low
B1 Painting N/A 250 250 1 High
B2 Painting N/A 300 50 1 High
B3 Painting N/A 100 80 3 Low
B4 Painting N/A 60 120 4 Medium
B5 Painting N/A 60 60 3 Low
The analysis
Each exhibition layout design was evaluated by three people. All three evaluators had
previously taught the Space and Exhibition Design course and were experienced in
exhibition design. The 20 items from the exhibition layout design checklist were assessed
by each evaluator, who marked whether each student had succeeded (+) or failed (–) in
their treatment of each item. If an item received two out of three positive marks, it was
deemed successful. The statistical analyses were conducted based on criteria groups. The
exhibition design should have met all criteria of an item group to render it as successful.
The test and control groups’ performances were then compared with chi-square test
results and findings were interpreted based on item groups.
As seen in Table 3, there was no meaningful difference for criteria group 1 between
the test group’s performance and the control group’s performance (p > 0.05). This
indicates that both groups failed to correctly identify the exhibition’s target audience,
determine their properties, or design the space accordingly. This outcome might be the
result of a lack of experience in exhibition design or a lack of knowledge and experience
in human space interaction. It can be assumed that the importance of identifying the target
audience might be underestimated in this case.
There was a meaningful difference for criteria group 2 between the test group’s
performance and the control group’s performance (p < 0.01; Table 4). The second criteria
group focused on understanding the exhibition space. Spatial navigation in the exhibition
space is not obvious to the inexperienced exhibition designer. It can be assumed that
reminding the exhibition designers about the importance of building visual navigation
cues for navigation inside the exhibition space might have helped the test group
perform better.
Table 3. Statistical analysis of criteria group 1.
Criteria group 1 N f succeeded f failed % SUCC.
Test group 38 11 27 14
Control group 38 7 31 9
χ2 p-value 0.280
SUCC., Success.
70 K. Guler
χ2 p-value 0.000
SUCC, Success.
As seen in Table 5, there was no meaningful difference between the test group’s
performance and the control group’s performance for criteria group 3 (p > 0.05). The
third criteria group in the checklist focused on circulation quality. Both groups performed
poorly and generally failed to meet the third criteria group. A lack of knowledge and
experience in human-space interaction and spatial design skills might have caused this
outcome, similar to the results for criteria group 1.
For criteria group 4, there was a meaningful difference between the test group’s
performance and the control group’s performance (p < 0.01; Table 6). The fourth criteria
group in the checklist focused on circulation continuity and important aspects of exhibit
element interrelations that might be overlooked during the design process. In an
exhibition, exhibit elements form a whole, however, an inexperienced designer might
fall into the trap of thinking each item is independent of the others. According to the
meaningful difference it can be assumed that laying out the design criteria might have
improved the test group’s design performance.
The fifth criteria group focused on exhibit element interrelations. As seen in Table 7,
there was no meaningful difference for criteria group 5 between the test group’s
performance and the control group’s performance (p > 0.05). Both groups performed
poorly, similar to the first and third criteria groups. This outcome might be due to a lack
of experience in spatial design or a lack of three-dimensional thinking skills.
There was a meaningful difference for criteria group 6, between the test group’s
performance and the control group’s performance (p < 0.01; Table 8). The sixth criteria
group in the checklist focused on the temporal aspects of visiting. The test group showed
χ2 p-value 0.199
SUCC, Success.
χ2 p-value 0.020
SUCC, Success.
χ2 p-value 0.780
SUCC, Success.
χ2 p-value 0.000
SUCC, Success.
a much higher success rate in criteria group 6. It might be argued that the temporal aspect
of visiting is abstract and highly variable; therefore, it is hard to estimate the visitor-time
relationship without guidance from any references. It can be assumed that the checklist
might have redeemed this shortcoming to an extent.
As seen in Table 9, there was a meaningful difference between the test group’s
performance and the control group’s performance for criteria group 7 (p < 0.01). The
seventh criteria group focused on the exit gradient and backtracking aspects. Back-
tracking refers to the reluctance of the visitor to backtrack and see the exhibit elements
that they have not yet viewed (Klein 1993; Taylor 1986), and exit gradient refers to the
tendency of the visitor to approach the exit of the exhibition space even if they have not
viewed all of the exhibit elements (Bitgood 2013; Melton 1935). Exit gradient and
backtracking both indicate counterintuitive visitor behavior patterns. It can be argued that
having a written reminder nearby might have helped the test group perform better in this
criteria group.
Conclusions
When the results were analyzed, the test group performed better overall (p = 0.048 <
0.05). This outcome indicates that an exhibition layout design checklist in hand improves
a designer’s performance. It should be noted that the study focused on inexperienced
exhibition designers in order to clearly observe the effects of the checklist. If the same
experiment was conducted with a sample population of experienced exhibition designers,
the performance difference might be less significant. However, for inexperienced
χ2 p-value 0.020
SUCC, Success.
72 K. Guler
exhibition designers and curators, the exhibition design checklist creates an important
reference that improves the effectiveness of design decisions and avoids simple design
mistakes with the aim of improving visitor satisfaction.
The data analysis also showed that an exhibition layout design checklist might not
always prove useful for exhibition designers without fundamental spatial thinking
planning skills. The test and control groups’ similarly poor performances in criteria
groups 3 and 5 suggest that both groups failed to correctly resolve the interrelations
between exhibit elements and visitors. Therefore, it can be assumed that spatial thinking
skills are outside the beneficial limits of the exhibition design checklist. However, the
checklist can be enriched with visual components such as photos, diagrams, movement
patterns, and tracking data, or their digital incarnations, such as video snippets or three-
dimensional interactive elements explaining visitor behavior-space relationship in a more
explicit manner. Visual components might also be more comprehensible for designers
who are inexperienced in exhibition design concepts (Forrest 2013). In addition, spatial
thinking exercises might prove beneficial for these exhibition designers, particularly
designing for the contemporary art scene, in which many artworks establish a close
relationship with the provided space.
Checklists are widely used in fields such as civil aviation, surgery, and firefighting.
Although exhibition design may be a much less stressful process, simple mistakes seem
to be common. The exhibition design checklist proposed in this research aims to help
designers, particularly inexperienced designers, minimize design mistakes, and improve
visitor satisfaction. The practicality of the exhibition design checklist can be improved by
utilizing a different presentation format, such as an application available on a smartphone.
This might increase the usability of the system and create an interactive platform with
visual aids for an increased benefit.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Kutay Guler is currently an Assistant Professor at the Interior Architecture Program in Dumlupinar
University, Turkey. His research focuses on the intersection of spatial design and exhibition
planning.
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An Architectural Strategy for Virtual Reality Art Exhibitions 2

Abstract There are spatial characteristics of the physical museum architectural

List of Figures  Figure 1. United States. Map of the Midwest. P. 24

 Figure 12.The Beach Musum at Kansas State University. P. 32

 Figure 30.Mrs. Jefferson. P. 55

Karina Duque, “Clásicos de Arquitectura: Casa Kaufmann / Richard Neutra,”

“The quest for an aesthetics of nature as an aesthetic theory of nature

In architecture, efforts for incorporating Virtual Reality today lean towards

In museums, art is nested within architecture in turn is nested withing

Museums have the important role of preservation of our culture’s heritage.

Spaces List 1.0 Transition

Mallgrave, is emotional, immediate, and multisensorial. Emotional responses

designed a Virtual Reality platform for the “Punto de Inflexión” conference

14 Zumthor, Peter. Atmospheres: Architectural Environments, Surrounding Objects. Basel:

Peter Zumthors Atmospheres present an ideal scenario to prove the success

Artworks in museums are purposely display in specific arrangement

17 Canepa, Elisabetta, et al. “Atmospheres: Feeling Architecture by Emotions.” Ambiances.

22 Interview with Linda Duke.

It is important to consider that Virtual Reality experiences always happen in

24 Harry Francis Mallgrave et al., “A Conversation on Empathy,” in Architecture and

2.3 The Midwest

Figure 1. United States.

2.3.1 Hard Data Location: North Central United States

The history of the Midwest has been significantly shaped by a one-sided

Figure 2. The State of Kansas.

Dimensions: 82,278 square miles (213,100 square km).28

Climate: Kansas has an overall temperate climate, but it experiences

Kansas is a Midwestern State of the United States of America founded in

27 Charles Pearson, “Kansas,” in Brittanica (Encyclopædia Britannica, May 28,

Figure 3. The Contours of the State

Figure 4. The Flit Hills Region.

32 Interview with Linda

Figure 6.Kansas. Riley Country. The

Climate: Manhattan weather averages between an annual high temperature

Figure 7.Manhattan Climate Graph.

Population: 54,604 people

Manhattan was founded in 1855 on northern edge of the Flint Hills. It is

Districts and Overlays

Downtown Historic District

R-3 C-5 C-5

C-5 I-5 I-3

R-2 I-3 I-3

Figure 8.Manhattan Kansas Zoning

37 “Manhattan,” in Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, April 25, 2019), https://

2.5.3 The Konza Prairie

Figure 9.Konza Prairie Location in

Figure 10. Konza Prairie Tall-grass

an “outdoor laboratory“ that provides the unique opportunity to study tall

2.6 Kansas State https://www.k-state.edu/maps/buildings/A/a.jpg

Figure 11.Kansas State University .

Location: Central Manhattan Kansas.

(More Information about Kansas State University)

47 “Student Enrollment by College” (Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University, 2020),

2.6 Marianne Beach

Figure 12.The Beach Musum at

Marianne Beach Museum of art started as an initiative to gather the regional

Figure 13. Site Analysis Map of

Figure 14. The Meadow at Kansas

Virtual reality offers a unique opportunity for researching and constructing

of architectural atmosphere into Virtual Reality. The nine components

object. Our engagement with tree-dimensional space is active.56 Visual

atmospheres. The project goal is to incorporate the atmospheric qualities of

3.3.1 The Body of

Figure 15. Preliminary sketch of