Topic  Introduction to

Instructional
1 Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Define technology, instruction and instructional technology;
2. Discuss the main concepts of instructional technology; and
3. Identify domains and functions of instructional technology.

 INTRODUCTION
The concept of instructional technology has often been misinterpreted. When we
come across "instructional technology", we may conclude that it involves the usage
and application of technology equipment such as computers, televisions and
overhead projectors as well as applications and tools such as videos, PowerPoint
slides. DVDs and even cloud applications being used in the teaching process.
However, this is a misconception about instructional technology.

The field of instructional technology is not about the use of technology in

education; instead, it is a discipline, a field of study, a craft and an art. Equipment,
applications and tools may be used to improve the quality of the instruction and
the production of instructional material to cater to learnersÊ needs. In this topic,
the concept of technology and instruction is discussed to define instructional
technology and the domains which define it.

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2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY

Many will say that technology involves machines or products created by modern
science. This covers only a part of technology. Technology is comprised of two
Greek words ă techne which means art, craft or skill, and logia, which refers to a
body of knowledge (Spector, 2015; Webster's Dictionary, 1994). While many
people might use the word "technology" to refer to manufactured objects such as
computers and telephones, technology can also be the application of knowledge
for a practical purpose (Spector, 2012). Galbraith (1967) defines technology as:

„⁄the systematic application of scientific knowledge and other organised

knowledge to practical task.‰

Evans and Nation (2000) explain that technology is not a tool but an art or science
of how to use a tool for a purpose. Seels & Richey (1994) states that technology
included tools, processes, applications, skills and organisation. Technology in
education or instruction is more than the technical application of tools, machines,
computers, products and communication systems (such as multimedia,
computerised instruction, games, simulations or interactive video). It also
encompasses the „application of the principles of science in order to solve learning
problems...‰ In other words, technology is the practical application of knowledge
for a purpose (Spector, 2015).

Therefore, technology in any discipline is the knowledge resulting from studies

and explorations in that discipline which is used to perform tasks subject to that
discipline skilfully. Technology in any discipline is based firstly on theoretical
findings and secondly on practical and applied conclusions of that discipline in
order to prepare the grounds for applying those findings to resolve problems in
that particular context (Fardanesh, 2007). Technology changes (keeps evolving)
since knowledge is progressing and the goals and intentions of people are dynamic
(Spector, 2015). Moreover, as technology changes, what people do and what they
can do changes as well (Spector, 2015). As a result of this evolution in technology,
telephones and computers have become portable and used for other purposes such
as taking photographs and finding locations, instead of just communication.

SELF-CHECK 1.1

What is technology? Is the definition of technology limited by

hardware? Discuss your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.

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 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY  3

1.2 THE CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTION

Instruction has many meanings. In education, instruction is the act of teaching
something to somebody. Fardanesh (2007) states that instruction is a
conglomeration of decisions and activities that are made and carried out to achieve
the desired outcomes for learners. He explains some of the decisions and activities
as follows:

(a) Examining learnersÊ prior knowledge;

(b) Determining the structure and combination of learning material;

(c) Using incentives and feedback;

(d) Determining required capabilities for desired learning outcomes;

(e) Identifying required learning conditions;

(f) Identifying ways to measure learning outcomes;

(g) Determining presentation strategies;

(h) Determining the time necessary for learning;

(i) Informing learners about learning goals;

(j) Communicating with learners;

(k) Providing learning material;

(l) Setting appropriate standards for performance and evaluation; and

(m) Managing learning processes.

The stated list is by no means complete. Instruction is a multifaceted and complex

process which needs to be studied and dealt with as a unique and goal-oriented
process. Thus, the main purpose of instruction is to create a good quality learning
environment. Such an environment will enhance learnersÊ thinking and help them
to become better human beings.

SELF-CHECK 1.2

What is instruction? When does instruction occur? Discuss your answer

in the myINSPIRE forum. Share your answers with your coursemates in
the myINSPIRE forum.

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4  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

There are several definitions of instructional technology by scholars in the field.
Do you think there are any similarities in the definitions? Let us review each of
them.

1.3.1 The Definition of Instructional Technology

Molenda (2003) states that instructional technology is the art and science of
designing, producing and using ă with economy and elegance ă solutions to
institutional problems; these solutions may combine verbal or audio-visual media
and may be experienced with or without human mediation and may take the form
of learners, courses or whole systems that facilitate learning efficiently, effectively
and humanely.

Meanwhile, Illinois School District U-46 (U-46.org, 2005) claims that instructional
technology is the use of a variety of teaching tools to improve student learning. At
the mention of instructional technology, we usually think of computers and
computer software, but instructional technology is not limited to the use of
computers in the classroom. In fact, instructional technology describes all the tools
used for teaching and learning such as cameras, CD players, PDAs, GPS devices,
computer-based probes, calculators and electronic tools.

In 1994, the Association for Education Communications and Technology (AECT)

states the following and this definition has been maintained since then:

„Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development,

utilisation, management and evaluation of processes and resources for
learning.‰

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 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY  5

From all these definitions, a new definition of instructional technology was born
which emphasised mental processes and cognitive analysis of learning tasks. It
was suggested by Reiser (2001) as shown in the following:

„The field of instructional design and technology encompasses the analysis of

learning and performance problems, and the design, development,
implementation, evaluation and management of instructional and non-
instructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and
performance in a variety of settings, particularly educational institutions and
the workplace. Professionals in the field of instructional design and
technology often use systematic instructional design procedures and employ
a variety of instructional media to accomplish their goals. Moreover, in recent
years, they have paid increasing attention to non-instructional solutions to
some performance problems.‰

1.3.2 What is Instructional Technology?

There are instructional designers in the field that feel that instructional technology
should be for innovating and leading change (Kowch, 2013). Hence, the need to be
able to innovate and lead transformation in the field is important. The AECT
president at that time, Michael Spector (2010) agrees with this notion as he says
that „Our profession takes the notion of change seriously; we are typically trying
to establish that a particular instructional approach or use of a particular
technology will result in improved learning‰. So, what then is instructional
technology?

As technology evolves, our pedagogy needs to change. Hence, the focus of

instructional designers is to facilitate and improve „learning and performance‰
(Spector, 2010). Spector (2010) continues „As a consequence, our profession takes
the notion of change seriously; we are typically trying to establish that a particular
instructional approach or use of a particular technology will result in improved
learning.‰ (Spector, 2010)

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6  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

ACTIVITY 1.1

The field of instructional technology is well-conceptualised in a position

paper by McGriff (2001). Make some time to read it. It is available
at https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED470149

Next, please read Reeves, T. C. & Oh, E. G. (2016) paper on The goals
and methods of educational technology research over a quarter century
(1989-2014). Has the definition of instructional technology evolved?
Discuss the trends in research in this field. You may refer to the
following webpage: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-
016-9474-1. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.

1.3.3 Terminology Related to Instructional

Technology
There are many terms related to instructional technology, some of which are
explained in Table 1.1:

Table 1.1: Terms Related to Instructional Technology

Term Definition
Instruction A planned process that facilitates learning.
Instructional systems A group of interdependent parts that work together to
accomplish a goal such as a classroom or learning
management system.
ISD/ID This refers to Instructional Systems Design (or also
known as Instructional Systems Development) that
requires sound decision making to determine the who,
what, when, where, why and how of training. ISD is often
called System Approach to Training (SAT) or Analysis,
Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate (ADDIE).
Instructional context This refers to the physical and psychological
environment in which instruction is delivered or in
which transfer occurs. We call it the learning
environment.
Individualised instruction This means the use, by students, of systematically
designed learning activities and materials specifically
chosen to suit their individual interests, abilities and
experience. Such instruction is usually self-paced.

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 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY  7

1.4 DOMAINS
Instructional technology is a multifaceted field. Seels and Richey (1994) identify
five domains which contribute to the field. They can be remember with the
mnemonic acronym M-DUDE which stands for:

(a) Management (M);

(b) Design (D);

(c) Utilisation (U);

(d) Development (D); and

(e) Evaluation (E).

The five domains are as depicted in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Domains of the field of instructional technology

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8  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The Definition and Terminology Committee has provided description for each of
the five domains (Seels & Richey, 1994) as follows:

(a) Design refers to the process of specifying conditions for learning. The design
component demonstrates knowledge, skills and dispositions to design
conditions for learning by applying principles of instructional systems
design, message design, instructional strategies and learner characteristics.

(b) Development refers to the process of translating the design specifications

into physical form. Development includes the actual creation of instructional
material and experiences, along with the resulting products. Development
includes knowledge, skills and dispositions to develop instructional material
and experiences using (by applying principles, theories, and research related
to) print, audio-visual, computer-based and integrated technologies.

(c) Utilisation refers to the use of processes and resources for learning.
Utilisation incorporates knowledge, skills and dispositions to use processes
and resources for learning by applying principles and theories of (and
research related to) media utilisation, diffusion, implementations and policy-
making.

(d) Management refers to processes for controlling instructional technology. It

includes the application of principles of projects, resources, delivery systems
and information management to the planning, organising, coordination and
supervision of instructional technology.

(e) Evaluation is the process for determining the adequacy of instruction.

Evaluation focuses on the application of principles of problem analysis,
criterion-referenced measurement, formative and summative evaluation,
and long-range planning to the evaluation of products and processes of
learning.

SELF-CHECK 1.3

In the myINSPIRE forum, answer the following questions:

(a) Discuss what is instructional technology.

(b) Discuss the function of each domain of instructional technology.

(c) What are the five domains in educational technology as proposed

by Seels and Richey? What does each domain entail?

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 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY  9

Ć Technology can be defined as the knowledge resulting from studies and

explorations in a particular discipline that is used to perform tasks, subject to
that discipline.

Ć Instruction is a group of decisions and activities made and carried out to

achieve the desired outcomes for learners. The main purpose of it is to create a
good quality learning environment.

Ć Instructional technology has been defined in many ways in the topic. However,
the latest one emphasises on mental processes and cognitive analysis of
learning tasks.

Ć Five domains contribute to instructional technology and they are collectively

known as M-DUDE: management, design, utilisation, development and
evaluation.

Instruction M-DUDE
Instructional technology Technology

Kowch, E. G. (2013). Whither thee, educational technology? Suggesting a critical

expansion of our epistemology for emerging leaders. TechTrends: Linking
Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 57 (5), 25-34.

Reeves, T. C., & Oh, E. G. (2016, August, 17) The goals and methods of educational
technology research over a quarter century (1989î2014). Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-016-9474-1

Reiser, R. A. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology: Part II: A

history of instructional design. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 49(2), 57-67.

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10  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and
domains of the field. Bloomington, IN: Association for Educational
Communications and Technology.

Spector, J. M. (2010). Educational technology and change. TechTrends: Linking

Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 54 (5), 6-7.

Spector, J. M. (2015). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative

approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.

U-46.org (2005) Definition of instructional technology. Retrieved from www.u-

46.org/it/DefinitionofInstructionalTechnology.htm

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